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Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research
REPORT 24
A Socio-economic study of mangrove perceptions and management in the bay
of Antsiranana
Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala
2009
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Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research
Report 24
A Socio-economic study of mangrove perceptions and management in the bay
of Antsiranana
Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala
Eaton, J.E., Burton, H., Steer, M.D., and Belle E.M.S.
Frontier-Madagascar
Madagascar-Marine
Frontier-Madagascar Society for Environmental Exploration
UK
Antsiranana 2009
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Suggested Technical Paper citation: Frontier Madagascar (2009) Eaton, J.E., Burton, H., Steer, M.D., and Belle E.M.S. A Socio-economic study of mangrove perceptions and management in the bay of Antsiranana: Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala. Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research Report 1. Society for Environmental Exploration, UK and Institute of Marine Sciences, Antsiranana. ISSN 1470-120X (Print) ISSN 1748-3719 (Online) ISSN 1748-5126 (CD-ROM) © Frontier Madagascar, 2009
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FOR MORE INFORMATION Frontier-Madagascar BP41, Antsiranana, 201 MADAGASCAR Tel: +261 (0) 20 82 23117 E-mail: [email protected]
Society for Environmental Exploration 50-52 Rivington Street, London, EC2A 3QP. U.K. Tel: +44 20 76 13 24 22 Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.frontier.ac.uk
Frontier-Madagascar Madagascar is an African island situated in the Indian Ocean. It contains a high biological and ecological diversity with many endemic species. The economic status of the area is reflected by its primary source of income, primary agriculture. This income dictates the importance of their management of mangrove forest environments. Frontier Madagascar Marine is carrying out survey work in the northern region of Madagascar in regards to marine environments of Mangrove forests, Seagrass forest and Baseline surveys, to formulate management initiatives for this region calculated from observations of the area. The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE) The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The Society’s objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical projects contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are joint initiatives developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries. Frontier-Madagascar-Mangrove Work has begun to survey mangrove areas with respect to biomass, biodiversity, replanting methods and local perceptions. This data will be used in order to assimilate a management plan for the regeneration of areas of mangrove depletion. Working both with Frontier Research Assistants and local inhabitants of mangrove areas, cooperation of both will implement the management plans within the next few years.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS: List of Tables vii List of Figures v Executive Summary vi Foreword viii Acknowledgements ix
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction to Antsiranana Mangrove 1 1.2 Research Aims and Background 1 1.3 Study Site 3 1.4 Description of Questionnaire 3 2.0 AMBALISAKELY 3 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 Methods 4 2.3 Results 5 2.4 Discussion 7 3.0 ABALIBABE 8 3.1 Introduction 8 3.2 Methods 8 3.3 Results 10 3.4 Discussion 14 4.0 ANDOHAZOMPONA 15 4.1 Introduction 15 4.2 Methods 15 4.3 Results 16 4.4 Discussion 21 5.0 AMPASIRIKELY 22 5.1 Introduction 22 5.2 Methods 22 5.3 Results 22 5.4 Discussion 25 6.0 ANTSISKALA 26 6.1 Introduction 26 6.2 Methods 26 6.3 Results 28 6.4 Discussion 34 7.0 COMPARISON TABLES 35 8.0 CONCLUSION 36 9.0 REFERENCES 10.0 APPENDIX
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Appendix 1 Mangrove Questionnaire 39
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LIST OF TABLES: Table 1 Species of mangrove found in Antsiranana and their main uses 3 Table 2 Ambalisikely Responses 5 Table 3 Abalibabe Responses 11 Table 4 Andohazompona Responses 17 Table 5 Ampasirikely Responses 24 Table 6 Antsisikala Responses 29 Table 7.1 Number of respondents surveyed & households within the village 35 Table 7.2 Occupations surveyed within the villages 35 Table 7.3 Uses of mangrove wood 35 Table 7.4 Number of households which fish in the mangrove 35
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LIST OF FIGURES: Figure 1 Map of village locations in Antsiranana 2 Figure 2.1 Ambalisakely beach with depleted mangrove forest 4 Figure 2.2 Ambalisakely mangrove (Ceriops tagel) 5 Figure 3.1 Abalibabe with sparse vegetation covering area of depleted mangrove 8 Figure 3.2 Rear of Abalibabe mangrove 9 Figure 3.3 The village Abalibabe builds its urban areas away from the erosion of the tidal area 9 Figure 4.1 Andohazompona mangrove (Ceriops muconrata) 15 Figure 5.1 Ampasirikely mangrove (Ceriops muconrata, Ceriops tagel & Avicennia marina) 22 Figure 6.1 Antsiskala shows sporadic mangrove (Sonneratia alba) 26 Figure 6.2 Antsisikala main beach 27 Figure 6.3 Zebu fencing around Antsisikala 27
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: The villages of Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala, which are located around the bay of Ansiranana (Diego-Suarez), all have areas of depleted mangrove forest. The depletion is mainly due to the production of charcoal and for building resources. This report argues that the villages would benefit from a mangrove replanting and regeneration scheme, which would provide a sustainably-managed source of raw materials, fishery protection and would protect the coast from erosion. Through the provision of environmental awareness workshops and training regarding mangrove ecology and restoration, basic management plans should be developed in association with a committee of village representatives. The management plans should aim to allow mangrove forests to be re-established in areas where they have previously been removed. The input of an NGO such as Frontier is seen as beneficial to the villages by giving the local communities the confidence and knowledge to regenerate previously deforested mangrove areas. Key Words: Mangrove, Deforestation, Madagascar, Management Plan, Replanting.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many people. In particular acknowledgements are due to the following: SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION Managing Director: Ms. Eibleis Fanning Research and Development Programme Manager: Dr. Mark Steer, Dr. Elise M.S. Belle Operations Manager: Ms. Sam Fox FRONTIER-MADAGASCAR Country Co-ordinator Ms. Amanda Martin Project Co-ordinator: Ms. Joanne Eaton Research Co-ordinators: Mr. Romeo Jaomaharavo Boat Driver: Mr. Nicola Coco Editorial Comments: We would like to express gratitude towards the residents of the villages that were surveyed: Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala. In particular thanks go to Antsisikala for continuing to welcome us during our studies .
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1. INTRODUCTION TO THE MANGROVES OF NORTHERN MADAGASCAR
Mangrove habitats are a significant natural resource spanning the interface between terrestrial and marine environments. They constitute a productive ecosystem in an abiotically challenging and often highly unproductive environment (Alongi, 2008). They are a highly important resource providing both raw materials and land for urban development, farming and aquaculture ventures (Martinuzzi et al., 2008). In addition to economic benefits, mangroves are also beneficial in areas of tidal influence, protecting the coastline from natural erosion processes (Mazda et al., 2004). In Madagascar, mangrove forests cover a significant area of the coastline, approximately 3,000-4,000 km2 (Giri and Muhlhausen, 2008). However, mangrove forests are being depleted on a local and global scale. In Madagascar the mangrove population is estimated to have decreased by 3.6 million hectares since 1980 (Finance and Development, 2008). This reduction is thought to be due to high levels of continual exploitation which cannot be maintained. Initial restoration projects have been implemented in the past, however, because of limited ecological background they often received little success (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 1999). The restoration of mangrove areas is relatively difficult; it requires knowledge of the area and an understanding of the physical and chemical needs of the mangrove species (Wolanski, 1992). The ecological aspects of mangrove restoration must also be coupled with local knowledge, taking into account the history of the area and local usage level, in order to ensure the sustained management of the recovered mangrove. Local involvement with restoration programmes has indeed been shown to be key in providing the sustained management necessary for mangrove recovery (Genio et al., 2007). Once the management plan has been put in place, the local community should continue the replanting programme and decide on the areas and amounts of mangrove that can be used sustainably for building and charcoal. The Bay of Antsiranana is located at the northern tip of Madagascar; it is a tidal bay fed by the Indian Ocean to the East. There are areas of mangrove of varying densities and condition located within the bay, but to date there has been a relatively low level of research on the mangrove habitat, either with regards to its physical, chemical or socio-economic importance. This study used questionnaires to obtain information about villagers’ perspectives concerning mangroves, from five villages surrounding the bay. The questions focused upon the way the different species of mangrove trees are used and mangrove management within the villages. In the first parts of the report the findings for each village are discussed separately. In the last part, the report brings together the results to highlight common issues as well as differences between the villages in regards to mangrove knowledge, usage and future recommendations.
1.1 Aims
The aim of this study is to discuss the perceptions of local communities towards mangrove habitat in order to (i) better understand the previous management of the mangroves and (ii) enable future developments of regeneration schemes for depleted mangrove stands.
1.2 Study site
Five villages were surveyed: Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala, all situated in the Bay of Antsiranana (previously known as Antsiranana), northern Madagascar (Figure 1). They are situated on the northern side of the bay and are flanked by mangroves in various states.
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A government initiative is currently being deployed in the villages surrounding the Bay of Antsiranana encouraging replanting of mangrove habitat. In addition, Frontier and Madagascar National Parks (MNP) have initiated an education and replanting scheme in Andohazompona. This has been highly successful with an initial establishment of two mangrove sites and it is hoped that further villages can benefit from the initiative (MNP pers comm.)
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Figure 1. Map of the village locations in Antiranana (Google Map, 2008) The areas surveyed are known to contain the following species: Rhizophora mucronata (Rhizophoraceae), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Rhizophoraceae), Ceriops tagal (Rhizophoraceae), Avicennia marina (Acanthaceae) and Sonneratia alba (Lythraceae) (Frontier Madagascar unpublished data). These species differ in their uses and popularity (Table 1.1)
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Family Species Used for Popularity Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora
mucronata Building Poles High
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Charcoal Medium
Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Charcoal Low Acanthaceae Avicennia marina Building Poles High Lythraceae Sonneratia alba Building Poles High
Table 1. Species of mangrove occurring in the Antsiranana Bay and their main uses by the local communities.
1.3 Methods
Thirty six inhabitants from five communities located on the banks of Antsiranana Bay were interviewed using a set questionnaire. Description of questionnaire Ten brief questions were asked via a translator. The respondents were chosen by availability in relation to number of occupants in the village (a minimum 20% sample). The use of anonymous responses and a translator helped to ensure that accurate answers were given. 1.3.1 Mangrove Questionnaire
1. How long have the mangroves been here for, has there been any changes to the area since you have been here?
2. How is the mangrove used in the area? What do you use it for? 3. Is there any fishing or crab collecting at the mangrove? 4. Do you manage the mangroves in any way? 5. Have any areas of mangrove been replanted? 6. Who owns the mangroves? 7. Have there been changes in mangrove wildlife and size of mangroves here? 8. Do you think the mangrove is important? 9. Have any areas been deforested? 10. Has any erosion been noticed?
2. AMBALISAKELY VILLAGE
2.1 Introduction
Ambalisakely is a small settlement of three households; it is important due to its thoroughfare situation between Antsiranana and agricultural households which contain a modest area of mangroves (Figures 2.1 & 2.2) (Ceriops tagel). The village is also influenced by the fishermen who pass through the area frequently. Of the villages surveyed, Ambalisakely lies closest to the bay mouth and receives the greatest wave impact and exposure compared to all other villages surveyed.
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2.2 Methods
The surveys of Ambalisakely took place on 12th June 2008. Two households were surveyed using a translator (see questionnaire in Appendix 1).
Figure 2.1. Ambalisakely beach with depleted mangrove forest.
Figure 2.2. Ambalisakely mangrove (Ceriops tagel)
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2.3 Results
Ambalisakely has a small number of households, but remains key to understanding mangrove perception and management. The area is a walkthrough to the villages situated beyond the coastline towards the agricultural settlements. This status means a great number of Malagasy pass through for supplies on a regular basis. The results of the survey are summarised in Table 2.1 The respondents have always been aware of some mangrove presence since they have lived in the area. The major loss in mangrove stands occurred before either respondent resided here. As such there are only speculations as to the reasoning behind the dramatic mangrove loss to the area. It is thought that the mangrove was lost because of mismanaged deforestation for building and charcoal. These are the same reasons given by villagers to explain the mangrove loss in other areas displaying similar patterns (Alongi, 2002 & Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). The mangrove wood is a very important part of Malagasy culture within this area, used for building resources and as charcoal (Ellison, 2000). Both respondents have used the mangrove wood in this respect, but no longer do, as terrestrial wood provides a good substitute. The respondents are unsure as to when the last sections of wood were removed from the mangrove forest. Both responders also use the mangroves as a food source, since they are a valuable habitat for fish and crabs. This function is a well documented benefit for many villages (Genio. et al. 2007). However, the number of fish and crabs caught has noticeably decreased in the area, which is something the respondents are concerned about. Fisherman Farmer 1 The mangrove has been here ever since
he has been here. A section of mangrove (Ceriops tagal) has been seen to grow here over the last ten years.
The mangroves have been here since she has been here. In the year 2000 her family planted Ceriops tagal propagules. 30 trees can be seen established of juvenile size from 50 propagules planted.
2 The mangrove is used for upper beams in huts, (Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia marina is used). The mangrove used is grown in other parts of the bay (Anjiabe). They use wood from the forest to build the remainder of the hut.
She is not sure if the mangrove is used for anything, they do not use it for anything.
3 There is a fishing site directly in front of the mangrove site. There are no fish or crabs inside the mangrove to collect. Short nets were used for fishing in 2001, but have now been replaced with longer nets as the catch has decreased.
She collects crabs from the mangrove.
4 They manage the site by only taking what is needed.
There is no management plan as such, though when people come from other places and try to cut the mangrove down, they try to stop them.
5 Andohazompona was replanted (Rhizophora mucronata) but no large areas here have been replanted. There is a village association for replanting the mangroves, though they need signed
There is no replanting area, though they are trying to see if what they planted works and would then plant from these trees.
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paperwork from the Mayor in order to start replanting here.
6 No-one owns the mangroves.
No-one owns the mangroves. The mangrove that they have planted is their own mangrove.
7 The wildlife here has decreased, while the size of the mangrove has increased (Ceriops tagal growth).
The mangrove contains more wildlife, there are more crab holes so she catches more crabs.
8 The mangroves are very important, when the tide is high the fish swim out from the mangrove and when the tide lowers the fish shelter there.
The mangrove is very important; it protects their homes and allows them to get some ‘fresh air’.
9 Some areas have been chopped down, but there is no deforestation now.
Mangrove has been deforested at the side of the village; the wood is taken to make charcoal. People from Ambilabe also cut mangrove.
10 There is erosion occurring directly in front of the settlement, although where the mangrove has been established there is less erosion. The land is kept safe in the presence of mangroves.
Yes, erosion is happening at a quick rate. That is the reason why mangroves were replanted in front of their house.
Table 2. Responses given by Ambalisakely residents. The general consensus is that the village has no mangrove management plan. Management plans have been seen to be beneficial in other areas (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). However, due to government regulations requiring specific management plans, it would be difficult for the local communities to assemble the necessary documentation and set up an appropriate plan. When considering possible replanting schemes several meetings with the local population would be needed (Berger et al. 2008). The farming household has begun to discreetly plant a small area; whereas the fishing household believes they need to be taught how to plant the mangrove propagules before attempting such a task themselves. There is some confusion as to whether or not their village can replant mangroves as they ignore if permissions are needed from the government in order to start an official replanting scheme. This confusion surrounding government input may come from knowledge of fellow village Andohazompona and their replanting scheme (see section 4). Both respondents believe the mangrove has no ownership which could be one of the reasons why there is currently no management. If a community ownership structure were implemented for the mangrove habitat, it is likely that there would be an increase in the protection and management of the mangrove, as has been seen in other locations (Ellison, 2000 & Martinuzzi et al., 2009). Both respondents have noticed that the amount of mangrove wildlife has increased in the areas of healthy mangrove, whereas the smaller depleted areas of mangrove are losing wildlife. As the depleted mangrove area no longer provides shelter and food there is no benefit for wildlife to inhabit the location (Alongi, 2002 & Genio et al. 2007). Both respondents agree that the mangrove is an important resource and should be treated as such. The respondents have different perceptions as to why it is important: the farmer values the physical protection the mangrove provides to the household; whereas the fisherman needs it to catch crabs for a sustained livelihood (Alongi, 2002
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& Genio et al., 2007). It is interesting to note that while the resource is a valued commodity, there is no management, structure or active protection for the area. The main reason for the decline in mangrove stands is believed to be the amount of wood that was extracted for charcoal. During the wet season, charcoal and wood are vital, as it is used for cooking, drying and warmth (Bosire et al., 2008). Without this raw material villagers would find cooking difficult. The mangrove wood presents certain advantages: it is close by, burns strongly, lights easily and lasts for a long time. The presence of erosion within this section of the bay has been acknowledged by the farmer and the fisherman. Erosion processes have caused the loss of land to the sea and the need to reposition huts as tidelines alter. Villagers see erosion as a problem but were unaware of the processes responsible for it. The term of erosion is one that is not known in the village, though they have witnessed its effects and believe it to be a large threat to the area. Replanting the mangroves is not a solution that has been identified, though the agricultural experience of the farmer has brought about some replanting by her hut. However, the amount and type of propagule planted (thirty established from fifty planted Ceriops tagel propagules), is not in the quantities required to slow the erosion process down (Ellison, 2000).
2.4 Discussion
This area would benefit from an effective management plan. The location of the village, near the mouth of the bay, displays a high amount of tidal impact. Erosion will be a large threat unless mangrove forests can inhibit its effects. The opinions of the villagers should be taken into account and a workshop developed to allow ownership to be discussed and suitable recovery plans to be initiated. With the planting of both Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal propagules a basic forest should start to establish. At least fifty propagules of each species should be used to account for the mortality rate and enable a sufficient number to establish. Once planting has begun to alter the substrate nutrient content, further species could be accommodated, such as Avicennia marina and Sonneratia alba (Berger, 2008, Bosire et al. 2008 & Glaser, 2003). A further benefit to replanting mangroves would be to reduce pressure on terrestrial wood sources, which are currently used as a substitute for mangrove wood, provided that they are used in a sustainable manner.
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3. VILLAGE ABALIBABE
3.1 Introduction
The village of Abalibabe has ten households and makes up one sixth of a larger community known as Angiabe which has diminishing mangrove area (see figures 3.1 & 3.2). The majority of inhabitants of this village rely on agriculture for their livelihoods, specifically zebu farming, but still occasionally go fishing. This village is located in a section of the northern area of the bay and is semi-exposed to the tides with moderate wave impact.
3.2 Methods
The surveys of Abalibabe took place on 12th June 2008. Six households were surveyed personally using a translator (See questionnaire in Appendix 1).
Figure 3.1 Abalibabe with sparse vegetation covering area of depleted mangrove.
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Figure 3.2 Rear of Abalibabe mangrove.
Figure 3.3 The village Abalibabe, away from the erosion of the tidal area.
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3.3 Results
The area here is a base for a larger village outstretching into higher areas behind the village. Fishing and Zebu farming constitute the main food sources for the village. This village also contains a shop and is a focal point for village gatherings, celebrations and funeral celebrations. Survey data are summarised in table 3.1. All responders have known the mangrove for all the time in which they have lived in the area. A village elder was also surveyed; he has lived in the area for eighty two years and can remember the mangrove being more extensive. The respondents stated that there has been a large decrease in the quantity of mangrove in the area during their time here, a view which appears to be confirmed by direct evidence of depleted mangrove stands (See figures 3.1 & 3.2). There was a large quantity of wood taken from the mangrove for charcoal both by residents and visitors (Alongi, 2002 & Martinuzzi. et al. 2009).
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Chief Secretary Zebu herder Village Elder, 82 1 For 30 years he has noticed a decrease in trees,
although last year there was no decrease. The older trees (Avicennia marina) tend to die when they reach a certain age. The Rhizophora mucronata has been chopped down quickly by boats from Antsiranana.
He grew up here and was born in Antsiranana and thinks that the mangroves remained at the same size.
The mangroves have been here since he was born, and they have decreased a lot. There have always been sections of mud and salt pans behind the mangrove separating the marine and terrestrial environments.
2 The mangrove is used for building houses; the main crossing beams and building poles are made from Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba. They did use mangrove wood for charcoal in the past, but about five years ago they began using terrestrial trees.
The mangrove species Rhizophora mucronata, is used for houses, fences, and building, the mangrove used is. He only takes what is necessary and what he needs.
The mangroves were used for support beams in houses (Rhizophora mucronata), but they are no longer used.
3 They collect crabs from the mangrove. He fishes outside the mangrove forest. There were a lot of fish and crabs when he was younger, but they have all gone now.
4 They are starting to manage a section in the middle of the mangrove which was previously deforested. Mangrove is being replanted with Rhizophora mucronata propagules, trials are still being carried out.
The mangrove is managed by people who only take what they need.
They only take what they need when managing the mangroves, often only one tree which is cut into two pieces for their houses.
5 They tried to replant mangroves, but the Ceriops that they used haven’t been established in the areas they tried.
He has never seen any areas of mangrove replanted.
There has been no replanting here, and he has not heard of it anywhere else in the bay.
6 No-one owns the mangroves, if any areas of replanting were successful they would not be owned either.
No-one owns the mangrove.
No-one owns the mangroves, though there was a French man that came and said he owned them. He lived here for a long time but has now died, however his son now comes out and measures the mangroves occasionally. He used the mangroves for an electricity company, powering turbines.
7 The wildlife present has decreased since he has been here but the mangrove has maintained its size. On average when some areas decrease in size other areas will increase to compensate.
The mangrove is more or less the same size.
The wildlife decreased as the size of the mangrove decreased.
8 The mangrove is important. The mangrove is important. He doesn’t know if the mangrove is important, but he doesn’t want it to disappear.
9 No areas have been deforested completely but deforestation at a low level has occurred here.
No areas have been deforested.
He has seen chopping but no entire area of mangrove has been deforested.
10 Erosion is occurring here, the sand from Amilakeli has moved outwards and has made the beach wider.
There is erosion here, as the sea is moving inland. Previously you could walk out further than now.
There is erosion at Ambilekily.
Table 3. Responses given by Abalibabe residents.
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Housewife Fisherman Fisherman
1 The mangroves are still the same size.
The mangroves have decreased in size since he has been here. There were areas with fast chopping and selling, but these have gone now. But the mangrove is starting to grow again.
The mangrove decreased as some species died (Avicennia marina), there was no reason for the deaths, God just decided to kill the mangrove.
2 The mangrove in this area is not used. If they catch someone using it they will make a complaint against them to the government (Ministère des Eaux et Forêt). They don’t cut any mangrove themselves.
The mangrove is used for building houses, it was also used to make charcoal, but this is not done anymore, they now use terrestrial wood.
The mangrove is used for building, he used one piece for his house, (Rhizophora mucronata). The mangroves are hard to grow, so he only took one piece.
3 There are no fish or crabs to take.
There is no fishing or crab collecting at the mangrove.
He fishes and collects crabs and shrimps in the bay.
4 There is no managing of the mangroves.
There is no management. The mangrove wood is only taken for what is needed.
The mangroves are not managed.
5 There is no replanting of the mangroves.
There should be areas of the forest replanted, but he has not seen any real areas of replanted mangrove.
He has never seen areas of mangrove replanted, though he has heard of replanting in an area in Nambokea, which is in the south west of the bay near industrial salt pans.
6 No-one owns the mangroves.
No-one owns the mangrove.
No-one owns the mangroves, though they are on the land of a foreigner.
7 She doesn’t know if the wildlife or size of the mangrove has changed.
There are a lot more fish and crabs around the mangrove areas than in other areas of the bay.
The wildlife here has decreased, the wildlife is dependant on the wind.
8 The mangrove is important, it looks good.
The mangrove is not important.
The mangrove is important.
9 No, she has not seen any areas deforested.
There is an area which has been deforested, near bay 5 (Ambalisakely).
He has never seen any area deforested.
10 Yes, there is erosion occurring surrounding the village.
There is a lot of erosion moving inland in bays 5 and 6.
There is erosion here, it occurs in most parts of this area. Trees are now more exposed than before.
Table 3 (continued). Responses given by Abalibabe residents.
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Villagers believe that the species Sonneratia alba, after reaching a certain level of maturity, will suffer a vast sudden mortality. They think this may be accountable for some of the deforestation. This phenomenon has also been observed in areas of Kenya, where it is believed to be the result of a pest or fungal infestations (Mwangi, 2001). The mangrove wood in the village was used for building materials such as structural beams supporting huts (Rhizophora mucronata), for fencing (Sonneratia alba and Avicennia marina) and for charcoal in the wet season (Ceriops tagal and Sonneratia alba). This wood use is similar to that observed in other areas (Ellison, 2000). The respondents have not taken any wood from the mangrove for the last five years. It is unclear if this is due to pressure from the local communities or external pressures. One responder stated that they will report people cutting down the mangrove to the Ministry of Water and Forest, indicating that the government is respected by the villagers. Mangrove habitat is used for fishing. In Abalibabe it is used more widely for the collection of crabs and shrimp than in other villages (Genio et al. 2007). However, the numbers of crabs and shrimp have declined. It is no longer an additional economy, but just enough for their own family diet. There is no official management plan in the area. Mangrove wood is no longer used and has been substituted by terrestrial wood. The mangrove could recover if given the opportunity and a management plan put into effect (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). There is also an unofficial restriction on mangrove wood taken from the forest. This has led the village to declare a self monitored No Take Zone for the mangrove site. There is no replanting in this area, though they have heard of nearby villages, such as Nambokea, instigating replanting plans. They are starting to experiment with propagule planting, which is a good indication of their intention to initiate future mangrove restoration plans. However, the knowledge they have of mangrove planting is limited as they tried to replant in a time of year which is not appropriate for the establishment of propagules (Alongi, 2002 & Berger et al. 2008). With a brief training session, these small issues could be rectified and the successful replanting of mangrove areas could easily be achieved. There is a general consensus that there is no ownership of the mangrove. However, this mangrove has a history. The village elder remembers a French man claiming ownership of the mangrove area. This French man is believed to have cut down much of the mangrove to power turbines for his factory. His relatives have been reported to measure the mangroves sporadically. This suggests that the villagers are very unsure as to the ownership of the mangroves. If these reports are true, they could complicate the matter of mangrove regeneration. Clarification is needed for the villagers to begin replanting the mangroves for their own benefit, especially with regards to protection from erosion and increased fishing opportunities. The amount of wildlife has been observed to decrease, reflecting the decrease of the mangrove forest (Bosire et al. 2008). Many of the respondents do not consider regenerating the mangrove forest a viable option to increase the wildlife. One villager believed that an increase in wind has led to the decrease in wildlife. The wind the
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village receives indeed partly reflects the amount of protection the mangrove provides. The majority of respondents do believe that the mangrove is important. The people working near to or inside the mangrove are able to see direct benefits. However, those who do not use the mangrove habitat are unclear as to why the mangroves are important and are only following the opinions of others. If it can be demonstrated to them why the mangrove is important then the depletion and subsequent replanting of the area will be more thoroughly understood. This would constitute the first step for the villagers to start replanting and protecting the mangrove (Genio et al, 2007). The mangrove has decreased in size within living memory. This is due in part to the fact that villagers from other areas of the bay collect mangrove wood for themselves. This constitutes a major problem for the management of these mangroves as external sources of removal are harder to control (Berger et al. 2008 & Genio et al, 2007). There is erosion occurring in the village. The villagers did not recognise the term erosion, but understood the concept and process once explained. They recognised that there is a connection between the mangrove decreasing and erosion increasing (Bosire et al. 2008). They have noted this change in the land with points of reference having moved and this is an important concern for the village. However, they were not fully aware that by regenerating the mangrove habitat, erosion impacts on their coastline could be mitigated (Genio et al, 2007).
3.4 Discussion
A basic mangrove management scheme could be implemented, which would be of tangible benefit to the area. The village is centrally located in the north section of the bay. With mangrove depletion, erosion occurs on a large scale through a constant tidal impact. In a first stage, a workshop should be developed to allow ownership of the mangrove to be discussed and the opinions of the villagers to be taken into account, and suitable recovery plans could be initiated. The second stage should be involve a planting scheme of both Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal propagules to establish a basic forest. There should be a channel left for boats to reach the village. Fifty propagules of each species should be used to account for the mortality rate and enable the best chance of establishment. Once planting has begun to alter the substrate nutrient content further, other species could be accommodated with planting of Avicennia marina and Sonneratia alba (Berger, 2008, Bosire et al. 2008 & Glaser, 2003).
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4. VILLAGE ANDOHAZOMPONA
4.1 Introduction
Andohazompona is of significant size with forty two households. It is currently working alongside the government organisation Madagascar National Park (MNP) to establish a mangrove replanting scheme to extend its modest mangrove area. Ceriops tagal and Rhizophora mucronata propagules have been planted in recent years, with some success. Fishing and agriculture are predominant activities in the village. Located at the western side of the bay, the area has low levels of exposure and wave impact.
4.2 Methods
The surveys of Andohazompona took place on 13th June 2008. Ten households were surveyed using a translator, one household refused. A copy of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix 1.
Figure 4.1 Andohazompona mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata)
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4.3 Results
Andohazompona is the largest village surveyed, and therefore has the most amenities, including a number of shops and a point of gathering for social events. This area is accessible via boat and is a large focus for the western area of the bay. There is a general agreement that the mangrove is physically changing and has decreased in size (Figure 4.1), which is a pattern observed in other villages as well (Alongi, 2002 & Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). Respondents who do not visit the mangrove often believed there was little change, demonstrating the importance of raising awareness of the importance of mangroves in the villages. The wood from the mangrove was used in huts (Rhizophora mucronata), fencing (Avicennia marina) and for charcoal (Sonneratia alba and Ceriops tagal) like in other villages (Ellison, 2000); however, most residents were hesitant in their responses and said they feared reprisal from the government and NGOs such as Green Mad for having given these answers. The respondents also frequently cited the government and organisations such as Green Mad in their answers. It therefore seems that they felt compelled to answer in a specific way due to past collaborations with these organisations. The mangrove is also used as a source of fish, shrimps and crabs by some members of the community. However, those who do not use it doubt the benefit of the mangrove. This is another instance where raising awareness of all the villagers would enable a better understanding of the mangroves’ benefits to the village.
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Housewives (2 individual) Fisher lady Fishermen (2) Fishermen (2) 1 The mangroves have been here for as
long as they have and are slowly decreasing. This decrease means they should start replanting.
The mangroves increased when they first came here.
The mangrove has decreased slowly as he can’t collect the crabs in the same way, there are less of them.
The mangrove is increasing in size as seeds are replanting themselves.
2 The mangrove was used for houses, but has not been used since replanting (Avicennia marina) started two years ago.
The mangrove is used for building houses, but now they use mangrove wood from the forest, as using mangrove wood is no longer allowed.
The mangrove is used for building (Avicennia marina), roof and flooring, but it was stopped in 2006 by Green Mad.
The mangrove wood is used for houses (Rhizophora mucronata) and fences (Avicennia marina). Forest wood is used for pirogues. Their parents have taken wood for building in the past.
3 There are no fish or crabs in the mangrove, so no fishing can be done.
Both fish and crabs are collected near and in the mangrove.
He collects crabs when the tide is low, but there are no fish.
Fishing and crab collecting is done at the mangrove.
4 The mangrove is managed by not taking any wood from it anymore.
The mangroves are currently managed by not cutting them. MNP has told them that they shouldn’t cut the mangrove anymore.
The mangroves are starting to be managed with a replanting scheme.
There is no management plan, but we do watch to see if others cut it down.
5 Yes, replanting is happening here. A 100m stretch of land has been replanted (Rhizophora mucronata is being replanted but not Avicennia marina).
They do have a replanting scheme, and have been told by MNP that they should try to increase the replanting area.
There is replanting here, (Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal). The replanting section is situated in two areas south of the village. This place was previously deforested, as well as the area in Cap Diego where mangrove was taken for charcoal wood.
There are two areas for replanting, both were started in 2007.
6 No-one owns the mangroves, they are public.
They don’t know if anyone owns the mangroves.
No-one owns the mangroves.
No-one owns the mangrove.
7 Crabs have decreased in number, although the mangrove has increased in size.
They don’t know if the wildlife has increased or not.
The amount of wildlife here has decreased.
The amount of wildlife and the size of the mangrove have decreased.
8 They think the mangrove is important.
They don’t know if the mangrove is important. They think it is as they are being told not to cut it anymore.
The mangrove is very important. Fish can be caught there because they come to feed and breed.
Mangroves are very important.
9 No deforesting is occurring.
They have never seen an area being deforested.
There is an area south of the village which has been deforested.
There is a location about 10 miles south of the village which has been deforested.
10
They don’t know if there is erosion here.
They don’t know if there is erosion here.
There is erosion here, especially at the ‘mouth of the village’.
There is erosion occurring nearby.
Table 4. Responses given by Andohazompona residents.
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Housewife Farmer Farmer Housewife 1 The mangrove has slowly decreased.
The area of mangrove has decreased slowly.
The mangroves have decreased slowly. The mangroves have increased slowly.
2 The mangrove is used for charcoal and for fences.
The mangrove is used for housing (roof beams).
The mangroves are used for beams in the roof.
The mangrove is used as building material.
3 There is crab collecting from the mangrove.
There is crab collecting and fishing in and around the mangroves.
He had never fished, but some people do use the mangrove for fishing and crab collecting.
She doesn’t eat crabs, so doesn’t collect them.
4 There is a management scheme in place to replant the mangroves.
There is a management plan to protect the mangrove.
There is a management scheme because there is replanting taking place every year.
She doesn’t know how the mangrove is managed.
5 There are two areas that have been replanted.
Two places have been replanted and it has been successful.
Two years ago the government told the villagers to replant the mangroves. This village was the only one which did.
There is replanting here.
6 No-one owns the mangroves No-one owns the mangroves. No-one owns the mangrove, it is ‘private’.
No-one owns the mangrove.
7 The wildlife has decreased within the mangrove, especially crabs.
The wildlife has decreased; it is not the same as before.
He doesn’t know about mangrove wildlife, because he doesn’t go there.
The number of crabs has decreased in the mangrove.
8 The mangrove is important as a habitat for crabs.
The mangrove is very important; if it decreases there will be fewer animals.
The mangroves are very important, the juvenile fish use it for shelter and villagers need mangrove wood, because there is no other place to get wood from.
She doesn’t know if it is important as she is not a man and ‘a man would know’.
9 There is an area south of here that has been deforested; she doesn’t know how big it is.
Another nearby area was nearly deforested, as the villagers used the wood for charcoal.
No deforesting has occured, but the mangroves have died (100m of Ceriops muconrata). He would like to know why they died, but no-one knows.
No deforestation.
10 She doesn’t know if there is erosion here.
There hasn’t been any erosion.
Erosion is present in the area.
No erosion.
Table 4 (continued). Responses given by Andohazompona residents.
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Shop Keeper 1 The mangroves have slowly decreased.
2 She has never taken any wood, but knows it
is used for houses and fences.
3 She collects crabs and shrimps.
4 There is a management plan to protect the mangrove and replant more.
5 There are two sections which have been replanted. They were both successful and more should be replanted.
6 No-one owns the mangrove.
7 There has been a decrease in wildlife, but the mangroves have remained the same size.
8 The mangrove is very important; it is needed for crabs and shrimps.
9 There was a place almost deforested, but she doesn’t know what happened.
10 There is erosion here, as the mangrove is now connected to freshwater. Previously they were two separate areas. Table 4 (continued). Responses given by Andohazompona residents.
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There is a split opinion in respondents regarding whether there is a management plan or not. The government has expressed its intention of replanting in this area, although it appears it has given little support to the local communities. Respondents are concerned that the government might act against them if they do not respond to them correctly. There are also mentions of the NGOs MNP and Green Mad, although in this large village the exact extent of NGO involvement is uncertain. It is also unclear whether they are working independently or in union. However, there is a successful committee within the village that has interests in a management scheme for the mangrove. This may form the basis of a successful project (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). This committee was unfortunately not present when we interviewed the villagers neither was the president in residence. It would be beneficial for further work in the area to include interviews with their local committee and president. The replanting scheme that has taken place within the village has by all accounts been a success. There are now two areas which have been replanted with Rhizophora mucronata and have established in the last few months. Other villagers have now become aware of the schemes and have received training in the village. Opinions over ownership of the mangrove are divided. Villagers either believe they are privatively or publicly owned, or that they are not owned at all. Once this issue has been resolved, a management plan could be implemented with a clear structure (Ellison, 2000). The villagers seem to be in agreement that wildlife has decreased with the decline of the mangrove (Bosire et al. 2008). This village is much more aware of the benefits of the mangrove and the consequences decreasing mangrove can have on the wildlife. This may be thanks to MNP’s involvement in the village. The mangrove is important to the villagers. Some respondents were informed of the different ways in which the mangrove benefits them, e.g. as a breeding ground for fish and a shelter for juveniles (Genio et al, 2007). Others recognised the mangroves were important even though they didn’t really know the reasons why. This recognition could stem from the visits from NGOs raising awareness about the mangrove. An interesting observation made by one woman in the village suggests that male opinions on this matter are valued more than that of females. Some work could be done in order to encourage women to take a more active role. There is again a discrepancy in opinion over deforestation. Respondents working within the mangrove environment are aware that there is a decline in mangrove habitat, whilst those living away from the mangrove do not perceive any decline. Some have observed a sudden high mortality amongst mangrove trees, especially Sonneratia alba. It is possible that a pest or fungus is causing this reaction as seen in Kenya (Mwangi, 2001). The respondents have noticed erosion within the area as it has changed the land topography. Models have shown similar effects in other areas (Genio et al, 2007). However, respondents who do not work within the mangrove have not witnessed these effects.
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4.4 Discussion
There is a management plan already in place in Andohazompona, with a committee structure for the community. However, this could be improved if all the villagers had a wider ecological knowledge. The western edge of the bay has only moderate tidal influence so impact damage is not a pressing issue, but it should not be dismissed either. The management plan has begun with two areas being replanted upon the involvement of MNP. This has been successful with sections of mangrove beginning to become established. It is hoped that the committee structure put in place will continue to give support to the recovery of the mangrove forests in this area.
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5 VILLAGE AMPASIRIKELY
5.1 Introduction
Ampasirikely is a moderately sized village with eleven households. It has a large fishing influence and contains a medium sized healthy mangrove forest (Figure 5.1) comprising stands of Avicenna marina, Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba. The village is greatly influenced by its larger neighbour Andohazompona. It is situated on the western edge of the bay. It is relatively sheltered, with minimal exposure and low levels of wave impact.
5.2 Methods
The surveys of Ampasirikely took place on 13th June 2008. Four households were surveyed using a translator (See questionnaire in Appendix 1).
Figure 5.1 Ampasirikely mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagel and
Avicennia marina)
5.3 Results
Ampasirikely is situated on the road between Andohazompona and Antsisikala. It relies primarily on fishing but some farming activity also occurs. The mangrove is healthy, sheltered and shows active development. It should be noted that during the
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survey the men of the village were engaged with agricultural activities, so only women were interviewed. During the dry season men leave the villages to work on agricultural harvests and to herd the zebu. The results of the survey are summarised in Table 5.1. The housewives main responsibilities are in the maintenance of the village e.g. cooking and cleaning. The knowledge they have of the mangrove is limited, but they have observed a small increase in the size of the mangrove. The mangrove does not seem to be suffering from deforestation at this site. In fact there is evidence of propagule establishment around the edges of the mangrove, which is increasing the size of the mangrove. There is some active development towards the edges the mangrove (Figure 5.1). Wood from the mangrove was previously used in everyday life by the local community, e.g. Rhizophora mucronata was used for the structural beams in their huts as seen in other villages (Ellison, 2000). However, to ensure wood within the mangrove is maintained at a sustainable level they now use terrestrially sourced wood. The great majority of respondents collect crabs from the mangrove, like in other villages (Genio. et al. 2007). Of the total respondents, 90% collect crabs on a regular basis, emphasising one of the benefits of a healthy mangrove habitat.
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Housewife Housewife Housewife Housewife 1 The mangrove has increased in
size a little bit. The mangrove has increased a little.
The mangrove area has slowly increased.
The mangroves have increased a little bit.
2 Little mangrove wood is used for the village. They tend to use terrestrial trees for building now.
She doesn’t know if it is used. The mangrove wood (Rhizophora mucronata) is used for beams in housing, but she has never taken any personally.
Mangroves are used for beams in houses (Rhizophora mucronata).
3 Crabs are collected at the mangrove.
She collects crabs in the mangroves.
There is nothing living in the mangrove forest.
Crab collecting is done at the mangroves.
4 The mangroves are managed by not cutting them down.
Management of the mangroves is done by not taking anything from it.
Management consist in not cutting mangrove wood very often.
The mangroves are managed by not cutting trees down often and by targeting a different part on each visit.
5 There is no replanting here. There is no replanting here, but there is replanting at Andohazompona.
No areas have been replanted here.
There is no replanting here because there has been no training.
6 No-one owns the mangrove. No-one owns the mangrove. No-one owns the mangroves. No-one owns the mangroves. 7 The crab population size has not
changed but the mangrove has increased in size.
There has been an increase in the number of crabs in the mangrove.
She doesn’t know enough about mangrove wildlife to know if it has increased or decreased.
The amount of crabs within the mangrove has increased, because they are not collected very often anymore.
8 The mangrove is important as crabs and shrimp inhabit it.
The mangroves are important as they are an environment in which crabs live.
The mangrove is important for building houses, and supporting crabs and shrimps populations.
The mangrove is important for crabs and shellfish.
9 There are no deforested areas here.
There are no deforested areas around here.
There is no deforestation here. There is no deforestation here.
10 There is no erosion here. She has not noticed any erosion. There is no erosion here. There is a small amount of erosion in the northern area of the village.
Table 5. Responses given by Ampasirikely residents.
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Currently there is no management plan in the village and it would be beneficial to implement one. The respondents have all stated that they make a conscious effort when selecting the type, amount and location of trees in the mangrove forest. The village here would not need large quantities of wood due to its small size. This may be one of the reasons why the level of depletion is lower than in other villages. The mangrove is also held in great esteem due to the amount of fishing which is dependent on its habitat. The villagers are aware of replanting schemes being developed in the next village, Andohazompona, but no replanting has taken place here. The mangrove is generally healthy and there is no appropriate area for replanting. The mangrove area itself could be expanded; however, some training would need to be provided (Berger et al. 2008). Andohazompona is relatively close (a days walk) to the village; their neighbours replanting success may therefore encourage them to expand their mangrove as well. However, it may be more important to focus on protection, rather than restoration, of the mangroves in this community. In the village, the mangroves are not believed to be owned therefore they are treated as communal land. It would be beneficial for the community to fully own this land, as management schemes would be upheld to a greater level (Ellison, 2000 & Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). The majority of villagers have noticed that there is an increase in the number of crabs in the mangrove. Management plans, including rotating the collection areas within the mangrove will help maintain these populations at sustainable levels. Perhaps the village could set up crabs No Take Zones to enable the renewal of the population. (Bosire. et al. 2008). The villagers all agreed that the mangrove is important because they support a food source of crustaceans, shrimps and fish which constitutes an important part of the coastal communities’ diet and which is highly valued (Genio et al, 2007). The respondents state there are no areas of deforestation. The village has a healthy looking mangrove with a high ecological content. The outer limit of the mangrove does have evidence of tree cutting. However, this is managed to a certain extent, with an alternation of the areas being used, making it a more sustainable option (Berger et al. 2008). One respondent noticed a small amount of erosion, but generally they have been affected much less then other villages. This highlights the benefit of a healthy mangrove for protection against erosion.
5.4 Discussion
Ampasirikely village currently has a healthy mangrove so a management plan is currently not essential. The mangrove is showing good development by spreading further along the bay. The village is situated in a sheltered area of the bay so tidal impact is not a big concern. However, raising awareness, perhaps through workshops demonstrating the full mangrove potential could still benefit the village.
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6. VILLAGE ANTSISIKALA
6.1 Introduction
Antsisikala is one of the largest settlements with eleven households and a high number of people passing through during parts of the dry season. It boasts large fishing and agricultural activities, good communication and transport links. However, its mangrove areas are depleted with only small areas of Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba remaining (Figure 6.1) and erosion is also noticeable. The village lies in the north-west area of the bay with moderate exposure and wave impact.
6.2 Methods
The surveys of Antsisikala took place on 14th June 2008. Thirteen households were surveyed personally using a translator (See questionnaire in Appendix 1).
Figure 6.1 Antsisikala shows sporadic mangrove (Sonneratia alba).
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Figure 6.2 Antsisikala main beach.
Figure 6.3 Zebu fencing around Antsisikala (Avicennia marina)
28
6.3 Results
Antsisikala is a village with a large tradition of farming and fishing. It has links with Frontier Madagascar Marine project and receives teaching placements on a regular basis. The village is a focal point for social gatherings and events; it also has shops and a bar with a regular boat service. The village is a pathway to the farming areas o situated behind the village. The responses to the questionnaire are summarised in Table 6.1. There is a general consensus that the mangrove area has increased during the time the villagers have been here. This view is held mainly by housewives and farmers who work on the land behind the village. The two respondents claiming that the mangrove area has decreased were fishermen who use the area for their livelihood on a daily basis. They show a similar level of knowledge about deforestation as other villages (Alongi, 2002; Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). Mangrove wood was used for housing and fencing (see figure 11), as seen in other villages (Ellison, 2000). However, the mangrove is no longer used as a source of constant raw material, but only for specific purposes. The properties of Rhizophora mucronata make it unsusceptible to woodworm, a clear benefit when housing is primarily wood based. However, problems ensue when wood is selected with no regard to its type or location. A structured management plan therefore needs to be in place to ensure villagers know which wood can be taken and with which methods.
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Fisherwoman/Shop Keeper Fisherman Retired Shop Owner Fisherman 1 The mangrove area has remained the
same. The mangroves have decreased slowly. The mangroves have remained at more
or less the same size. The mangroves have increased, they grow easily anywhere.
2 The mangrove is used in housing (e.g. for beams) and zebu fencing. She doesn’t take any wood. Her husband only takes the wood they need.
The mangrove wood is used for houses, (e.g. upper beams) and zebu fence.
The mangrove is used for zebu fencing (Avicennia marina). They don’t take anything themselves.
He only uses mangrove in houses, for the beams (Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora mucronata), but he knows others use them for fencing.
3 There are no fish or crabs in the mangrove.
Crabs can be caught at the mangroves. Others collect crabs from the mangroves.
There is fishing around the mangrove.
4 She doesn’t know how to manage the mangrove.
There is no management of the mangrove.
They don’t know how to manage the mangroves.
He doesn’t know how to manage the mangrove.
5 There is no replanting.
There are no replanting schemes here. There is no replanting around here. He believes there is nowhere suitable because strong winds and waves have caused muddy areas to turn sandy.
There is no replanting here.
6 No-one owns the mangrove forest and she has never heard of anyone owning it.
No-one owns the mangrove.
No-one owns the mangrove.
No-one owns the mangrove.
7 She doesn’t know if the amount of wildlife has increased or not because she doesn’t go there.
There is a decrease in the amount of wildlife. He thinks this may be due to increased heat.
They don’t know if the wildlife has increased or decreased.
The wildlife has decreased due to the amount of fishermen that fish there.
8 Fishermen have told her that it is important because it is where fish feed and crabs live.
The mangrove is very important for fish and crabs and for every animal living in the sea.
The mangroves are very important, but they don’t contain useful species.
The mangroves are important as it increases the amount of fish. It is also used for building houses, the wood lasts a long time (about 10 years), and woodworm does not get into it.
9 She has never seen any deforested areas. He has seen deforestation in the west.
There have been no areas deforested.
No areas have been deforested, but some has been in Andohazompona.
10 There is no erosion here.
The erosion down the beach has increased since he has been here; he thinks there has been a 4m loss since 2000.
Yes, there is erosion here. It has claimed a coconut tree, and a house has been carried out to sea.
In the south there is erosion; last year the spring tide reached the start of the grass.
Table 6. Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
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Housewife Zebu Herder Farmer Housewife and son 1 The mangrove area has increased.
The area of mangrove has generally remained the same, although a little bit has decreased.
The mangrove areas are mainly the same, although some trees have died.
The mangrove area has increased.
2 They don’t take any but some wood has been taken by other villages to use for fences.
The mangrove is used for zebu fence and houses (Sonneratia alba for poles).
He has never taken any wood, but it is used for zebu fences and houses in Antsiranana.
It is used for zebu fence.
3 Her husband fishes around the mangrove area sometimes.
There is some crab fishing taking place.
He has nothing to do with the mangrove fishing or crab collecting.
The son says there are fish there, but the mother stays in the village and never goes there.
4 The mangroves are not managed.
To manage the mangroves we should replant some, like in Andohazompona.
To manage it more mangrove should be planted.
To manage it, the mangrove shouldn’t be chopped down.
5 There is no replanting here.
There is no replanting right now; next to the mangrove in bay 2 would be a good place to start.
There is no replanting so far.
There is no replanting here, but the best place for it is by the stream. They have experimented with the species Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora mucronata. Both species have been good, but it is easier with the long seeds.
6 No-one owns the mangroves. No-one owns the mangroves. No-one owns the mangroves.
No-one owns the mangrove.
7 There is less wildlife, it has decreased. It is hard to say if there is less wildlife as the catch varies from day to day.
He doesn’t know about wildlife.
There are less fish now because it is too windy for them.
8 She thinks the mangrove is important for fish.
The mangroves are very important. It is a place for animals.
The mangrove is important because it is home to lots of species.
The mangrove is important.
9 There are no areas of deforestation.
He has never seen an area completely deforested, but he’s seen some areas chopped down and some dead trees. He thinks this could be caused by a disease because old trees tend to die.
There is no deforesting because people don’t take wood very often.
There is no deforesting here.
10 She has not seen any erosion, but has heard of it in other places.
No erosion here.
There is erosion here, the land has ‘disappeared’.
There is erosion down the beach; it is too windy and waves ‘eat the land away’.
Table 6 (continued). Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
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Fisherman Housewife Zebu Farmer President 1 Some parts have decreased whereas
others have increased.
The mangrove has increased.
The mangroves have increased as no-one is cutting them down. However, it is a smaller forest than in other places.
The mangroves have increased a little bit.
2 He doesn’t take mangrove trees.
It is used for houses (beams for the roof) and fences.
The mangrove wood is used for zebu fence, and beams in houses (Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba).
People use the mangrove because it provides straight and tall wood used for fences and houses (Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba).
3 The mangrove is useful for fishing, but not for crabs.
There is crab collecting in the mangrove.
Nothing is caught in the mangroves. Crabs and fishes can be collected there.
4 They need to manage it by replanting more of it; they should try to work with MNP to replant.
The mangrove should be managed by not being allowed to cut the mangrove.
It is good to respect the government decisions and not to cut the mangrove.
The mangroves should be managed. He would like an increase in mangrove, and that people don’t take the younger trees and take no more than what is needed.
5 They have replanted a 50m section of mangroves in a small sector of bay 2.
She has never heard of replanting.
There has been no replanting. There is no open space for it; it should be muddy, mangroves need the right conditions. Rhizophora mucronata would be the easiest to replant.
This location is good for replanting. There has been no replanting here but there has been at Andohazompona.
6 The village owns the mangrove. The land is for all, so the mangrove is for all.
No-one owns the mangrove.
No-one owns the mangrove, or maybe MNP or Green Mad.
Each village owns the mangrove, so maybe people shouldn’t be allowed to hunt crabs in other villages.
7 There is an increase in wildlife.
There has been an increase in wildlife here.
In general there are less animals, e.g. fish, octopus, crabs.
He doesn’t know if the amount of wildlife has decreased or increased, there are always fish, they come from the sea into the mangrove for shelter. Different villages come here to fish because fish hide in the mangrove.
8 The mangrove is important for fish. People should be supervised fishing in bay 2.
The mangrove is important as people from the village can get food from it.
It is important as there are fish and crabs there.
Mangroves are important, but their mangrove is small so only important for fish and crabs. They don’t allow charcoal burning as they need the mangrove for crabs and fish. It provides an additional fishing location.
9 There is no deforested area.
In the north there has been some deforestation; the area is half the size of what it was; they can now see the sun through it.
There are no deforested areas, although there has been a decrease in mangrove.
There may have been an area deforested. He only saw dead roots so he isn’t sure whether they died or were chopped down.
10 There are areas eroded in many places. Planted mangroves are now at the same level as the water because the water is slowly moving inland.
There is erosion in the south.
There is less erosion in some areas and more in others. Before he could see the sea through the stream behind the house.
There was and still is erosion, but only a little amount.
Table 6 (continued). Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
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Fisherman 1 The mangrove has decreased slowly,
between 1978 and now. 2 He doesn’t use the mangrove. He has
seen it used for zebu fences as it can last ten years, much longer than any other tree.
3 There is crabbing and fishing around the mangrove.
4 To manage the mangrove there needs to be a stronger law made with MNP.
5 There has been no replanting so far. 6 No-one owns the mangrove. 7 He has noticed that in the 1990’s there
were juvenile fish and crabs in the mangrove, but now there are much less.
8 The mangrove is very important as it is a place for juvenile fish to grow. He is a spear gun fisher and sees the fish in the mangrove.
9 There is no mangrove deforestation, except in one area where no plants have grown afterwards.
10 Between 1978 and now there has been a 2m erosion in front of the village.
Table 6 (continued). Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
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The collection of crustaceans and fishing is common in the area like in other villages (Genio. et al. 2007). Those respondents which doubt the benefit of the mangrove possess little knowledge of it and visit the mangrove area infrequently. Those respondents who do undertake fishing activities in the mangrove appreciate the shelter which the mangrove provides to the development of the fish stocks. There is no official management plan here. Like in most villages people have some basic knowledge as to how to look after mangroves. This may form the basic structure of a management plan (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). The mangroves are cut in restricted numbers and selected areas to allow the mangrove to grow and establish itself without the juvenile trees being taken. Inspiration regarding their mangroves management has been taken from the village of Andohazompona. The respondents believe that, with some guidance and training, possibly from an NGO, it would be attainable to put a management plan in place. There is no replanting scheme here; however, there is a keen interest in learning how to replant the mangroves. Some community members have already attempted to replant mangroves, indicating that with training and extended knowledge, the village would be able to help sustain a successful healthy mangrove (e.g. see Berger et al. 2008; Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). They already have a basic understanding as they are thinking about the different conditions in which mangroves develop. There is some confusion over who owns the mangroves. With opinions ranging from the government or MNP to themselves or no-one, is it no wonder why the villagers are not currently implementing a management plan because they don’t know who would benefit from it. Once ownership is established, a management plan can be implemented and a community committee could maintain it (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). The respondents who work in and around the mangrove have seen a decrease in wildlife, whereas those who do not work near the mangrove think that the wildlife has increased. In Kenya, a subsequent return of wildlife has been found after mangrove regeneration (Bosire et al. 2008). All respondents believe that the mangrove is of some significance, although levels of importance differ. The main reason given as to why it is important is that it constitutes a feeding and breeding ground for fish and crustaceans, and is also an important source of hard bearing wood. Some villagers also think that there is only little wildlife and that it is not of real importance, following some views of other villages (Ellison, 2000 & Genio et al, 2007). This result suggests that more education could help all villagers realise the benefits of healthy mangroves. There is some contradiction regarding respondent opinions as to whether deforestation has occurred in the area. Some believe that the area has been deforested significantly over the last fifty years. Other respondents see no perceivable difference in the amount of mangrove forest. The respondents who have lived in the area the longest seem to perceive the greatest mangrove depletion. The largest extent of the depletion may have already occurred by the time the other respondents took up residence in the area. Most villagers think there should be more mangrove forest in the area. There is room for a management plan in this area and the mangrove population is low enough for respondents to agree to a plan (Alongi, 2002 & Genio et al. 2007).
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Some respondents have noticed the process of erosion as some points of reference in the village. This is a real problem to the village and without a reintroduction of mangrove to the area, it will continue at the same or perhaps an increased rate (Bosire et al. 2008 & Genio et al. 2007).
6.4 Discussion
This area would benefit from an implemented management plan. The villagers already have a basis upon which to build their knowledge of the mangrove environment and management. The location of the village is in a tidally impacted zone during the windy season. Erosion is a problem which could be alleviated by the regeneration of a mangrove forest. A recovery plan should be initiated to set up a committee with the mangrove regeneration as its primary aim. With the planting of both Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal propagules, a basic forest could start being established. At least 50 propagules of each species should be used to account for the mortality rate and enable the best chance of establishment. Once planting has begun to alter the substrate nutrient content further species could be accommodated such as Avicennia marina and Sonneratia alba (Berger, 2008; Bosire et al. 2008; Glaser, 2003).
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7. COMPARISON TABLES
Number of Respondents Number of households in
villages Ambalisakely 2 3 Abalibabe 6 10 Andohazompona 10 42 Ampasirikely 4 11 Antsisikala 13 11 Table 7.1 Number of respondents surveyed and households within the village. Farmer Fisherman Housewife Village
Superior Ambalisakely 1 1 Abalibabe 1 2 1 2 village elder
and Chief Secretary
Andohazompona 2 3 4 1 shop keeper Ampasirikely 0 0 4 0 Antsisikala
3
5
3
2 President and retired
Table 7.2 Occupations surveyed within villages. Charcoal Hut Beams Fencing Hut
Building Fishing and Crabbing
Ambalisakely 0 1 0 0 2 Abalibabe 0 5 1 4 4 Andohazompona 1 8 3 7 11 Ampasirikely 0 2 0 1 3 Antsisikala 0 7 12 8 12 Table 7.3 Uses of mangrove wood. Crab Collecting Fishing Ambalisakely 1 1 Abalibabe 2 2 Andohazompona 6 5 Ampasirikely 3 0 Antsisikala 6 6 Table 7.4 Number of households that fish in the mangrove.
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8. CONCLUSION When comparing the villages, it is clear that raising awareness of the importance of mangroves, and providing training in reforestation techniques would greatly benefit the mangroves and therefore the local communities. There is scope for an action plan for the recovery of the mangrove forests on the coastline of Antsiranana Bay. To begin with the ownership of the mangroves needs to be clarified in order to make the villagers aware that any work carried out on the mangrove will benefit them directly. Until this is done it will be difficult to encourage villagers to replant mangroves. A management plan should then be put into place to begin replanting the mangroves using methods appropriate for each area. The largest villages surveyed were Andohazompona and Antsisikala. These villages would particularly benefit from the creation of a committee to help organise the implementation of a management plan to ensure mangrove protection. The villagers interviewed were chosen to represent different socio-professional categories to allow a wider range of opinions. The mangrove wood has been mainly used in building and fencing within the villages, whereas little wood has been used for charcoal. The mangrove forest is still used by some villages for fishing and collecting crab. These results suggest that the mangroves are of high value to the Malagasy, both economically and ecologically. In all villages surveyed, it appeared that the government is respected and influences the populations’ decisions regarding mangrove management. The government has already proposed a replanting scheme; however, the villagers were concerned about failure to adhere to the correct regulations, and as a consequence did not initiate any reforestation plan. A visit from the government outlining the necessary regulations would therefore be of great benefit to the villagers. The involvement of an NGO and the set up of a village committee would also benefit the villages and could help initiate the set up of a management plan. This has already begun in Andohazompona with the support of MNP. Furthermore, there is a need to reassure some villagers that any work carried out on the mangroves will be protected by legislation. The continual deforestation of the mangrove by villagers from other areas of the bay is not only detrimental to the mangrove, but it is also discouraging for the people involved in managing the mangrove. It should therefore be monitored and a management plan put in place to regulate this practise. If each village around Antsiranana were given basic training and the confidence to initiate mangrove regeneration, replanting mangroves could be very successful given that the local communities already have a relatively good level of awareness of the importance of protecting the mangrove forests.
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9. REFERENCES
Alongi, D. M. (2002) Present state and future of the world’s mangrove forests. Environmental Conservation. 29 (3) pp. 331-349. Alongi, D. M. (2008). Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 76 (1) pp. 1-13. Berger, U., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Doyle, T. W., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Duke, N. C., Fontalvo-Herazo, M. L., Hildenbrandt, H., Koedam, N., Mehlig, U., Piou, C. & Twilley, R. R. (2008) Advances and limitations of individual-based models to analyze and predict dynamics of mangrove forests: A Review. Aquatic Botany 89 pp. 260–274. Bosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B. I., Lewis, R. R. Field, C., Kairo, J. G. & Koedam, N. (2008) Functionaltiy of restored mangroves: A review. Aquatic Botany 89 pp. 251–259. Ellison, A. M. (2000) Mangrove Restoration: Do we know Enough? Restoration Ecology 8 (3) pp. 219–229. Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis, R.R., (1999). Planting mangroves on intertidal mudflats: habitat restoration or habitat conversion? Ecotone, VIIIth Seminar, Enhancing Coastal Ecosystem Restoration for the 21st Century, Ranong and Phuket, pp. 1–11. Finance & Developmant (2008) Mangrove Management. Business Source Premier (EBSCO). 45 (1) p. 4. Genio, E. L., Rejesus, R. M., Pomeroy, R. S., White, A. & Smith, B. (2007) Factors affecting fisherfolk’s support for coastal resource management: The case of local government initiated mangrove protection activities. Ocean and Coastal Zone Management. 50 pp. 808-828. Glaser, M. (2003) Interrelations between mangrove ecosystem, local economy and social sustainability in Caet´e Estuary, North Brazil Wetlands Ecology and Management 11 pp. 265–272. Martinuzzi, S., Gould, W. A., Lugo, A. E. & Medina, E. (2009) Conversion and Recovery of Puerto Rican mangroves: 200 years of change. Forest Ecology and Management. 257 pp.75–84. Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Nanao, H., Kogo, M., Miyagi, T., Kanazawa, N. & Kobashi, D. (2004) Coastal erosion due to long-term human impact on mangrove forests. Wetlands Ecology and Management. 10, pp. 1-9.
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Mwangi, J.G. (2001) A new pest causing decline of mangrove species in Kenya. Eastern Arc Mountains Information Source: http://www.easternarc.org/html/NewPestK.html Wolanski, E., Mazda, Y., Ridd, P., 1992. Mangrove hydrology. In: Robertson, A.I., Alongi, D.M. (Eds.), Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 43–62.
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10. APPENDIX Appendix 1. Mangrove Questionnaire for village residents.
1. How long have the mangroves been here for, has there been any changes to the area since you have been here?
2. How is the mangrove used in the area? What do you use it for? 3. Is there any fishing or crab collecting at the mangrove? 4. Do you manage the mangroves in any way? 5. Have any areas of mangrove been replanted? 6. Who owns the mangroves? 7. Have there been changes in mangrove wildlife and size of mangroves here? 8. Do you think the mangrove is important? 9. Have any areas been deforested? 10. Has any erosion been noticed?
