A review of factors that influence the diffusion of innovation when structuring a faculty training program

A review of factors that influence the diffusion of innovation

when structuring a faculty training program

John Bennett a1 Linda Bennettb

aBusiness Program Stephens College Columbia MO 65215 USAbDepartment of Curriculum and Instruction University of Missouri-Columbia Columbia MO 65211 USA

Received 23 September 2002 received in revised form 18 November 2002 accepted 22 November 2002

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is identify those characteristics of instructional technology that may

influence a faculty memberrsquos willingness to integrate it in hisher teaching by drawing upon the

diffusion of innovation literature It then presents the results of a study conducted at a small liberal arts

college on the effectiveness of a faculty training program that was designed to encourage faculty to

adopt a course management system in their classroom-based undergraduate courses The training

program was based on an approach that considers those factors that influence the adoption rate of

technology specifically the course management system Blackboard

Keywords Technology training program Course management system Innovation Undergraduate education

Blackboard

1 Introduction

At a growing number of colleges and universities the faculty are being exhorted to

integrate technology into their instructional activities The pressure faced by the faculty to

utilize technology in their teaching is coming from administrators seeking to turn their

institutions into high-tech learning communities and from students who are becoming

PII S1096 -7516 (02 )00161 -6

Corresponding author Tel +1-573-882-1993 fax +1-573-884-2917

E-mail address lbmissouriedu (L Bennett)1 Tel + 1-573-876-2307

Internet and Higher Education 6 (2003) 53ndash63

increasingly insistent that technology be utilized in their courses The faculty are also being

cajoled by their peers who are considered early adopters of instructional technology and

always eager to cite its pedagogical advantages to nonadopters This pressure is not likely to

subside in the future considering the expected increase in the number of online courses and

degree programs being offered by institutions of higher education in the United States In

1999 72 of 2-year and 4-year institutions offered online courses up from 48 a year

earlier according to a survey by Market Data Retrieval (Grimes 2001) Merrill Researchers

estimate that the number of students enrolled in distance learning courses will increase from

710000 in 1998 to 22 million in 2002 (Grimes 2001) There are also a growing number of

colleges and universities experimenting with lsquolsquohybridrsquorsquo or lsquolsquoblendedrsquorsquo models of teaching that

replace some in-person class meetings with virtual sessions Some predict that within 5 years

between 80 and 90 of all courses will be available in a hybrid format (Young 2002) To

facilitate the development of courses that utilize Internet-based technologies an increasing

number of institutions in the United States offer their faculties course management tools like

WebCT and Blackboard According to the 2001 National Survey of Information Technology

in US Higher Education roughly three-fourths (732) of colleges and universities offer

course management tools up from 578 in 2000 (The Campus Computing Project 2001)

The growth of courses utilizing Internet-based technologies is due to many factors that are

both technological and pedagogical The technological factors include the accelerating power

of personal computers increasing telecommunications bandwidth capabilities and state-of-

the-art software development and delivery (Phipps amp Merisotis 2000) However many

advocates of Internet-based distance education often cite its pedagogical advantages as the

primary reasons for its rapid growth They believe that the Internet has the potential to

democratize education lower costs and ultimately improve the quality of courses and

curriculum (Benebunan-Finch Lozada Pirog Priluck amp Wisenblit 2001 Grimes 2001

Young 2001) Some of the most avid supporters of Internet-based distance education believe

that the Internet can deliver an education experience as good asmdashand in some cases superior

tomdashthat which a student receives in a traditional classroom (Hiltz 1994 Schulman amp Sims

Still despite the increased pressure being placed on faculty to integrate technology in their

courses many are reluctant to do so In fact the biggest obstacle to applying technology in

the classroom at many institutions is not a lack of funds or technology but a faculty that is

unwilling to use the technology made available to them (Lynch 2002) For example despite

the fact that 80 of public 4-year colleges make course management tools available to their

faculties professors actually use them in only 20 of their courses (Lynch 2002) The

problem has become so acute that for the past 5 years senior information technology officers

who have been surveyed annually by The Campus Computing Project have identified helping

faculty members integrate technology into instruction as the single most important issue

confronting their campuses in the near future (Lynch 2002) The study also found that the

average ranking that information technology officers give faculty members for being prepared

to use technology as a resource in instruction is a measly 35 (on a five-point scale with

1 = poor and 5 = excellent) Kenneth Green the director of The Campus Computing Project

predicts that the number of faculty willing to invest time and effort to integrate technology

J Bennett L Bennett Internet and Higher Education 6 (2003) 53ndash6354

into their courses may begin to level off due to inadequate institutional support and

recognition for their efforts (Lynch 2002) While these constraints may not have served as

a barrier for innovators and early adopters they do for many other faculty who are less

enamored with technology and need assurances that the benefits of integrating technology

outweigh the costs

This reluctance to embrace technology is due to many factors such as the amount of time

and effort required to properly integrate technology into the curriculum persistent doubts

about the pedagogical benefits of the technology being utilized and the failure of many

tenure-and-promotion systems to recognize teaching with technology (Mendels 1998 Reich

1999 Stancill 1999 Young 2002) In addition according to a recent study by the Higher

Education Research Institute at UCLA many faculty members are hesitant to embrace

technology because it is perceived as a source of stress (Lynch 2002)

Because of the reluctance of many faculty members to integrate technology into their

instructional activities it is not surprising that faculty development support and training

were identified as the most critical issues faced by IT administrators in the 2002 EDUCAUSE

Current Issues Survey (Kobulnicky amp Ruby 2002) It ranked third on the list of issues that

respondents reported to be the most pressing to resolve for their institutionrsquos strategic success

and ranked sixth place on the list in issues most demanding of human andor financial

resources It was also ranked eighth on the list of issues that have the most potential to

become more significant in the coming year and ranked tenth on the list of issues that IT

administrators spend most of their time addressing In the 2001 National Survey of

Information Technology in US Higher Education survey respondents across all sectors of

higher education identify assisting faculty in integrating technology into instruction as the

single most important IT issue confronting their campuses over the next 2 or 3 years (The

Campus Computing Project 2001) However establishing the need for a faculty development

and training program presents a far lesser challenge to IT administrators than the task of

designing an effective program A program will succeed if it moves a faculty member from

simply being aware of instructional technology to fully integrating it in hisher teaching and

research

The purpose of this paper is identify those characteristics of technology that may influence

a faculty memberrsquos willingness to integrate it in hisher teaching by drawing upon the

diffusion of innovation literature It then presents the results of a study conducted at a small

liberal arts college on the effectiveness of a faculty training program that was designed to

encourage faculty to adopt a course management system in classroom-based undergraduate

courses The program was based on an approach that considers those factors that influence the

adoption rate of technology specifically the course management system Blackboard

2 Diffusion of innovation

The literature on diffusion of innovation provides insights into the factors that may

influence a faculty memberrsquos likelihood of utilizing a new technology for instructional

purposes In general when someone is confronted with a new technology heshe goes

J Bennett L Bennett Internet and Higher Education 6 (2003) 53ndash63 55

through an adoption decision process in which heshe gathers information tests the

technology and then considers whether it offers a sufficient improvement to warrant the

investment of time and energy that is required to add it to hisher repertoire of skills (Rogers

1995) The faculty being urged to integrate technology in their courses face a similar

situation

The diffusion literature also suggests that a personrsquos likelihood of adoption is influenced by

several characteristics of the technology By reviewing these characteristics and considering

how they may be manifested in a faculty training program it may be possible to predict how

these factors will influence a faculty memberrsquos response to such technologies

The first characteristic is relative advantage or the degree to which a faculty member

perceives a new technology as superior to existing substitutes If the technology provides

some type of increased effectiveness or efficiency then individuals are more likely to adopt

the technology (Rogers 1995) This suggests the need to focus on the specific pedagogical

advantages of the instructional technology over more conventional teaching tools in the

faculty training program However discussing the pedagogical value of a particular

technology is complex Most instructional technologies are so flexible and can be put to

so many uses that it is impossible to identify their intrinsic value Rather the value of the

technology will depend on the ways in which it is used

The second characteristic is trialability or the degree to which the faculty member can test

the technology before deciding whether to adopt it The greater the opportunity to try a new

technology the easier it is for faculty members to evaluate it and ultimately adopt it (Rogers

1995) However trialability can be a challenge for many forms of instructional technology

since they may require faculty members to make substantial investments of time and effort

before they can begin to experiment Regardless it is essential for faculty members to be

given the opportunity to lsquolsquotest driversquorsquo the technology whether it be a software package like a

course management system or a hardware like an interactive white board

The third characteristic is observability or the ease to which the technology can be

observed imagined or described to the potential user If the technology has a high degree of

observability it will be relatively easy for the faculty member to learn about it and judge its

potential benefits This in turn can increase the likelihood of adoption (Rogers 1995) The

importance of observability indicates how critical it is that the instructional technology be

demonstrated in the faculty training program

The fourth characteristic is complexity or the degree to which the technology is difficult to

understand or use Instructional technologies can be very intimidating for many faculty

members due to their perceived complexity (Lynch 2002) This is of particular concern to the

designers of development and training programs because until faculty are comfortable using

technology there will not be a significant change in instructional practices in the classroom

(Porter amp Foster 1998) Even if the technology itself is not perceived to be difficult to

understand learning how to effectively apply it to enhance teaching and learning can be This

perception of complexity causes many faculty members to assume often incorrectly that

learning how to use the technology will take an inordinate amount of time and effort

Compounding the problem is the fact that many faculty members across the country say that

the tenure-and-promotion system fails to recognize the investment of time and effort in

learning how to use instructional technology (Young 2002) To ensure that the fear of

technical complexity does not present itself as an obstacle it is important that the content and

outcomes of the development and training program be consistent with the knowledge skills

and abilities of the faculty involved

The last characteristic is compatibility or the degree to which the faculty member feels

that the instructional technology is consistent with hisher values and philosophy of

teaching A faculty member who favors a high degree of interaction in the classroom

and active learning methods needs to know how the technology will assist himher in

achieving these goals A program that focuses on the interactive instructional properties of

the technology would be of greater interest to this faculty member than one that failed to

discuss how the technology is consistent with hisher teaching philosophy Unfortunately in

many circumstances the introduction of instructional technology will require the rejection of

one set of values and ideas about education and the adoption of a new set with regards to

what constitutes effective pedagogy Today most faculty members conduct a teaching-

centered classroom However because research indicates that students are learning differ-

ently today the learning methodologies utilized to employ the technology require the use of

a learner-centered approach (Anson 1999 Boettcher 1999 McCormick 1999 Moersch

1995 Shirer 1999 Sprague amp Dede 1999) This approach is based on a constructivist

theory to education in which students learn by taking in information from the world and

constructing their own meaning from the experience as opposed to someone simply giving

them bits of information (Arminio 1999 Sprague amp Dede 1999 Turoff 1999) To facilitate

the transition from a teaching-centered approach to one that is more learner-centered faculty

development must evolve from simply teaching about software to lsquolsquotraining faculty in how

to use the software in a learning environmentrsquorsquo (Rao amp Rao 1999) Such a program should

include teaching the faculty to understand the learning styles of the students because a

major influence on the facultyrsquos view of teaching is on the perceived view of learning

outcomes (Guffey Lary amp Bradley 1997 Rainer 1999) Unless the faculty are willing to

use the learner-centered approach in their teaching there may be strong resistance to the

adoption of instructional technology

3 Designing the faculty training program

In the fall of 2001 a faculty training program was developed at a private liberal arts college

to encourage faculty to consider using the course management system Blackboard 50 in

their classroom-based undergraduate courses Prior to the establishment of this training

program the usage of Blackboard among faculty was considered very low (approximately

15 of the faculty use the system on a regular basis) despite the fact that there has been

considerable trial usage of the software since it was acquired (approximately 50 of the

faculty have tried the software) The goal of the training program was to increase the usage of

Blackboard among the faculty to at least 25 by the spring 2002 semester In order to achieve

this level of penetration the program was designed to improve participantsrsquo general attitudes

toward computers increase their level of competency in using computers as instructional

tools and raise their awareness of the usefulness of computers in enhancing teaching and

learning

Approximately 20 faculty who were not Blackboard users volunteered to participate in the

program that was offered during the fall 2001 and spring 2002 semesters The program

consisted of a series of seminars and workshops as well as individualized instruction and was

led by a faculty member given release time to serve as the collegersquos instructional technology

specialist In introducing the course management system to the program participants careful

consideration was given to the characteristics cited earlier in this report that influence a

technologyrsquos rate of adoption That is in presenting the technology to the program

participants the program coordinator cited the relative advantages of the technology over

more conventional technologies provided demonstrations of the software in every workshop

introduced the most advanced features of Blackboard toward the end of the program in order

to reduce its perceived complexity allowed time for the participants to test the software

during each of the workshops and discussed the pedagogical value of the software and how it

is consistent with various approaches to teaching and learning

The program was offered in three phases The first phase consisted of a half-day seminar in

the first half of the fall semester during which three faculty members with extensive

experience using Blackboard gave demonstrations of their course sites so that the program

participants could observe how their colleagues are utilizing the technology The faculty

members chosen to give the demonstrations were from different academic areas and used

varied teaching strategies so that the participants could appreciate the versatility of

Blackboard During the demonstrations the presenters noted the specific advantages that

course management systems like Blackboard offered over more conventional technologies

This was done early in the program in order to allay any concerns or doubts that the

participants may have had about the benefits of investing their time learning about the system

Particular attention was given to specific features available to Blackboard users in the

communication content and assessment areas of the system and how they might be used to

enhance teaching and learning Throughout the discussion of the relative advantages of

Blackboard it was emphasized that the pedagogical value of this course management system

depended on how it was utilized That simply adopting this technology was not enough This

point was illustrated by citing examples of the ineffective use of course management systems

The second phase of the program consisted of two full-day workshops held during the

second half of the fall semester In the first workshop the participants were taken to the

computer laboratory and given the opportunity to begin the process of creating a course web

site using the most basic Blackboard features Prior to this workshop the faculty were asked

to bring electronic copies of course materials such as syllabi lecture notes PowerPoint slides

and any other materials they wanted to upload to the course site Each faculty was given as

much time as necessary to create hisher site and was offered individualized instruction In the

second workshop the more advanced features of Blackboard such as the asynchronous and

synchronous communication tools grade book digital drop box and assessment manager

were introduced after the participants had gained some competence using Blackboard

The third and final stage of the program consisted of three 1-h follow-up sessions In the

first session which was scheduled during the last 2 weeks of the fall semester those

participants who had decided to begin using Blackboard in the upcoming spring semester

were given an opportunity to showcase their course sites and discuss how they planned to use

the course management system to enhance teaching and learning In the second and third

follow-up sessions these faculty members were asked to provide the group with an

assessment of their experience using Blackboard The second session was scheduled midway

through the spring semester and the third was held during the last week of the spring

semester These sessions served as an opportunity for the Blackboard users to discuss with the

larger group any problems or concerns that arose when Blackboard was integrated in their

classes and how these problems were handled These follow-up sessions not only provided

the participants with a greater awareness of some of problems they might encounter when

using Blackboard it also enabled the computer services personnel to determine what problem

areas to address in the troubleshooting guide they were preparing for Blackboard users

4 Evaluations

At the beginning of the training program the participants were surveyed to assess their

perceptions about the usefulness of computers as instructional tools their beliefs about

whether computers enhance studentsrsquo learning experiences their level of competency in using

computers as instructional tools and their general attitude toward computers The survey was

again administered at the conclusion of the 30-week program in the spring of 2002 to measure

the impact the program had on the participantsrsquo attitudes and beliefs with respect to

instructional technology

Both surveys were administered to the 20 program participants and included four

composite variables containing 5ndash13 items each The items used in each composite as well

as the inter-item reliability of each scale are given in Appendix A The first composite focuses

on beliefs about the usefulness of computers as instructional tools The mean response for this

composite variable on the pretest was 315 (using a five-point scale with 1 = strongly disagree

and 5 = strongly agree) On the posttest the mean response showed a significant increase to

357 (F= 1464 P=0001)

The second composite focuses on beliefs about whether computers enhance studentsrsquo

learning experience The mean response for this composite variable on the pretest was 291

On the posttest the mean response showed a significant increase to 344 (F = 959 P=003)

The third composite focuses on individual faculty membersrsquo sense of efficacymdashthat they

are capable and competent at using computers as instructional tools The mean response for

this composite variable on the pretest was 259 On the posttest the mean response showed a

significant increase to 300 (F = 732 P=0090)

The fourth composite focuses on individual faculty membersrsquo general attitudes toward

computers The mean response for this composite variable on the pretest was 291 On the

posttest the mean response showed a significant increase to 344 (F= 959 P=0030) The

main results in the four composite variables are provided in Table 1

The positive shift in the participantsrsquo attitudes toward instructional technology is reflected

in the number of those who planned to continue using Blackboard after completing the

training program Ninety percent of the 20 participants indicated that they would be using

Blackboard in their classroom-based courses in the coming academic year This would result

in an increase in the total number of faculty at the college electing to use Blackboard in their

classes from 15 prior to the start of the training program to more than 37 in a 1-year

period This was significantly more than the stated goal of 25

5 Conclusion

The success of the faculty training program underscores the importance of considering

those factors that impact an individualrsquos adoption of technology when designing the program

By discussing the relative advantages of instructional technology offering demonstrations of

how the technology can be utilized to enhance teaching and learning providing participants

with the opportunity to lsquolsquotest driversquorsquo the technology giving consideration to the participantsrsquo

level of comfort with technology and showing how the technology fits with the participantsrsquo

values and philosophies of teaching the program helped eliminate many of the obstacles that

hinder the adoption of instructional technology More importantly giving consideration to

these factors in the design of the program resulted in its having a positive impact on the

participantsrsquo attitudes and beliefs with respect to instructional technology Similar programs

could be developed for students in order to increase their usage of instructional technology In

these programs the emphasis would be placed on the potential of instructional technology to

enhance learning as opposed to teaching

Appendix A Usefulness of computers as instructional tools

The first composite focuses on beliefs about the usefulness of computers as instructional

tools The eight items included in this composite are

1 Computers could enhance remedial instruction

2 Computers can be used successfully with courses which demand creative activities

3 Computers can be a useful instructional aid in almost all subject areas

4 The use of computers in education almost always reduces the personal treatment of

students (reverse scored)

5 I believe that I am a better teacher with technology

Table 1

Composite variables pretest and posttest results

Composite variable Pretest Posttest

(1) Usefulness of computers as instructional tools 315 357 (F= 1464 P=0001)

(2) Potential of computers to enhance studentsrsquo learning experience 291 344 (F= 959 P=003)

(3) Sense of efficacy with computers 259 300 (F= 732 P=0090)

(4) Attitudes toward computers 291 344 (F= 959 P=0030)

6 Computers would motivate students

7 Computers would significantly improve the overall quality of my studentsrsquo education

Inter-item reliability for the scale (lsquolsquoUsefulness of computers in instructionrsquorsquo) as a whole

was good (coefficient a=80)

Appendix B Enhancement of learning experience

learning experience and specifically on beliefs about e-mail in college courses The 12 items

included in this composite are

1 Computers would help students improve their writing

2 Computers would stimulate creativity in students

4 The use of e-mail makes the student feel more involved

5 The use of e-mail helps provide a better learning experience

6 The use of e-mail makes the course more interesting

7 More courses should use e-mail to disseminate class information and assignments

8 The use of e-mail creates more interaction between students enrolled in the course

9 The use of e-mail creates more interaction between students and instructor

10 E-mail provides better access to the instructor

11 E-mail is an effective means of disseminating class information and assignments

12 I prefer e-mail to traditional class handouts as an information disseminator

Inter-item reliability for the scale (lsquolsquoEnhancement of learning experiencersquorsquo) was high

(coefficient a=94)

Appendix C Sense of efficacy with computers

are capable and competent at using computers as instructional tools The 10 items included in

this composite are

1 Figuring out a computer problem does not appeal to me (reverse scored)

2 Computers frustrate me (reverse scored)

3 I have a lot of self-confidence when it comes to working with computers

4 I feel apprehensive about using a computer (reverse scored)

5 I have become familiar with computers through my previous experience

6 I feel qualified to teach computer literacy

7 I feel at ease when I am around computers

8 Learning to operate computers is like learning any new skillmdashthe more you practice the

better you become

9 I do not think that I could handle a computer course (reverse scored)

10 Computers are hard to figure out how to use (reverse scored)

Inter-item reliability for the scale (lsquolsquoEfficacyrsquorsquo) was good (coefficient a=83)

Appendix D Attitudes towards computers

computers The five items included in this composite are

1 I want to learn a lot about computers

2 The challenge of learning about computers is exciting

3 Learning about computers is boring to me (reverse scored)

4 I enjoy learning how computers are used in our daily lives

5 A job using computers would be very interesting

Inter-item reliability for the scale (lsquolsquoAttitudersquorsquo) was good (coefficient a=83)

References

Anson C M (1999) Distance voices teaching and writing in a culture of technology College English 61

261ndash280

Arminio J (1999) The virtual campus technology and reform in higher education Journal of College Student

Personnel 40 114

Benebunan-Finch R Lozada H R Pirog S Priluck R amp Wisenblit J (2001) Integrating information

technology into the marketing curriculum a pragmatic paradigm Journal of Marketing Education 23 5ndash15

Boettcher J (1999) The shift from a teaching to a learning paradigm Syllabus 50ndash51

Grimes A (2001 March 12) The hope and the reality big money is pouring into the business of education But

itrsquos too soon to tell whether there will be any payoff Wall Street Journal R6

Guffey J S R Lary C amp Bradley M J (1997) Technology staff development triage using three mastery

levels 1ndash9 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No Ed418072)

Hiltz S (1994) The virtual classroom learning without limits via computer networks Norwood NJ Alblex

Kobulnicky P amp Ruby J A (2002) EDUCAUSE Quarterly Third Annual EDUCAUSE Survey identifies

Current IT Issues by Paul Kobulnicky Julia A Rudy and the EDUCAUSE Current Issues Committee 252

Lynch D (2002 January 18) Professors should embrace technology in courses Chronicle of Higher Edu-

cation B15

McCormick S (1999) The case for visual media in learning Syllabus 4ndash6

Mendels P (1998) US official calls for studies of technology in classrooms New York Times [Online]

(Retrieved June 21 2002 from httpwwwnytimescomlibrarytech9804cyberarticles27educationhtml)

Moersch C (1995) Levels of technology implementation a framework for measuring classroom technology use

Learning and Leading with Technology 23 (Retrieved June 22 2002 from httpwwwisteorgLampLarchive

vol26no8supplementmoerschmoerschhtml)

Phipps R A amp Merisotis J P (2000) Quality on the line benchmarks for success in Internet-based distance

education Washington DC The Institute for Higher Education Policy

Porter T amp Foster S K (1998) From a distance training and teacher education THE Journal 26 (Retrieved on

June 22 2002 from httpwwwthejournalcommagazine98Septfeatures4html)

Rainer J D (1999) Faculty living their beliefs Journal of Teacher Education 50 192ndash199

Rao P V amp Rao L M (1999) Strategies that support instructional technology Syllabus 22ndash24

Reich D (1999) Questioning technology an interview with Jeffrey Reiman American 17ndash21

Rogers E M (1995) Diffusion of innovation (4th ed) New York The Free Press

Schulman A H amp Sims R L (1999) Learning in an online format versus an in-class format an experimental

study THE Journal (Retrieved June 22 2002 from httpwwwthejournalcommagazinevaulta2090cfm)

Shirer M (1999) Forrester technographics finds that young consumers are internalizing net rules (pp 1ndash3)

Cambridge MA Forrester Research

Sprague D amp Dede C (1999) Constructivism in the classroom if I teach this way am I doing my job Learning

and Leading with Technology 27(1) 6ndash9 16ndash17

Stancill J (1999) UNC lets bricks mortar give way to bits bytes News Observer on the Web (Retrieved June 23

2002 from httpsearchnews-observercomplweb-cgi202920202020AND2019990501

3C3Ddate)

The Campus Computing Project (2001) The 2001 national survey of information technology in US higher

education Encino CA The Campus Computing Project

Turoff M (1999) Education commerce communications the era of competition WebNet Journal 22ndash31

Young J (2002 March 22) Hybrid teaching seeks to end the divide between traditional and online instruction

Chronicle of Higher Education A33

Young M R (2001) Windowed wired and webbedmdashnow what Journal of Marketing Education 23(1) 45ndash54

Introduction

Diffusion of innovation

Designing the faculty training program

Evaluations

Conclusion

Usefulness of computers as instructional tools

Enhancement of learning experience

Sense of efficacy with computers

Attitudes towards computers