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NES 20th Anniversary Conference, Dec 13-16, 2012 A Model of Party Discipline in Congress (based on the article presented by Galina Zudenkova at the NES 20th Anniversary Conference) Author: Galina Zudenkova
Citation preview
Introduction Model Results Appendix
A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Galina Zudenkova
University of Mannheim
December 2012
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Motivation
Party Discipline refers to control that party leadership has overits legislature
– ability of party leaders to get their partisancongress members to support party line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Motivation
Party Discipline refers to control that party leadership has overits legislature – ability of party leaders to get their partisancongress members to support party line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Motivation
Party Discipline refers to control that party leadership has overits legislature – ability of party leaders to get their partisancongress members to support party line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Research Questions
What determines the level of party discipline?
Is party discipline weaker in the majority party or in the minorityparty?
What are the impacts of party discipline on policy outcomes?
How does party discipline affect distribution of governmentspending among national districts?
I analyze distribution of government spending in a two-partylegislature within the presidential system.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Research Questions
What determines the level of party discipline?
Is party discipline weaker in the majority party or in the minorityparty?
What are the impacts of party discipline on policy outcomes?
How does party discipline affect distribution of governmentspending among national districts?
I analyze distribution of government spending in a two-partylegislature within the presidential system.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Research Questions
What determines the level of party discipline?
Is party discipline weaker in the majority party or in the minorityparty?
What are the impacts of party discipline on policy outcomes?
How does party discipline affect distribution of governmentspending among national districts?
I analyze distribution of government spending in a two-partylegislature within the presidential system.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Research Questions
What determines the level of party discipline?
Is party discipline weaker in the majority party or in the minorityparty?
What are the impacts of party discipline on policy outcomes?
How does party discipline affect distribution of governmentspending among national districts?
I analyze distribution of government spending in a two-partylegislature within the presidential system.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Research Questions
What determines the level of party discipline?
Is party discipline weaker in the majority party or in the minorityparty?
What are the impacts of party discipline on policy outcomes?
How does party discipline affect distribution of governmentspending among national districts?
I analyze distribution of government spending in a two-partylegislature within the presidential system.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Roadmap
Allocation of scarce government spending is modeled as anasymmetric contest between congress members.
Majority party has relative advantage in directing spending intoits partisan districts.
Party leaders can enforce discipline in their correspondingparties to make their congress members support party line –maximize party’s total share of spending (rather than followinterests of their home districts).
I show that party discipline favors minority party and leads toless biased distribution of government spending amongnational districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Roadmap
Allocation of scarce government spending is modeled as anasymmetric contest between congress members.
Majority party has relative advantage in directing spending intoits partisan districts.
Party leaders can enforce discipline in their correspondingparties to make their congress members support party line –maximize party’s total share of spending (rather than followinterests of their home districts).
I show that party discipline favors minority party and leads toless biased distribution of government spending amongnational districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Roadmap
Allocation of scarce government spending is modeled as anasymmetric contest between congress members.
Majority party has relative advantage in directing spending intoits partisan districts.
Party leaders can enforce discipline in their correspondingparties to make their congress members support party line
–maximize party’s total share of spending (rather than followinterests of their home districts).
I show that party discipline favors minority party and leads toless biased distribution of government spending amongnational districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Roadmap
Allocation of scarce government spending is modeled as anasymmetric contest between congress members.
Majority party has relative advantage in directing spending intoits partisan districts.
Party leaders can enforce discipline in their correspondingparties to make their congress members support party line –maximize party’s total share of spending (rather than followinterests of their home districts).
I show that party discipline favors minority party and leads toless biased distribution of government spending amongnational districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Motivation Questions Roadmap
Roadmap
Allocation of scarce government spending is modeled as anasymmetric contest between congress members.
Majority party has relative advantage in directing spending intoits partisan districts.
Party leaders can enforce discipline in their correspondingparties to make their congress members support party line –maximize party’s total share of spending (rather than followinterests of their home districts).
I show that party discipline favors minority party and leads toless biased distribution of government spending amongnational districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress (legislative branch of government), two-party system.
One congress member for each of national districts.
Each congress member is affiliated with one of two politicalparties.
Party that holds a majority – majority party maj.
Other party – minority party min.
nmaj and nmin – number of congress members affiliated with majand min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress (legislative branch of government), two-party system.
One congress member for each of national districts.
Each congress member is affiliated with one of two politicalparties.
Party that holds a majority – majority party maj.
Other party – minority party min.
nmaj and nmin – number of congress members affiliated with majand min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress (legislative branch of government), two-party system.
One congress member for each of national districts.
Each congress member is affiliated with one of two politicalparties.
Party that holds a majority – majority party maj.
Other party – minority party min.
nmaj and nmin – number of congress members affiliated with majand min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress (legislative branch of government), two-party system.
One congress member for each of national districts.
Each congress member is affiliated with one of two politicalparties.
Party that holds a majority – majority party maj.
Other party – minority party min.
nmaj and nmin – number of congress members affiliated with majand min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress (legislative branch of government), two-party system.
One congress member for each of national districts.
Each congress member is affiliated with one of two politicalparties.
Party that holds a majority – majority party maj.
Other party – minority party min.
nmaj and nmin – number of congress members affiliated with majand min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress (legislative branch of government), two-party system.
One congress member for each of national districts.
Each congress member is affiliated with one of two politicalparties.
Party that holds a majority – majority party maj.
Other party – minority party min.
nmaj and nmin – number of congress members affiliated with majand min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress performs purely distributive task of allocatinggovernment spending to nmaj + nmin national districts.
Distributive policies benefit only districts in which spendingoccurs.
Size of government spending is normalized to 1.
To bring spending into home district, each congress memberexerts effort ai ≥ 0, i = 1, ..., nmaj + nmin.
Cost of effort:C (ai) = ai.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress performs purely distributive task of allocatinggovernment spending to nmaj + nmin national districts.
Distributive policies benefit only districts in which spendingoccurs.
Size of government spending is normalized to 1.
To bring spending into home district, each congress memberexerts effort ai ≥ 0, i = 1, ..., nmaj + nmin.
Cost of effort:C (ai) = ai.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress performs purely distributive task of allocatinggovernment spending to nmaj + nmin national districts.
Distributive policies benefit only districts in which spendingoccurs.
Size of government spending is normalized to 1.
To bring spending into home district, each congress memberexerts effort ai ≥ 0, i = 1, ..., nmaj + nmin.
Cost of effort:C (ai) = ai.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress performs purely distributive task of allocatinggovernment spending to nmaj + nmin national districts.
Distributive policies benefit only districts in which spendingoccurs.
Size of government spending is normalized to 1.
To bring spending into home district, each congress memberexerts effort ai ≥ 0, i = 1, ..., nmaj + nmin.
Cost of effort:C (ai) = ai.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Congress performs purely distributive task of allocatinggovernment spending to nmaj + nmin national districts.
Distributive policies benefit only districts in which spendingoccurs.
Size of government spending is normalized to 1.
To bring spending into home district, each congress memberexerts effort ai ≥ 0, i = 1, ..., nmaj + nmin.
Cost of effort:C (ai) = ai.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Legislative process of the US Congress:
A bill is introduced to the congress (by any congress member).
It is referred to appropriate committee (where it may beaccepted, amended, or rejected).
If approved, the bill is reported to the congress, and majorityparty leadership decides when to place it for consideration.
When the bill comes up for consideration, debate starts whereeach congress member may introduce amendments or filibusterit.
Once debate is over, the vote of simple majority passes the bill.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Legislative process of the US Congress:
A bill is introduced to the congress (by any congress member).
It is referred to appropriate committee (where it may beaccepted, amended, or rejected).
If approved, the bill is reported to the congress, and majorityparty leadership decides when to place it for consideration.
When the bill comes up for consideration, debate starts whereeach congress member may introduce amendments or filibusterit.
Once debate is over, the vote of simple majority passes the bill.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Legislative process of the US Congress:
A bill is introduced to the congress (by any congress member).
It is referred to appropriate committee (where it may beaccepted, amended, or rejected).
If approved, the bill is reported to the congress, and majorityparty leadership decides when to place it for consideration.
When the bill comes up for consideration, debate starts whereeach congress member may introduce amendments or filibusterit.
Once debate is over, the vote of simple majority passes the bill.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Legislative process of the US Congress:
A bill is introduced to the congress (by any congress member).
It is referred to appropriate committee (where it may beaccepted, amended, or rejected).
If approved, the bill is reported to the congress, and majorityparty leadership decides when to place it for consideration.
When the bill comes up for consideration, debate starts whereeach congress member may introduce amendments or filibusterit.
Once debate is over, the vote of simple majority passes the bill.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
Legislative process of the US Congress:
A bill is introduced to the congress (by any congress member).
It is referred to appropriate committee (where it may beaccepted, amended, or rejected).
If approved, the bill is reported to the congress, and majorityparty leadership decides when to place it for consideration.
When the bill comes up for consideration, debate starts whereeach congress member may introduce amendments or filibusterit.
Once debate is over, the vote of simple majority passes the bill.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
This suggests:
1 Government spending to district i, si ∈ [0, 1], increases witheffort ai and decreases with effort of all other congress membersaj, j 6= i.
2 Legislative process is biased in favor of majority party maj.Ceteris paribus, congress member affiliated with maj finds iteasier to bring spending to home district than congress memberaffiliated with min.
Spending allocation is modeled with the Tullock contest successfunction (1980):
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)=
βiai∑nmaj+nmin
j=1 βjajif max
a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
> 0,
1nmaj+nmin
otherwise,
where βi = β > 1 if i ∈ maj, βi = 1 if i ∈ min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
This suggests:
1 Government spending to district i, si ∈ [0, 1], increases witheffort ai and decreases with effort of all other congress membersaj, j 6= i.
2 Legislative process is biased in favor of majority party maj.Ceteris paribus, congress member affiliated with maj finds iteasier to bring spending to home district than congress memberaffiliated with min.
Spending allocation is modeled with the Tullock contest successfunction (1980):
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)=
βiai∑nmaj+nmin
j=1 βjajif max
a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
> 0,
1nmaj+nmin
otherwise,
where βi = β > 1 if i ∈ maj, βi = 1 if i ∈ min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
This suggests:
1 Government spending to district i, si ∈ [0, 1], increases witheffort ai and decreases with effort of all other congress membersaj, j 6= i.
2 Legislative process is biased in favor of majority party maj.Ceteris paribus, congress member affiliated with maj finds iteasier to bring spending to home district than congress memberaffiliated with min.
Spending allocation is modeled with the Tullock contest successfunction (1980):
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)=
βiai∑nmaj+nmin
j=1 βjajif max
a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
> 0,
1nmaj+nmin
otherwise,
where βi = β > 1 if i ∈ maj, βi = 1 if i ∈ min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
Model
This suggests:
1 Government spending to district i, si ∈ [0, 1], increases witheffort ai and decreases with effort of all other congress membersaj, j 6= i.
2 Legislative process is biased in favor of majority party maj.Ceteris paribus, congress member affiliated with maj finds iteasier to bring spending to home district than congress memberaffiliated with min.
Spending allocation is modeled with the Tullock contest successfunction (1980):
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)=
βiai∑nmaj+nmin
j=1 βjajif max
a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
> 0,
1nmaj+nmin
otherwise,
where βi = β > 1 if i ∈ maj, βi = 1 if i ∈ min.Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelCongress Members and Party Leaders
Congress members want to bring spending to their homedistricts:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Party leaders (majority leader and minority leader) care abouttotal share of spending directed into party’s partisan districts.Party leadership’s objective – party line.
Majority party line – to maximize∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Minority party line – to maximize∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelCongress Members and Party Leaders
Congress members want to bring spending to their homedistricts:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Party leaders (majority leader and minority leader) care abouttotal share of spending directed into party’s partisan districts.
Party leadership’s objective – party line.
Majority party line – to maximize∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Minority party line – to maximize∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelCongress Members and Party Leaders
Congress members want to bring spending to their homedistricts:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Party leaders (majority leader and minority leader) care abouttotal share of spending directed into party’s partisan districts.Party leadership’s objective – party line.
Majority party line – to maximize∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Minority party line – to maximize∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelCongress Members and Party Leaders
Congress members want to bring spending to their homedistricts:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Party leaders (majority leader and minority leader) care abouttotal share of spending directed into party’s partisan districts.Party leadership’s objective – party line.
Majority party line – to maximize∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Minority party line – to maximize∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelCongress Members and Party Leaders
Congress members want to bring spending to their homedistricts:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Party leaders (majority leader and minority leader) care abouttotal share of spending directed into party’s partisan districts.Party leadership’s objective – party line.
Majority party line – to maximize∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Minority party line – to maximize∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders can impose a certain type of control – partydiscipline – on their congress members.
Party discipline – ability of party leader to get his congressmembers to support party line rather than to follow specialinterests of their home districts.Party leaders can impose discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0,which determine strength with which congress members sharepreferences of their party leadership.Net objective function of congress member i ∈ maj:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Net objective function of congress member i ∈ min:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders can impose a certain type of control – partydiscipline – on their congress members.Party discipline – ability of party leader to get his congressmembers to support party line rather than to follow specialinterests of their home districts.
Party leaders can impose discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0,which determine strength with which congress members sharepreferences of their party leadership.Net objective function of congress member i ∈ maj:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Net objective function of congress member i ∈ min:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders can impose a certain type of control – partydiscipline – on their congress members.Party discipline – ability of party leader to get his congressmembers to support party line rather than to follow specialinterests of their home districts.Party leaders can impose discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0,which determine strength with which congress members sharepreferences of their party leadership.
Net objective function of congress member i ∈ maj:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Net objective function of congress member i ∈ min:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders can impose a certain type of control – partydiscipline – on their congress members.Party discipline – ability of party leader to get his congressmembers to support party line rather than to follow specialinterests of their home districts.Party leaders can impose discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0,which determine strength with which congress members sharepreferences of their party leadership.Net objective function of congress member i ∈ maj:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Net objective function of congress member i ∈ min:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders can impose a certain type of control – partydiscipline – on their congress members.Party discipline – ability of party leader to get his congressmembers to support party line rather than to follow specialinterests of their home districts.Party leaders can impose discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0,which determine strength with which congress members sharepreferences of their party leadership.Net objective function of congress member i ∈ maj:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Net objective function of congress member i ∈ min:
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+ λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− C (ai) .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders bear costs c (λmaj) = λmaj and c (λmin) = λmin ofimposing party discipline.
Majority leader’s problem:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Minority leader’s problem:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders’ incentives are negatively aligned.
Intra-party alignment of incentives: congress member caresnot only about her home district’s interests but also about partyline.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders bear costs c (λmaj) = λmaj and c (λmin) = λmin ofimposing party discipline.
Majority leader’s problem:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Minority leader’s problem:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders’ incentives are negatively aligned.
Intra-party alignment of incentives: congress member caresnot only about her home district’s interests but also about partyline.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders bear costs c (λmaj) = λmaj and c (λmin) = λmin ofimposing party discipline.
Majority leader’s problem:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Minority leader’s problem:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders’ incentives are negatively aligned.
Intra-party alignment of incentives: congress member caresnot only about her home district’s interests but also about partyline.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders bear costs c (λmaj) = λmaj and c (λmin) = λmin ofimposing party discipline.
Majority leader’s problem:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Minority leader’s problem:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders’ incentives are negatively aligned.
Intra-party alignment of incentives: congress member caresnot only about her home district’s interests but also about partyline.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelParty Discipline
Party leaders bear costs c (λmaj) = λmaj and c (λmin) = λmin ofimposing party discipline.
Majority leader’s problem:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Minority leader’s problem:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders’ incentives are negatively aligned.
Intra-party alignment of incentives: congress member caresnot only about her home district’s interests but also about partyline.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelTiming
Timing of events:
Party leaders impose discipline levels λmaj and λmin.
Congress members exert efforts ai, which determine shares ofspending si in each national district.
Game is analyzed backwards to find subgame perfectequilibrium.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelTiming
Timing of events:
Party leaders impose discipline levels λmaj and λmin.
Congress members exert efforts ai, which determine shares ofspending si in each national district.
Game is analyzed backwards to find subgame perfectequilibrium.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelTiming
Timing of events:
Party leaders impose discipline levels λmaj and λmin.
Congress members exert efforts ai, which determine shares ofspending si in each national district.
Game is analyzed backwards to find subgame perfectequilibrium.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Outline Congress Members Discipline Timing
ModelTiming
Timing of events:
Party leaders impose discipline levels λmaj and λmin.
Congress members exert efforts ai, which determine shares ofspending si in each national district.
Game is analyzed backwards to find subgame perfectequilibrium.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember
⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level is higher in min party: λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0.
Intuition: min leader has more stake in imposing discipline than majleader (”disadvantaged” min party gains more than ”advantaged” majparty from same increment of discipline level).
min members exert higher effort: a∗min > a∗maj > 0.
Intuition: maj member has more members from her own party tocare about and less rivals to compete with for spending than minmember⇒ with party discipline, maj member has less incentive toexert effort than does min member.
Total share of spending is greater in maj party:nmajs∗majnmins∗min
= β > 1.
s∗maj > s∗min if β > nmajnmin
, s∗maj ≤ s∗min if β ≤ nmajnmin
.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
With party discipline, per district spending share of maj partydecreases, while that of min party increases, relative to allocationwith no party discipline:
s∗maj < s0maj, s∗min > s0
min.
Party discipline favors min party and leads to less inequitabledistribution of government spending.
min members exert higher effort under party discipline:
a∗min > a0min.
maj members’ effort might increase or decrease with partydiscipline (depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
With party discipline, per district spending share of maj partydecreases, while that of min party increases, relative to allocationwith no party discipline:
s∗maj < s0maj, s∗min > s0
min.
Party discipline favors min party and leads to less inequitabledistribution of government spending.
min members exert higher effort under party discipline:
a∗min > a0min.
maj members’ effort might increase or decrease with partydiscipline (depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
With party discipline, per district spending share of maj partydecreases, while that of min party increases, relative to allocationwith no party discipline:
s∗maj < s0maj, s∗min > s0
min.
Party discipline favors min party and leads to less inequitabledistribution of government spending.
min members exert higher effort under party discipline:
a∗min > a0min.
maj members’ effort might increase or decrease with partydiscipline (depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
With party discipline, per district spending share of maj partydecreases, while that of min party increases, relative to allocationwith no party discipline:
s∗maj < s0maj, s∗min > s0
min.
Party discipline favors min party and leads to less inequitabledistribution of government spending.
min members exert higher effort under party discipline:
a∗min > a0min.
maj members’ effort might increase or decrease with partydiscipline (depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
no discipline party disciplineλmaj = λmin = 0 λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0
amaj a0maj ? a∗maj
efforts ∨ ∧amin a0
min < a∗min
smaj s0maj > s∗maj
per district ∨ ?spending smin s0
min < s∗min
nmajsmaj nmajs0maj > nmajs∗maj
total ∨ ∨spending nminsmin nmins0
min < nmins∗min
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
no discipline party disciplineλmaj = λmin = 0 λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0
amaj a0maj ? a∗maj
efforts ∨ ∧amin a0
min < a∗min
smaj s0maj > s∗maj
per district ∨ ?spending smin s0
min < s∗min
nmajsmaj nmajs0maj > nmajs∗maj
total ∨ ∨spending nminsmin nmins0
min < nmins∗min
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
no discipline party disciplineλmaj = λmin = 0 λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0
amaj a0maj ? a∗maj
efforts ∨ ∧amin a0
min < a∗min
smaj s0maj > s∗maj
per district ∨ ?spending smin s0
min < s∗min
nmajsmaj nmajs0maj > nmajs∗maj
total ∨ ∨spending nminsmin nmins0
min < nmins∗min
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
no discipline party disciplineλmaj = λmin = 0 λ∗min > λ∗maj > 0
amaj a0maj ? a∗maj
efforts ∨ ∧amin a0
min < a∗min
smaj s0maj > s∗maj
per district ∨ ?spending smin s0
min < s∗min
nmajsmaj nmajs0maj > nmajs∗maj
total ∨ ∨spending nminsmin nmins0
min < nmins∗min
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level of minority party is higher than that ofmajority party.
Minority party members exert more effort and might evenget a higher per district share of government spending thanmembers of majority party. (The latter happens if relativeadvantage of majority party in allocating government spending issufficiently low.)
⇒ Party discipline favors minority party, which gets greaterper district share of spending relative to the allocation with noparty discipline.
Party discipline leads to less biased distribution of federalresources among national districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level of minority party is higher than that ofmajority party.
Minority party members exert more effort and might evenget a higher per district share of government spending thanmembers of majority party.
(The latter happens if relativeadvantage of majority party in allocating government spending issufficiently low.)
⇒ Party discipline favors minority party, which gets greaterper district share of spending relative to the allocation with noparty discipline.
Party discipline leads to less biased distribution of federalresources among national districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level of minority party is higher than that ofmajority party.
Minority party members exert more effort and might evenget a higher per district share of government spending thanmembers of majority party. (The latter happens if relativeadvantage of majority party in allocating government spending issufficiently low.)
⇒ Party discipline favors minority party, which gets greaterper district share of spending relative to the allocation with noparty discipline.
Party discipline leads to less biased distribution of federalresources among national districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level of minority party is higher than that ofmajority party.
Minority party members exert more effort and might evenget a higher per district share of government spending thanmembers of majority party. (The latter happens if relativeadvantage of majority party in allocating government spending issufficiently low.)
⇒ Party discipline favors minority party, which gets greaterper district share of spending relative to the allocation with noparty discipline.
Party discipline leads to less biased distribution of federalresources among national districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Results
Discipline level of minority party is higher than that ofmajority party.
Minority party members exert more effort and might evenget a higher per district share of government spending thanmembers of majority party. (The latter happens if relativeadvantage of majority party in allocating government spending issufficiently low.)
⇒ Party discipline favors minority party, which gets greaterper district share of spending relative to the allocation with noparty discipline.
Party discipline leads to less biased distribution of federalresources among national districts.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Empirically Testable Predictions
Per district spending share is increasing in discipline strength incorresponding party and decreasing in discipline strength in rivalparty.
Minority leader imposes stronger discipline on his party’scongress members than majority leader.
Total share of government spending of majority party exceedsthat of minority party regardless of discipline strength in bothparties.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Empirically Testable Predictions
Per district spending share is increasing in discipline strength incorresponding party and decreasing in discipline strength in rivalparty.
Minority leader imposes stronger discipline on his party’scongress members than majority leader.
Total share of government spending of majority party exceedsthat of minority party regardless of discipline strength in bothparties.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Empirically Testable Predictions
Per district spending share is increasing in discipline strength incorresponding party and decreasing in discipline strength in rivalparty.
Minority leader imposes stronger discipline on his party’scongress members than majority leader.
Total share of government spending of majority party exceedsthat of minority party regardless of discipline strength in bothparties.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Research
This presentation focuses on specific stylized framework.
More general framework:
relative advantage of maj party β might be related to maj partysize nmaj and min party size nmin;
maj party may take credit for passing a bill, which benefits minmember district;
other powers of congress such as powers to lay and collect taxesand imposts, to pay debts, to provide defense and general welfareof the society, etc.;
endogenous size of government spending.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Research
This presentation focuses on specific stylized framework.
More general framework:
relative advantage of maj party β might be related to maj partysize nmaj and min party size nmin;
maj party may take credit for passing a bill, which benefits minmember district;
other powers of congress such as powers to lay and collect taxesand imposts, to pay debts, to provide defense and general welfareof the society, etc.;
endogenous size of government spending.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Research
This presentation focuses on specific stylized framework.
More general framework:
relative advantage of maj party β might be related to maj partysize nmaj and min party size nmin;
maj party may take credit for passing a bill, which benefits minmember district;
other powers of congress such as powers to lay and collect taxesand imposts, to pay debts, to provide defense and general welfareof the society, etc.;
endogenous size of government spending.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Research
This presentation focuses on specific stylized framework.
More general framework:
relative advantage of maj party β might be related to maj partysize nmaj and min party size nmin;
maj party may take credit for passing a bill, which benefits minmember district;
other powers of congress such as powers to lay and collect taxesand imposts, to pay debts, to provide defense and general welfareof the society, etc.;
endogenous size of government spending.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Research
This presentation focuses on specific stylized framework.
More general framework:
relative advantage of maj party β might be related to maj partysize nmaj and min party size nmin;
maj party may take credit for passing a bill, which benefits minmember district;
other powers of congress such as powers to lay and collect taxesand imposts, to pay debts, to provide defense and general welfareof the society, etc.;
endogenous size of government spending.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Research
This presentation focuses on specific stylized framework.
More general framework:
relative advantage of maj party β might be related to maj partysize nmaj and min party size nmin;
maj party may take credit for passing a bill, which benefits minmember district;
other powers of congress such as powers to lay and collect taxesand imposts, to pay debts, to provide defense and general welfareof the society, etc.;
endogenous size of government spending.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Literature – Formal Models
Informational argument: Strong party discipline informs votersabout candidate’s future policy (Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita2004, Castanheira and Crutzen 2010, Cox and McCubbins 1993,Snyder and Ting 2002).
Commitment to party platforms: Party’s ability to induce ex-postadherence to pre-announced position (Grossman and Helpman 2008).
Ability of party leadership to control its legislators such that theyvote in line with party ideological position (Colomer 2005, Eguia2011, Iaryczower 2008, McGillivray 1997, Patty 2008, Volden andBergman 2006).
Institutional explanation: Vote-of-confidence procedure common inparliamentary democracies creates incentives for cohesion in voting(Diermeier and Feddersen 1998).
Little done with regard to impacts of party discipline on policyoutcomes. This paper contributes to this line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Literature – Formal Models
Informational argument: Strong party discipline informs votersabout candidate’s future policy (Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita2004, Castanheira and Crutzen 2010, Cox and McCubbins 1993,Snyder and Ting 2002).
Commitment to party platforms: Party’s ability to induce ex-postadherence to pre-announced position (Grossman and Helpman 2008).
Ability of party leadership to control its legislators such that theyvote in line with party ideological position (Colomer 2005, Eguia2011, Iaryczower 2008, McGillivray 1997, Patty 2008, Volden andBergman 2006).
Institutional explanation: Vote-of-confidence procedure common inparliamentary democracies creates incentives for cohesion in voting(Diermeier and Feddersen 1998).
Little done with regard to impacts of party discipline on policyoutcomes. This paper contributes to this line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Literature – Formal Models
Informational argument: Strong party discipline informs votersabout candidate’s future policy (Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita2004, Castanheira and Crutzen 2010, Cox and McCubbins 1993,Snyder and Ting 2002).
Commitment to party platforms: Party’s ability to induce ex-postadherence to pre-announced position (Grossman and Helpman 2008).
Ability of party leadership to control its legislators such that theyvote in line with party ideological position (Colomer 2005, Eguia2011, Iaryczower 2008, McGillivray 1997, Patty 2008, Volden andBergman 2006).
Institutional explanation: Vote-of-confidence procedure common inparliamentary democracies creates incentives for cohesion in voting(Diermeier and Feddersen 1998).
Little done with regard to impacts of party discipline on policyoutcomes. This paper contributes to this line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Literature – Formal Models
Informational argument: Strong party discipline informs votersabout candidate’s future policy (Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita2004, Castanheira and Crutzen 2010, Cox and McCubbins 1993,Snyder and Ting 2002).
Commitment to party platforms: Party’s ability to induce ex-postadherence to pre-announced position (Grossman and Helpman 2008).
Ability of party leadership to control its legislators such that theyvote in line with party ideological position (Colomer 2005, Eguia2011, Iaryczower 2008, McGillivray 1997, Patty 2008, Volden andBergman 2006).
Institutional explanation: Vote-of-confidence procedure common inparliamentary democracies creates incentives for cohesion in voting(Diermeier and Feddersen 1998).
Little done with regard to impacts of party discipline on policyoutcomes. This paper contributes to this line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Literature – Formal Models
Informational argument: Strong party discipline informs votersabout candidate’s future policy (Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita2004, Castanheira and Crutzen 2010, Cox and McCubbins 1993,Snyder and Ting 2002).
Commitment to party platforms: Party’s ability to induce ex-postadherence to pre-announced position (Grossman and Helpman 2008).
Ability of party leadership to control its legislators such that theyvote in line with party ideological position (Colomer 2005, Eguia2011, Iaryczower 2008, McGillivray 1997, Patty 2008, Volden andBergman 2006).
Institutional explanation: Vote-of-confidence procedure common inparliamentary democracies creates incentives for cohesion in voting(Diermeier and Feddersen 1998).
Little done with regard to impacts of party discipline on policyoutcomes. This paper contributes to this line.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Related Literature
Related Literature
Empirical literature: Heller & Mershon (2008), Krehbiel(2000), McCarty, Poole & Rosenthal (2001), Snyder &Groseclose (2000).
Literature on inter-group contests: Katz, Nitzan & Rosenberg(1990), Baik (1993), Riaz, Shogren & Johnson (1995), Esteban& Ray (2001), Konrad & Morath (2012).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Problem of congress member i ∈ maj:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Problem of congress member i ∈ min:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Due to symmetry, congress members affiliated with same partywill exert same effort.
amaj – effort of congress member affiliated with maj.
amin – effort of congress member affiliated with min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Problem of congress member i ∈ maj:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Problem of congress member i ∈ min:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Due to symmetry, congress members affiliated with same partywill exert same effort.
amaj – effort of congress member affiliated with maj.
amin – effort of congress member affiliated with min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Problem of congress member i ∈ maj:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Problem of congress member i ∈ min:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Due to symmetry, congress members affiliated with same partywill exert same effort.
amaj – effort of congress member affiliated with maj.
amin – effort of congress member affiliated with min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Problem of congress member i ∈ maj:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmaj
∑j∈maj
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Problem of congress member i ∈ min:
maxai
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)+λmin
∑j∈min
sj(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)−C (ai) .
Due to symmetry, congress members affiliated with same partywill exert same effort.
amaj – effort of congress member affiliated with maj.
amin – effort of congress member affiliated with min.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
TheoremGiven discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0, congress members’ exertefforts amaj (λmaj, λmin) and amin (λmaj, λmin):
amaj (λmaj, λmin) = fmaj (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmajnmaj−1 ,
nmaj−1n2
majotherwise,
amin (λmaj, λmin) =fmin (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,
0 otherwise.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
TheoremGiven discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0, congress members’ exertefforts amaj (λmaj, λmin) and amin (λmaj, λmin):
amaj (λmaj, λmin) = fmaj (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmajnmaj−1 ,
nmaj−1n2
majotherwise,
amin (λmaj, λmin) =fmin (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,
0 otherwise.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
Appendix: Congress Members’ Efforts
Congress Members’ Efforts
amaj (λmaj, λmin) =1β ((1 + λmaj)βnmin − (nmin − 1)) Ω if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,nmaj−1
n2maj
otherwise,
amin (λmaj, λmin) =((1 + λmin) nmaj − β (nmaj − 1)) Ω if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,
0 otherwise,
where
Ω =(1+λmin)nmaj((1+λmaj)βnmin−(nmin−1))+(nmin−1)((1+λmin)nmaj−β(nmaj−1))
(nmaj((1+λmaj)βnmin−(nmin−1))+nmin((1+λmin)nmaj−β(nmaj−1)))2 .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Congress members’ efforts increase with discipline levels intheir corresponding parties:
∂amaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmaj
> 0, ∂amin(λmaj,λmin)∂λmin
> 0.
Spending share increases with discipline level of the party butdecreases with discipline level of the rival party:
∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmaj
> 0, ∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmin
< 0,∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂λmin> 0, ∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂λmaj< 0
maj party relative advantage β increases smaj but decreases smin:
∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂β > 0, ∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂β < 0.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Congress members’ efforts increase with discipline levels intheir corresponding parties:
∂amaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmaj
> 0, ∂amin(λmaj,λmin)∂λmin
> 0.
Spending share increases with discipline level of the party butdecreases with discipline level of the rival party:
∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmaj
> 0, ∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmin
< 0,∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂λmin> 0, ∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂λmaj< 0
maj party relative advantage β increases smaj but decreases smin:
∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂β > 0, ∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂β < 0.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
Congress members’ efforts increase with discipline levels intheir corresponding parties:
∂amaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmaj
> 0, ∂amin(λmaj,λmin)∂λmin
> 0.
Spending share increases with discipline level of the party butdecreases with discipline level of the rival party:
∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmaj
> 0, ∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂λmin
< 0,∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂λmin> 0, ∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂λmaj< 0
maj party relative advantage β increases smaj but decreases smin:
∂smaj(λmaj,λmin)∂β > 0, ∂smin(λmaj,λmin)
∂β < 0.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
TheoremGiven discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0, spending sharessmaj (λmaj, λmin) and smin (λmaj, λmin) are:
smaj (λmaj, λmin) =gmaj (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,1
nmajotherwise,
smin (λmaj, λmin) =gmin (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,
0 otherwise.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisCongress Members’ Problem
TheoremGiven discipline levels λmaj ≥ 0, λmin ≥ 0, spending sharessmaj (λmaj, λmin) and smin (λmaj, λmin) are:
smaj (λmaj, λmin) =gmaj (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,1
nmajotherwise,
smin (λmaj, λmin) =gmin (λmaj, λmin, β, nmaj, nmin) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,
0 otherwise.
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
Appendix: Pork-Barrel Shares
Government Spending Shares
smaj (λmaj, λmin) =1∆ ((1 + λmaj)βnmin − (nmin − 1)) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,1
nmajotherwise,
smin (λmaj, λmin) =1∆ ((1 + λmin) nmaj − β (nmaj − 1)) if β < (1+λmin)nmaj
nmaj−1 ,
0 otherwise,
where
∆ = nmaj ((1 + λmaj)βnmin − (nmin − 1)) +
nmin ((1 + λmin) nmaj − β (nmaj − 1)) .
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
Problem of maj leader:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Problem of min leader:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders simultaneously choose discipline levels.
In equilibrium, λmaj > 0 and λmin > 0 only if nmin >(1+β)2
1+β−β3
where 1 + β − β3 > 0.
Otherwise, either λmin > 0, λmaj = 0 or λmaj = λmin = 0(depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
Problem of maj leader:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Problem of min leader:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders simultaneously choose discipline levels.
In equilibrium, λmaj > 0 and λmin > 0 only if nmin >(1+β)2
1+β−β3
where 1 + β − β3 > 0.
Otherwise, either λmin > 0, λmaj = 0 or λmaj = λmin = 0(depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
Problem of maj leader:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Problem of min leader:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders simultaneously choose discipline levels.
In equilibrium, λmaj > 0 and λmin > 0 only if nmin >(1+β)2
1+β−β3
where 1 + β − β3 > 0.
Otherwise, either λmin > 0, λmaj = 0 or λmaj = λmin = 0(depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
Problem of maj leader:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Problem of min leader:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders simultaneously choose discipline levels.
In equilibrium, λmaj > 0 and λmin > 0 only if nmin >(1+β)2
1+β−β3
where 1 + β − β3 > 0.
Otherwise, either λmin > 0, λmaj = 0 or λmaj = λmin = 0(depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
Problem of maj leader:
maxλmaj
∑i∈maj
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmaj) .
Problem of min leader:
maxλmin
∑i∈min
si(a1, ..., anmaj+nmin
)− c (λmin) .
Party leaders simultaneously choose discipline levels.
In equilibrium, λmaj > 0 and λmin > 0 only if nmin >(1+β)2
1+β−β3
where 1 + β − β3 > 0.
Otherwise, either λmin > 0, λmaj = 0 or λmaj = λmin = 0(depending on parameters’ values).
Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress
Introduction Model Results Appendix Congress Members’ Efforts Shares Party Discipline
AnalysisParty Leaders’ Problem
TheoremIf min party has sufficient number of seats in congress and maj party
advantage is not very high (formally, nmin >(1+β)2
1+β−β3 where
1 + β − β3 > 0) then there is a unique equilibrium:
λ∗maj = nmin−1nmin
1β −
1+β+β2
(1+β)2 ,
λ∗min =nmaj−1
nmajβ − 1+β+β2
(1+β)2 ,
a∗maj =nmajnmin(1+β+β2)
2−(nmaj+β2nmin)(1+β)2
n2majnmin(1+β)4 ,
a∗min =nmajnmin(1+β+β2)
2−(nmaj+β2nmin)(1+β)2
nmajn2min(1+β)4 ,
s∗maj = βnmaj(1+β) ,
s∗min = 1nmin(1+β) .Galina Zudenkova A Model of Party Discipline in Congress