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A GENETIC APPROACH TO DETERMINE RIVER OTTER ABUNDANCE IN
MISSOURI
_______________________________________
A Thesis
presented to
the Faculty of the Graduate School
at the University of Missouri-Columbia
_______________________________________________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
_____________________________________________________
by
REBECCA A. MOWRY
Drs. Matthew E. Gompper and Lori S. Eggert, Thesis Supervisors
JULY 2010
The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the
thesis entitled
A GENETIC APPROACH TO DETERMINE RIVER OTTER ABUNDANCE IN
MISSOURI
presented by Rebecca A. Mowry,
a candidate for the degree of master of science,
and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance.
Matthew E. Gompper
Lori S. Eggert
Charles F. Rabeni
Jeff Beringer
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank everyone who helped me throughout this process, for design
assistance, sample collection, laboratory guidance, and friendship.
I would like to thank the Eggert and Gompper Labs - Stephanie Manka, Bill
Peterman, María José Ruiz-López, Elizabeth O'Hara, Dr. Marissa Ahlering, Dr. Ryan
Monello, Morgan Wehtje, Dr. Abi Vanak, and Anirrudha Belsare - for constant guidance,
patience, and encouragement. Dr. Walter Wehtje and Dr. Ray Semlitsch were
irreplaceable for their guidance in the initial design of my project.
I would also like to thank all the other students in the School of Natural Resources
and the Division of Biological Sciences for friendship, support, and for keeping me sane,
especially (in no particular order) Barb Keller, Chris Hansen, Mike Burfield, Chris Rota,
Gabrielle Coloumbe, Cathy Bodinof, David Jachowski, Lisa Sztukowski, Kate Hertweck,
Judith Toms, Andrew Cox, Sarah Wolken, Jen Hamel, and Sloane Everett.
I am especially grateful to Theresa Schneider for priceless help processing the
seemingly endless amount of scat samples.
Thanks to Columbia for all the music, food, parks, and bike trails, and for being
so conveniently located near my family in Sedalia, Ohio, Texas, and Colorado (to whom
I also, of course, am always extremely grateful). I had an unexpectedly good time here.
Lastly, I wish to thank my committee members for pushing me to excel in this
research project, and making this a much more positive and fulfilling experience than I
ever could have dreamed was possible. I consider myself very fortunate to have been
given the chance to work with you.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ ii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................vii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER 1 - RIVER OTTER (LONTRA CANADENSIS) POPULATION SIZE
ESTIMATION FOR EIGHT RIVERS IN MISSOURI
1. Abstract................................................................................................................. 1
2. Introduction........................................................................................................... 2
3. Methods
Sample collection ............................................................................................. 5
Optimizing microsatellite loci and multiplex PCR ............................................ 6
Calculating genotyping errors ........................................................................... 8
DNA extraction of field samples ....................................................................... 8
Genotyping ....................................................................................................... 9
Sexing .............................................................................................................. 9
Population estimation ..................................................................................... 10
Model development ........................................................................................ 11
4. Results
Optimizing microsatellites and calculating errors ............................................ 13
Genotyping of field samples and population estimation .................................. 14
Model selection .............................................................................................. 15
5. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 16
6. Conclusions......................................................................................................... 23
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
7. Literature Cited ................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER 2 - POPULATION SUBSTRUCTURE AND LANDSCAPE USE BY
RIVER OTTERS IN MISSOURI
1. Abstract............................................................................................................... 45
2. Introduction......................................................................................................... 46
3. Methods .............................................................................................................. 48
4. Results ................................................................................................................ 51
5. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 53
6. Literature Cited ................................................................................................... 57
Appendices .................................................................................................................... 73
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
CHAPTER 1
1. Microsatellites from Beheler et al. (2004, 2005) used for genotyping river otter
(Lontra canadensis) samples in Missouri. Loci ending in “R” or “R2” indicate
primers that were redesigned for shorter product lengths, expressed in base
pairs (bp). For error testing, PCRs were performed at the optimal annealing
temperature (AT) for each locus, but all PCRs were performed at 59°C during
multiplexing of field-collected scat samples. ................................................... 32
2. Results of error testing from matched river otter scat and tissue samples collected
in Missouri. Amplification success rates are provided by locus for scat and
tissue samples. Errors are given as a percentage of total successful
amplifications (PCRs which could be assigned a genotype), and include allelic
dropout and false alleles ................................................................................. 33
3. Description, biological justification, and predictions of each a priori hypothesis
developed for predicting river otter population size in Missouri. Scat samples
were categorized as either fresh (collected within 1 day of defecation) or old
(collected 1-6 days after defecation) ............................................................... 34
4. Genotyping success rates (percent of genotypes which were complete for at least
seven loci) for each river, section, and season. NA indicates that the river was
not sampled for that time period ..................................................................... 35
5. Genotyping success rates by time and type of scat for field samples. “Unknown”
samples are those that were not labeled by type. ............................................. 36
6. Minimum, CAPWIRE, and model estimates for river otters, by river and season.
The predicted densities from the model are rounded to the nearest whole
number ........................................................................................................... 37
7. Minimum population estimates (unique genotypes) obtained per river, given as
total per river and per section/sampling period ................................................ 38
vi
8. Sexes and number of recaptures for each river otter detected. Though otters in each
river are designated with the same letter, no otters were found in multiple
rivers. ............................................................................................................. 39
9. Ranked AICc results for the eight a priori hypotheses predicting population size of
river otters ...................................................................................................... 40
10. Random combinations of river sections to further evaluate the accuracy of the top
two predictive models. “All” combines all river sections (n=27) and contains
more than the minimum number of unique genotypes (63) because of recaptures
of individuals across sections and seasons....................................................... 41
CHAPTER 2
1. Years and locations of river otter reintroductions across the state of Missouri,
USA. Source: J. Beringer, MDC. NWR: National Wildlife Refuge. WA:
Wildlife Area. SL: Slough .............................................................................. 63
2. Minimum otter population sizes, sex ratios, and densities for eight rivers in
Missouri, USA, based on fecal genotyping (described in Chapter 1). For rivers
which were sampled more than once (Big Piney, Roubidoux, and West Piney),
total number of genotypes are given in bold above the counts per season
(accounting for otters which appeared in both seasons) ................................... 64
3. Number of alleles (A), number of alleles corrected for sample size (Arare), and
observed (Ho) and expected (He) heterozygosity values for each microsatellite
in each river otter population in Missouri, USA. ............................................. 65
4. FST values (top half of matrix) and geographic distances (km, bottom half of
matrix) between all population pairs ............................................................... 66
5. Results from the Evanno et al. (2005) test for STRUCTURE simulation of river otter
subpopulations in eight Missouri rivers. .......................................................... 67
6. Summary of daily movement patterns for river otters detected at more than one
latrine site (n), calculated for winter and spring study periods in Missouri, USA.
....................................................................................................................... 68
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
CHAPTER 1
1. Map of study area in central Missouri, USA. Dark circles delineate approximate
latrine site locations. Green circles and star represent locations of major
regional cities. ................................................................................................ 42
2. Error rates and amplification success (with standard deviations) across time,
averaged across all loci ................................................................................... 43
3. Relationships between the two most supported candidate variables and otter
density. The top model predicting otter density, H8, incorporated both variables,
whereas the next model H5 used only scats per latrine. .................................... 44
CHAPTER 2
1. Isolation by distance analysis showing relationship between genetic distance (FST)
and geographic distance in kilometers. Typically, this relationship is linear, as
individuals in adjacent populations linked by movement and dispersal are more
genetically similar. In the Missouri river otter populations, no such relationship
exists (Mantel test, p = 0.202). ........................................................................ 69
2. Distribution of the five cluster assignments suggested by STRUCTURE. Unlike
Figure 3, which displays only the dominant cluster assignments for each
individual, this analysis represents all cluster likelihoods averaged for all
individuals per river. CO, CR, BP, RO, and OF showed strong cluster
homogeneity (i.e. one dominant assignment likelihood), whereas WP, NI, and
MA were less likely to be dominated by a single cluster. ................................ 70
3. Geographic representation of STRUCTURE simulations, displaying only dominant
cluster assignment(s) for each otter per population weighted with the strength
(% likelihood) of that assignment. Otters which assigned equally to multiple
clusters were divided; e.g. Niangua (8) included two otters, but one was equally
likely to assign to clusters B and C, while the other otter more strongly assigned
to Cluster D. Size of pie charts corresponds to sample size (number of otters in
the population)................................................................................................ 71
viii
4. Average daily movement rate of female vs. male river otters across both seasons
(a) and for males in spring vs. winter (b). Bold lines indicate the median
distance traveled per day, with minimum and maximum values indicated by the
dashed lines. Note the two female outliers in 5(a), including the otter with the
greatest recorded movement rate for this study (3.2 km/day)........................... 72
ix
A GENETIC APPROACH TO ESTIMATE RIVER OTTER ABUNDANCE IN
MISSOURI
Rebecca Mowry
Drs. Matthew Gompper and Lori Eggert, Thesis Advisors
ABSTRACT
Extirpated from Missouri by the 1930s, river otters (Lontra canadensis) were
reintroduced by the Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC) from 1982-1992. Since
the reintroductions, concerns over the legitimacy of otter trapping and the predator’s
effects on sport fish populations have sparked controversy. The MDC responded by
increasing efforts to monitor river otter populations, using latrine site counts to measure
relative abundance across several rivers in Missouri. However, the actual number of
otters represented by these counts was unknown. To address this question, I extracted
DNA from scat samples collected along 8 rivers in the winter and spring of 2009, using
10 microsatellite markers plus sexing markers to estimate the number and sex of otters. I
then developed a model to estimate population size from latrine site index variables,
observing that the number of scats per latrine and the density of active latrines across the
river best predicted population size. I then used the genotypes to calculate the genetic
diversity of the otter populations, evaluate the distribution of genotype clusters across the
landscape, and track otter movements between latrines. Unexpected genetic similarities
indicated that otters translocated to different areas may have come from the same source
populations. Overall, this project has demonstrated the utility of genetic methods for
estimating otter abundance, provided insight into the genetic diversity of the populations,
and presented a model for inexpensive monitoring of river otter populations in the future.
1
CHAPTER 1
RIVER OTTER (LONTRA CANADENSIS) POPULATION SIZE ESTIMATION
FOR EIGHT RIVERS IN MISSOURI
ABSTRACT
River otters (Lontra canadensis) were believed to have been extirpated from the state of
Missouri by the mid-1930s. Over a ten-year period beginning in 1982, the Missouri
Department of Conservation (MDC) reintroduced 845 river otters to 43 sites across the
state. Since the reintroduction, MDC has used various estimators to assess otter
abundance, including analyses of survival rates of the reintroduced otters and
reproductive rates based on necropsies of otters harvested during the first Missouri
trapping season in 1996. The resulting abundance estimates differed widely. Here I assess
the value of latrine site monitoring as a mechanism for quantifying river otter abundance.
Analyses of fecal DNA to identify individual animals may result in improved population
estimates and have been used for a variety of mammal species, but using these methods
for otters remains problematic. I optimized laboratory protocols, redesigned existing
microsatellite primers, and calculated genotyping error rates to enhance genotyping
success for a large quantity of samples. I also developed a method for molecular sexing. I
then extracted DNA from 1426 scat samples and anal sac secretions (anal jelly) found
during latrine site counts along eight rivers in southern Missouri in 2009. Error rates were
low for the redesigned microsatellites. I obtained genotypes at 7-10 microsatellite loci for
24% of samples, observing highest success for anal jelly samples (71%) and lowest for
2
fresh samples (collected within one day of defecation). Sixty-three total otters (41 males,
22 females) were identified in eight rivers, ranging from two in the Niangua River to 14
in the Big Piney and Osage Fork of the Gasconade Rivers. Density estimates ranged from
0.069 to 0.511 otters per km. Lincoln-Petersen and CAPWIRE mark-recapture estimators
were used to quantify abundance in rivers when there were sufficient data for the
analyses, and both analyses resulted in population estimations similar to the minimum
genotyping estimate. In addition, I used linear regression to contrast models predicting
population size using latrine site indices easily collected in the field, and the most
supported model combined scats per latrine and latrines per km to predict abundance.
INTRODUCTION
In Missouri, the Nearctic river otter (Lontra canadensis) is the apex predator of aquatic
ecosystems and was believed to be extirpated from the state by the mid-1930s (Bennitt
and Nagel 1937). In 1982, the Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC) initiated
recovery efforts, translocating 845 otters (primarily from Louisiana, but also from
Arkansas and Ontario) over a 10-year period to 43 sites across the state (Hamilton 1998).
In 1996, in response to high population estimates obtained from mathematical models
based on the survival rates of the translocated otters (Erickson and McCullough 1987), as
well as reports that otters were adversely affecting wild and farm pond fish populations,
the MDC initiated a state-wide trapping season that resulted in a harvest of 1054 otters.
The MDC then began utilizing samples obtained from harvested otters to estimate
population sizes based on reproductive rates and age/sex structure. Subsequent
population estimates have produced inconsistent results, the most recent of which
projected the population in the year 2000 to be as high as 18,211 individuals (Gallagher
3
1999). Because of the discrepancies and concerns that these numbers may be
overestimates, early trapping seasons were controversial (Goedeke and Rikoon 2008).
The abundance of otters is a critical information gap that needs to be filled to better
address these controversies.
Since 2001, MDC has been counting latrine sites along Ozark rivers (Roubidoux
Creek, Big Piney River, West Piney Creek, Niangua River, Osage Fork of the Gasconade
River, Current River, Courtois Creek and Maries River) to estimate relative otter
densities. River otters use latrine sites for defecation and intraspecific communication
(Macdonald and Mason 1987, Melquist and Hornocker 1983), with social groups
typically using sites together and returning to the same sites throughout the season
(Gallant et al. 2007). Counting latrine sites to estimate abundance may not accurately
represent river otter populations, however, as latrine site use may vary both seasonally
and yearly, and latrine site numbers eventually plateau due to the tendency of multiple
otters to use latrines (Gallant et al. 2007). Thus there is a need to test the value of latrine
site counts for estimating river otter populations.
Analyses of fecal DNA to identify individual animals may facilitate an improved
population estimate and has been used to survey a variety of mammal species such as
wolves (Canis lupus; Lucchini et al. 2002, Cariappa et al. 2008), snow leopards (Uncia
uncia; Janecka et al. 2008), coyotes (C. latrans; Kays et al. 2008), Eurasian badgers
(Meles meles; Tuyttens et al. 2001), and forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis; Eggert et
al. 2003, 2007). However, fecal DNA is typically degraded and exists in small quantities
compared to DNA from blood or tissue samples, making extraction and polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) amplification problematic (Schwartz et al. 2006). Novel laboratory
4
techniques have been developed to alleviate these problems, and field work has
emphasized the importance of obtaining the freshest of samples to reduce the extent of
DNA degradation. However, extracting and genotyping DNA from otter (Lontra and
Lutra spp.) scat remains notably problematic. Dallas et al. (2003) hypothesized that
Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) DNA degrades at a much faster rate than DNA extracted from
feces of other carnivores, and Prigioni et al. (2006) suggested the small size of otter scat
may contribute to extraction problems. Additionally, river otters show seasonal prey
switching in some habitats (Roberts 2008), which may affect the quality of the scat
samples collected during spring. Genotyping success may also be affected by the humid
environments typical of the streamside and riparian habitats used by otters (Farrell et al.
2000).
Nonetheless, scat samples of river otters are relatively easy to find due to the
exposed nature of the communal latrines, the tendency for multiple otters to use a single
latrine, and the general restriction of the animal to the immediate banks of the river
transect. By genotyping scat samples at a panel of polymorphic microsatellite loci,
individuals can be distinguished and counted to produce minimum size estimates (i.e. the
total number of unique genotypes identified). In addition, data analysis programs such as
CAPWIRE (Miller et al. 2005) have been developed for noninvasive genetic surveys to
estimate sizes of small populations (<100 individuals) by incorporating recaptures in a
single session as well as capture heterogeneity. Furthermore, simple Lincoln-Petersen
models can be used to estimate abundance when closed populations are sampled more
than once.
I redesigned microsatellite loci to amplify shorter fragments (Kohn and Wayne
5
1997), optimized multiplex PCRs, and developed a method for molecular sexing. I then
extracted DNA from 1426 samples collected along stretches of eight rivers in southern
Missouri, USA in 2009. I genotyped these samples to estimate otter abundance and sex
ratios in each river, and compared my estimates with CAPWIRE and Lincoln-Petersen
estimation whenever possible. Finally, with this data, I developed and compared a priori
hypotheses for predicting population size using latrine site indices.
METHODS
Sample collection
Field collection of scat samples occurred between 6 January and 23 April 2009 along
stretches of eight rivers in south-central Missouri, USA (Fig. 1): Big Piney (23.5 km),
Courtois (22.4 km), Current (27.4 km), Maries (27.2 km), Niangua (29.0 km), Osage
Fork of the Gasconade (31.7 km), Roubidoux (34.4 km), and West Piney (24.8 km).
River otters have been shown to decrease movement through their home ranges during
winter (Gallant et al. 2007), maximizing the likelihood of system closure during this
period. In addition, river otters increase use of latrine sites for scent-marking during the
breeding season (December - April; Hamilton and Eadie 1964, Stevens and Serfass
2008), potentially facilitating increased collection of anal jelly. Two rivers (Big Piney
and Roubidoux) were sampled in different seasons, once in January and again in April.
Furthermore, on the Roubidoux, Courtois, and Current Rivers, sampling occurred twice
during the winter to allow mark-recapture population calculations.
Two canoes with two technicians each scouted both banks of each river, marking
latrine sites and clearing all scat and anal jelly. After six days, the technicians returned to
each latrine site and collected all scats. Samples estimated to have been deposited within
6
one day were marked “fresh”, and samples deposited between one and six days were
marked “old”. These classifications were based on moisture content, appearance, and
odor, and I acknowledge the possibility of overlap and miscategorization. Anal jelly
samples were recorded separately and not categorized as fresh or old. Technicians
collected each scat sample in a separate sealable plastic bag. Upon returning to the field
station, all samples were stored at -20°C. I did not use a storage solution due to the scale
of the project (>1400 samples) and the need for rapid scat collection in the field.
The MDC also provided matching scat and tissue samples from 34 river otters
harvested in Missouri. Scat samples were removed from carcasses and extracted once per
day for up to 7 days, to test for differences in DNA extraction success and genotyping
error rates for different-aged scats. Scats were refrigerated between sampling days.
Optimizing microsatellite loci and multiplex PCR
I selected ten microsatellite loci identified by Beheler et al. (2004, 2005), choosing those
with no obvious deviance from Hardy Weinberg equilibrium, high allelic diversity, and
low to no frequency of null alleles. Kohn and Wayne (1997) noted the importance of
targeting smaller fragments when amplifying DNA from feces, due to the lower quality
of DNA available. Thus, I designed new primers for nine of the ten loci to amplify
shorter fragments of target DNA, amplifying less of the flanking region surrounding the
repeat region (Table 1).
DNA extractions from the 34 matched scat and tissue samples were performed by
MDC personnel using DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kits and QIAamp Mini Stool Kits
(QIAGEN) and the manufacturer’s protocols. Using DNA extracted from tissues, I tested
each microsatellite locus individually along an annealing temperature gradient to
7
determine the optimal annealing temperature. All PCRs were done in a hood that was
decontaminated with UV light between uses, with aerosol barrier pipet tips to prevent
contamination. I performed PCRs in 25 μl volumes containing 1X PCR Gold buffer
(Applied Biosystems), 2.0 μM deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs), 0.4 μM each
unlabeled forward and reverse primers, 0.8X bovine serum albumin (BSA), 2.0 mM
MgCl2 solution, 0.5 u AmpliTaq Gold© DNA polymerase (Applied Biosystems), and 1.0
μl (15-50 ng) DNA extracted from the tissue of one harvested river otter. The PCR
profile consisted of an initial cycle of 95°C for 10 minutes; followed by 35 cycles of
denaturation at 95°C for 1 minute, a variable annealing temperature gradient (53-60°C)
for 1 minute, and primer extension at 72°C for 1 minute; followed by a final extension
cycle of 72°C for 10 minutes. Each reaction included a negative control to detect
contamination. All loci were then tested for polymorphism on DNA extracted from
tissues of seven harvested otters.
All loci amplified well at an annealing temperature of 59°C. I designed two
multiplex reactions of five loci labeled with fluorescent dyes (Table 1) for amplifying and
genotyping the field samples. PCRs were performed in 10 μl volumes containing 5.0 μl
Master multiplex mix (QIAGEN), 0.5 μM diluted primer mix, 0.8X BSA, and 1.2 μl fecal
DNA extract. The PCR profile consisted of an initial cycle of 95°C for 15 minutes;
followed by 40 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 0.5 minutes, primer annealing at 59°C
for 1.5 minutes, and primer extension at 72°C for 1 minute; and a final extension cycle at
60°C for 30 minutes. Each reaction included a positive control to standardize allele
scoring and a negative control to detect contamination.
Calculating genotyping errors
8
I amplified DNA from the 34 matched scat and tissue samples individually for each
locus, combining PCR products with different fluorescent labels for fragment analysis
(Table 1). Fragment analysis was performed at the University of Missouri DNA Core
Facility in a 3730 96-capillary DNA Analyzer with Liz 600 size standard (Applied
Biosystems). I analyzed results using GeneMarker™ AFLP/Genotyping Software
(Softgenetics LLC, State College, PA) and assigned genotypes manually.
I computed the rates of successful amplification, allelic dropout and false alleles
across time (scat age 0-7 days) and among microsatellite loci for the matched scat and
tissue samples. I calculated rates of allelic dropout and false alleles by dividing the
number of amplifications with these errors by the total number of genotypes (Broquet and
Petit 2004). I tested for significant deviations from heterozygosity values expected under
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and for linkage disequilibrium in GENEPOP 4.0.9 (Raymond
and Rousset 1995). I also calculated the probability of identity (PID, Paetkau and
Strobeck 1994) and PID for randomly sampled siblings (PIDsib, Waits 2001) to determine
the power of the set of microsatellite loci to differentiate individuals.
DNA extraction of field samples
I extracted DNA from the field samples in a separate extraction room with and equipment
and supplies dedicated to noninvasively-collected samples. I selected approximately 180
mg of scat using either razorblades or forceps, choosing pieces of scat from various areas
of each sample, especially the ends (Fike et al. 2004). To increase DNA yields, I
followed the extraction protocol recommended in the QIAamp Mini Stool Kit (QIAGEN)
for isolation of DNA from stool for human DNA analysis, with the following
modifications: (1) after addition of the Inhibitex© tablets, samples were centrifuged for 5
9
minutes instead of 3; and (2) the incubation period for the final elution was extended
from 1 minute to 10 minutes. For every 49 samples (one QIAGEN kit), I included a
negative extraction to control for reagent contamination. I stored extractions and the
remainder of the scat immediately at -20°C.
Genotyping
I tested each extraction using two microsatellite loci (RIO07R and RIO16R) that
exhibited high amplification success rates during previous error testing (Table 2). I used
the PCR protocol for individual loci, increasing the number of cycles to 45. I then
repeated PCRs at all 10 microsatellite loci for samples that amplified at one or both of the
screening loci using the multiplex protocol.
To generate consensus genotypes, I used the comparative method (Frantz et al.
2003, Hansen et al. 2008), confirming heterozygotes after two matching genotypes, and
homozygotes after three (see Appendices 2 and 3 for a more detailed description of the
genotyping protocol). Occasionally, genotyping was repeated for up to five PCR runs to
confirm a genotype. All genotypes were assigned by the same researcher to avoid bias.
Samples that failed to generate consensus genotypes across seven or more loci (based on
PIDsib calculations; see Results) were discarded from further analysis. I then compared
genotypes manually for identification of unique individuals and recognition of recaptures.
Sexing
Primers developed by Dallas et al. (2000) to amplify the male-specific SRY gene in
Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) were redesigned to amplify the Nearctic river otter SRY
gene, resulting in a 111-bp fragment (SRY2F: 5'-GAGAATCCCCAAATGCAAAA-3'
and SRY2R: 5'- CTGTATTCTCTGCGCCTCCT-3'). I used this primer set in conjunction
10
with primers designed for Eurasian otters to amplify the zinc-finger protein gene
(ZFX/ZFY) in both males and females [using primers ZFXYRb (Mucci and Randi 2007)
and P1-5EZ (Aasen and Medrano 1990)]. Combining these two methods resulted in
amplification of the SRY gene in males, as well as amplification of the larger ZFX/ZFY
gene in both sexes to confirm positive amplification and eliminate false female calls (e.g.
electrophoresis of fragments would result in two bands for males, and one band for
females).
PCRs were performed in 25 μl volumes, using the same protocol for primer
redesign and optimization, except that the number of cycles was increased to 50, the
annealing temperature was 57°C, and 3.0 μl of DNA extract was used. Each reaction
included a negative control to detect contamination and two positive controls (DNA from
tissue samples of a known male and female) to confirm successful PCR amplification.
Females were confirmed after at least three positive PCR runs showing amplification of
the ZFX/ZFY fragment only, and males were confirmed after at least two positive PCR
runs showing amplification of both fragments.
Population estimation
The minimum population size for each river was determined by counting the number of
unique genotypes. Many methods exist for extrapolating noninvasive genetic data to
account for unidentified individuals, such as rarefaction curves, maximum likelihood
curves, and Bayesian methods; simulations by Petit and Valiere (2006) concluded that
Bayesian methods provided the most accurate estimates of true population size, but were
still biased due to the models’ inability to incorporate capture heterogeneity. Thus, I used
the computer program CAPWIRE (Miller et al. 2005) to estimate abundance in the entire
11
river (i.e. not each individual section) based on a single sampling session. Likelihood
ratio tests were conducted to determine the presence of capture heterogeneity. Where
heterogeneity was confirmed, the Two Innate Rates Model (TIRM) was used to estimate
population size. If capture heterogeneity was not confirmed, the Even Capture Probability
Model (ECM) was used. When rivers were sampled in both winter and spring, I
calculated population size for each season.
For those rivers that were resampled after an additional 6-day period (Courtois
and Current; not enough samples were successfully genotyped to allow this analysis for
the Roubidoux), a modified Lincoln-Petersen model (Chapman 1951) was also used to
estimate population size (N) using the equations
where M equals the number of individuals identified in the first session (6 days), C equals
the number of individuals identified in the second session (12 days), and R equals the
number of individuals identified in the first session which were “recaptured” in the
second session. Population closure was assumed based on the short time span between
sampling periods, and the tendency for river otters to restrict movements during winter
months (Reid et al. 1994, Gallant et al. 2007).
Model Development
I used an information-theoretic approach to contrast the performance of a series of
noninvasive relative abundance indices to predict actual river otter population size.
Because the models needed to reflect indices that could be easily collected during field
12
sampling, the following variables were included in the models (Table 3): number of
active latrines (latrines which contained scat 6 days after clearing), total scat samples,
average scats per latrine, number of anal jellies, number of fresh (< 1 day old) samples,
and number of old (1-6 days old) samples. I did not include interaction terms due to
uncertain biological justification and the possibility of obtaining negative abundance
estimates when applying the model equation to latrine site indices. To account for
differences in river and section length, all indices (except scats per latrine) were
calculated as densities (e.g. scats per km), using otter density (instead of raw population
size) as the response variable.
Preliminary testing in R (Versions 2.5.0 and 2.10.0) suggested the presence of one
highly influential data point (Big Piney, spring, Section 2). The Big Piney spring
population was the only one in which an even sex ratio was observed (and was the only
population female-biased in winter), and CAPWIRE results indicated that this river
contained more individuals than were identified (see Results); thus, I removed this data
point from the subsequent analyses. I also added one control data point representing the
fact that a minimum of one fresh scat found would indicate the presence of least one
otter. In addition, to account for variation in confidence due to different rates of
genotyping success (Table 4), I weighted each data point by the genotyping success rate
(weighted as deviation from the 24% average, where the weight of data points with
greater than average genotyping success was > 1.0 and the weight of data points with
lower than average genotyping success was between 0 and 1.0). (See Appendix 4 for data
set.)
Linear models for all hypotheses were generated using R, and Akaike’s
13
Information Criterion corrected for small sample size (AICc; Burnham and Anderson
2004) was used to evaluate the relative support of each model. Following identification of
the model with the highest Akaike weight (wi), I applied the resulting equation to the
removed outlier to determine the ability of the model to predict population size of that
river section. In addition, I applied the equations of the two top models to 20 random
river combinations to evaluate the predictive power of the models at variable sample
sizes.
RESULTS
Optimizing microsatellites and calculating errors
All ten loci (nine of which were redesigned) chosen from Beheler et al. (2004, 2005)
were polymorphic in Missouri river otters (Table 2). Overall error rates ranged from
0.013 (RIO06R) to 0.110 (RIO15R), with a multi-locus average of 0.059. Rates of allelic
dropout and false alleles were similar (0.028 and 0.031, respectively). GENEPOP analysis
indicated that the observed genotypes did not deviate from those expected under Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium, and there was no linkage disequilibrium among loci. The
multilocus probability of identity (PID) was determined to be PID = 4.33x10-14
, and
PIDsib = 2.25x10-5
. Using PID and PIDsib values, I determined that a minimum of seven
loci were needed to differentiate siblings (PIDsib = 5.00x10-4
).
For scats collected from the 34 harvested river otters, the freshest scat samples (0
days) yielded the lowest amplification success rates and the highest error rates (0.491 and
0.126, respectively; Fig. 2). Amplification success increased steadily thereafter, peaking
at day 5 (0.760). Error rates decreased beyond day 0 and showed a slight increase
following day 3.
14
Genotyping of field samples and population estimation
The overall genotyping success rate of field samples across all rivers, seasons, and scat
types was 24% (based on the number of samples for which multi-locus genotypes were
assigned at seven or more loci). Similar to the pattern observed with the harvested otter
samples, I observed a decrease in amplification success between fresh and old samples
(Table 5). The genotyping success rate of anal jelly was significantly higher (71%) than
that of scat (ANOVA, F1, 1411 = 176.45, p < 0.001), and there was a significant difference
between the success rates of old (24%) and fresh (12%) scat (ANOVA, F1, 1310 = 27.16, p
< 0.001). I also observed a difference in genotyping success between winter and spring,
with higher success rates observed in winter (January - March; 26-31%) and lower rates
in spring (April; 18%); however, this effect was not statistically significant.
Sixty-three individuals (41 males, 22 females) were identified across the eight
rivers, ranging from two otters in the Niangua River to 14 otters in the Big Piney River
and Osage Fork of the Gasconade River (Tables 6 and 7). The average density across all
rivers was 0.239 otters per km, with the highest winter density occurring in the Osage
Fork River (0.442 otters per km) and the lowest density occurring in the Niangua River
(0.069 otters per km). Over both seasons, the highest density was in the Big Piney River
(0.511 otters per km). In two of the rivers, I observed a seasonal increase in density;
densities for the Big Piney and Roubidoux Rivers averaged 0.215 otters/km in winter and
0.401 otters/km in spring.
Genotyping success rates per river varied greatly, from 2.7% in the Niangua River
to 100% in the Maries River (Table 4). Fifty-six of the otters had complete genotypes
(genotyped at all ten loci); four individuals lacked genotypes at one locus, two lacked
15
genotypes at two loci, and one lacked genotypes at three loci. All genotypes are presented
in Appendix 1. Recapture rates ranged from 1 to 24 per otter (Table 8). Across all rivers,
the average number of recaptures was 4.5 ± 3.7 (SD) per otter. Of 63 total genotypes
identified, 13 (21%) were captured only once. CAPWIRE estimated the same population
sizes as the minimum in seven of 11 analyses, and five of those had variances of 0 otters
(Table 6). Lincoln-Petersen results for the Courtois and Current Rivers were also the
same as the minimum population size (no variance for Courtois, and a low variance for
Current; Table 6).
To further assess differences in genotyping success among different types of scat,
I evaluated the number of otters that would have been detected if only those scat types
had been collected. Of 63 total otters identified in all eight rivers, 22 individuals were
represented by fresh scat samples only (34%), 33 individuals were represented by anal
jelly samples only (52%), and 58 individuals were represented by old scat samples only
(92%). Forty individuals (63%) were represented by a combination of fresh and anal jelly
samples, and 60 individuals (95%) were represented by old scat samples and anal jelly
samples. Thus the collection of fresh and anal jelly samples added relatively few
additional individuals to the census results.
Model selection
Of eight a priori hypothesis (Tables 3), the top ranked model was H8 (Table 9), which
used scats per latrine and active latrines per km to predict otter density (Fig. 3; r2 =
0.7619, p < 0.001). The regression for H8 generated the equation: otter density = 0.01574
+ 0.03103 (scats per latrine) + 0.18036 (latrines per km). This value multiplied by the
river length (km) results in an estimate of abundance. Overall, the average deviation from
16
the genotyping estimates was 1.46 ± 1.37 (SD) otters. When applied to Big Piney, spring,
section 2 (removed from the regression analysis), the model estimated a total of eight
otters, three below the total identified by genotyping. The maximum underestimate was
3.6 in Roubidoux, winter, section 2 (six otters detected, 2.4 predicted; genotyping success
55%), and the maximum overestimate was 6.2 in Roubidoux, spring, section 1 (three
otters detected, 9.2 predicted; genotyping success 15%).
The model was robust in predicting population size for both sections combined,
accounting for the detection of individuals in both sections. The average deviation from
the minimum genotyping estimate was 2.4 ± 2.1 (SD) otters, the maximum overestimate
was 7.7 in Roubidoux, spring (11 detected, 18.7 predicted, genotyping success 14%), and
the maximum underestimate was 2.6 in Big Piney, spring (12 detected, 9.4 predicted,
genotyping success 24%).
I also tested the top two models on random combinations of river sections
(excluding Niangua; Table 10). Both models tended to overestimate total population size,
H5 slightly more than H8. The average deviation from the genotyping estimate was 5.7
otters for H8 and 6.7 otters for H5 (not including the population estimate of all rivers
pooled, for which H8 overestimated N by 28 otters and H5 by 35 otters). There was no
indication that different sample sizes tended to produce greater deviations.
DISCUSSION
The overall genotyping success of my samples is low (24%) but higher than many similar
studies, especially when considering the number of microsatellite loci used. For river
otters, Ben-David et al. (2004) reported a 33% success rate for scat described as “fresh”,
genotyped for up to seven PCR runs on only one microsatellite locus (RIO05). Hansen et
17
al. (2008) showed a 56% success rate for genotyping at one locus, but that rate dropped to
8% when generating consensus genotypes across four loci; these authors also focused on
collection of the freshest available samples. Guertin et al. (2010) achieved a 12% success
rate for fresh and anal jelly samples genotyped across at least seven loci. For Eurasian
otters (Lutra lutra), Hájková et al. (2009) collected only fresh samples and anal jellies,
repeated PCRs up to 16 times for 10 microsatellite loci, and reported 60% genotyping
success on at least nine loci. I discarded samples that did not provide a consensus
genotype on at least seven loci after 4-5 PCR runs. This design was intended to prevent
errors in otter identification, even though it inherently decreased the overall success rate.
I believe that the increase in genotyping success observed in this study, compared to
previous Nearctic river otter studies, is likely a result of the redesigned primers, which
amplified smaller fragments of DNA.
Genotyping success rates can be influenced by a variety of factors. Fike et al.
(2004) determined that storage method, individual microsatellite used, and type of scat
influenced amplification success and frequency of genotyping errors. Other studies
described the effects of ambient temperature at collection and storage time (Hájková et al.
2006); age of scat (Dallas et al. 2003); and DNA extraction method (Lampa et al. 2008).
Sieving feces to remove prey remains and homogenize unequal epithelial cell distribution
(Kohn et al. 1995, Hansen et al. 2008) or using storage buffers or silica desiccant at
collection (Foran et al. 1997) might have improved my success rate but were not practical
for 1426 samples. Due to time and funding limitations, I did not re-extract failed samples
or perform additional PCR runs to attempt to recover them.
I observed highest amplification and genotyping success in anal jelly samples,
18
consistent with previous studies (Fike et al. 2004, Hájková et al. 2006, Hájková et al.
2009, Coxon et al. 1999, Lampa et al. 2008). However, contrary to suggestions from
other studies using fecal DNA analysis of river otters (Hájková et al. 2009, Ben-David et
al. 2004, Prigioni et al. 2006) as well as the general consensus for fecal-based molecular
ecology studies (e.g. Wasser et al. 1999, Foran et al. 1997), my results suggest that
collection of only very fresh samples from the field may not improve genotyping success
rates. In both field and carcass-collected scat samples, fresh scats had lower genotyping
success rates than older fecal samples (1-6 days after collection). Had I collected only
anal jelly and fresh samples, only 63% of the total individuals would have been detected,
while analysis of only old samples would have represented 92% of the total counted
population. Addition of anal jelly samples to the old samples would only have increased
the population size by two individuals. Therefore, despite the high amplification success
of anal jelly samples, I found that the information they provided was largely redundant.
To determine why I observed lower amplification success for fresh samples, I
tested several post hoc hypotheses, including testing for suboptimal DNA concentration
(too high or too low; Mangiapan 1996) of failed samples with a spectrophotometer and
testing for PCR inhibition by substances in failed samples by “spiking” PCRs of these
samples with DNA from a positive control. I also evaluated the possibility that the DNA
of these samples rubbed off onto the plastic bag before freezing by re-extracting them
using material rinsed off the interior surface of the bag. None of these hypotheses were
supported. Farrell et al. (2000) observed a substantial decrease in amplification success of
canid and felid scat in the wet season in Venezuela compared to the dry season,
suggesting that collection of fresh samples in plastic bags may trap moisture, creating a
19
humid environment inside the bag which may encourage growth of mold or bacteria
during the hours before the sample is frozen. The activity of these organisms may hasten
the rate of DNA degradation, inhibit PCR amplification, or result in a non-uniform
distribution of DNA on the surface of the scat. Using a storage buffer, silica desiccant, or
paper bag for fresh samples, while storing drier (and presumably older) samples in plastic
bags, may be a suitable compromise to enhance genotyping from as many samples as
possible while maintaining the collecting pace necessary for large-scale projects.
Overall, the methods developed in this study were effective for processing the
large number of samples collected at latrine sites, and led to river otter density estimates
comparable to those reported elsewhere. Previous studies of river otters using traditional
field methods (e.g. radio telemetry, snow tracking, and radioisotopes) generated L.
canadensis density estimates of 0.17 - 0.37 otters per km (average 0.26) in western Idaho
(Melquist and Hornocker 1983), 0.26 - 0.45 otters per km of shoreline on an Alaskan
coastline (Bowyer et al. 2003), and a predicted maximum density of 0.40 otters per km of
river or shoreline in the interior west (Melquist and Hornocker 1983, Melquist et al.
2003). In two study areas in Missouri, Erickson et al. (1984) observed densities of 0.13 -
0.25 otters per km. Genotyping studies of Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) found densities of
0.18 - 0.20 otters per km in southern Italy (Prigioni et al. 2006), 0.45 – 0.83 otters per km
in Slovakia and the Czech Republic (Hájková et al. 2009), and 0.17 otters per km along
the Drava River in Hungary (Lanszki et al. 2008). The only published report of density
estimation for Nearctic river otters using genetic methods (Guertin 2009) found densities
between 0.37 - 0.63 otters per km in a coastal population on Vancouver Island, British
Columbia, Canada. Generally, my estimates fell within these ranges.
20
For the Big Piney and Roubidoux Rivers, sampled in both winter and spring, the
population size and density nearly doubled in the spring, despite the lower genotyping
success rates that were typical of that time period and the tendency for otters to increase
latrine visitation during the winter breeding season (Stevens and Serfass 2008).
Furthermore, the sex ratio data indicate that these rivers, as well as the West Piney River,
also became more male-biased in the spring (7M:8F in winter, 16M:9F in spring). Male-
biased sex ratios for river otters across the United States have been reported frequently
(see Melquist and Hornocker 1983 for summary). Hamilton and Eadie (1964) observed
equal sex ratios in winter with a shift toward a male-bias in spring, and Blundell et al.
(2002) suggested that males may increase home range size to increase female encounters
during mating season. In addition, Lauhachinda (1978) observed a male bias when
examining river otter fetuses from harvested pregnant females (173M:100F).Thus, the
increase in population size and male-biased sex ratios observed in spring in my study
sites may reflect an increase in adult male abundance (possibly from movement of
neighboring males into the study transects), birth of young, or both.
In most cases, the population estimates using CAPWIRE were not significantly
different than the minimum size observed through genotyping (Table 6). However, two
rivers deserve additional attention. For the Niangua River, the extremely low sample size
(two individuals with only five captures), combined with the low genotyping success
rates for the river (13%), suggest the population was likely underestimated. The model
based on latrine site density and scats per latrine reflected this uncertainty by predicting a
higher number of otters (Table 6), but CAPWIRE did not. Results derived from
CAPWIRE estimations also predicted a much greater population size than was observed,
21
with wider confidence intervals, for the Big Piney River in both winter and spring. The
genotyping success rates here were high in winter (40%) and average in spring (24%),
despite the low number of anal jellies collected (which have higher genotyping success
rates compared to scat). This disparity was probably due to the lower-than-average otter
recapture rate (3.07) and higher proportion of individuals captured only once (29%). This
discrepancy may also have reflected differences in latrine use by males and females. In
winter, the Big Piney was the only site that showed a female-biased sex ratio, which
shifted to an even sex ratio in spring (when all other rivers were male-biased). If female
otters had recently given birth during the spring, they may have decreased latrine
visitation altogether or restricted use to a few sites close to the den (Melquist and
Hornocker 1983), decreasing recapture rates.
Scat abundance can act as an index to population size (e.g. Houser et al. 2009,
Janecka et al. 2008). Assuming equal detection and constant defecation rates, and one or
more “truthing” exercises using fecal genotyping, one can examine the relationship
between raw scat counts, latrine use, and population size. The relationship between scats
per latrine and latrines per kilometer reflected the number of otters using those sites in a
6-day period (by individual section as well as in combined sections), tending to produce
slight overestimations for combinations of randomly selected river sections (Table 10).
The model implies that population size is predicted not so much by the number of scats
occurring across the study area, but rather by the distribution of those scats at communal
latrine sites (scats per latrine) and the total number of active latrines in the landscape
(latrines per km). It is important to recall that this model is based on surveys of active
latrines, and that returning to latrines after an initial survey to clear scat from the sites is
22
crucial for the model to be effective (ensuring that all scat found was deposited within a
certain time frame). This result reflects that scent-marking by river otters plays an
important role in intra-specific communication (Kruuk 1992), particularly among males
(Rostain et al. 2004), and latrines may serve not only as simple waste defecation locales,
but also as advertisements of reproductive status or territoriality markers.
The model developed here detected possible underestimations of population size
due to low genotyping success rates (e.g. Roubidoux and Niangua Rivers), and did not
show clear problems relating to sex ratio skew (Big Piney River). Although anal jellies
were the most consistent in providing positive genotyping results, I observed a substantial
difference in anal jelly deposition related to sex; of 69 anal jelly samples that could be
assigned to a particular otter, 80% were deposited by males. This evidence that anal
jellies are produced by only a portion of the total population was reflected in the model
selection process, which indicated that anal jelly as a predictive variable was of little
value at predicting total density.
The sex ratio was biased toward males for all rivers except the Big Piney. Three
rivers (Courtois, Maries, and Niangua), which also had the lowest minimum population
sizes, contained males only. The Courtois and Maries Rivers were not stocked with otters
during the initial reintroductions (Chapter 2). Blundell et al. (2002) reported that male
otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska disperse further than females; thus, the low
population size and male-biased sex ratios observed in the Courtois and Maries Rivers
may indicate recent colonization by dispersing males.
In contrast, the Niangua River was stocked with otters in 1988 and 1990 (Chapter
2), and the low genotyping success and likely population underestimation (Table 4)
23
suggest that more otters probably existed in Niangua than were detected by genotyping.
However, the abundance of anal jellies collected here suggests that Niangua probably
also contained a male-biased population, and the abundance estimate derived from the
model predicted a lower population size than the other stocked rivers (Big Piney, Current,
and Osage Fork Rivers). Historically, the otter population in the Niangua River was
believed to be much higher, and trapping in this river from 2003-2006 (MDC,
unpublished data) may have resulted in a population decline. In this case, as in Courtois
and Maries, current patterns may indicate recolonization by males.
CONCLUSIONS
This project demonstrated that noninvasive latrine surveys and fecal genotyping can
provide insight into the population sizes and sex ratios of river otter populations in
Missouri. The model I developed will allow managers to continue monitoring the river
otter population by counting active latrines (following an initial survey to locate and clear
scat), to produce abundance estimates and recognize population trends within or between
rivers. In conjunction with ongoing fish surveys (D. Knuth and J. Beringer, MDC,
unpublished data), these estimates will guide management activities toward the long-term
maintenance of both river otters and fish.
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Mucci, N. and E. Randi. 2007. Sex identification of Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) non-
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31
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32
Table 1. Microsatellites from Beheler et al. (2004, 2005) used for genotyping river otter (Lontra canadensis)
samples in Missouri. Loci ending in “R” or “R2” indicate primers that were redesigned for shorter product
lengths, expressed in base pairs (bp). For error testing, PCRs were performed at the optimal annealing
temperature (AT) for each locus, but all PCRs were performed at 59°C during multiplexing of field-
collected scat samples.
Multiplex PCR
product
(bp)
Optimal
AT
(˚C) Locus Primer sequence (Forward F and Reverse R) Error
testing
Field
samples
RIO01R2
F:Ned-TGAGGTATGGATAGAAGATTGATGA
R:GCTTGACCTTGAGCAACTTACTT
1
2
146-154
59
RIO02R
RIO04R
RIO06R
RIO07R
RIO08R
RIO11
RIO13R*
RIO15R
RIO16R*
F:Vic-TAGAGTGGGGCGCCTAAGTT
R:TTACTCGCCAATGGTTCAGC
F:Pet-TCTGCCTTTTCAAATTCTCCA
R:CCCTTTTCTCCCTTTTCTCTC
F:Ned-TCCTGTTTCACAAAATCAAACAA R:AAAGACCAATAGTTCATCCAGTTC
F:Fam-AAGCACTTCCAGATATCAGTTGC
R:CCGCCTCCCTGTTAGAAGTT
F:Vic-TCCTGAGGCATAAGGAAGACA
R:ACTTGCCTGCTGACATTGAA
F:Fam-TCTTCCACTTTTCAATTTAGGTA
R:GCCCAAAGGTTCACTATCAAG
F:Fam-GCACATGGGCTTTTATGAAGA R:GCACACGTGGTAAGATGAGC
F:Ned-CTGACCCAAAATGAATAACAGAA
R:TTCTGCTTGGTTCAGTGCAT
F:Vic-GCCCGTGGTCACTTTACCT
R:CACAGTAGAGGGACATTTGCAC
1
1
3
2
2
1
2
3
3
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
117-135
98-116
126-138
87-101
104-114
150-160
144-168
137-141
149-161
59
59
59
56
59
56
59
59
59
*Labels switched for field sample genotyping to condense loci into two multiplex reactions while
preventing overlaps in allele ranges.
33
Table 2. Results of error testing from matched river otter scat and tissue samples collected in Missouri.
Amplification success rates are provided by locus for scat and tissue samples. Errors are given as a
percentage of total successful amplifications (PCRs which could be assigned a genotype), and include
allelic dropout and false alleles.
Locus
Number of
alleles
Success rate
(tissue)
Success rate
(scat)
Total errors Allelic
dropout
False
alleles
RIO01R2
7
0.882
0.620
0.092
0.028
0.064
RIO02R
RIO04R
RIO06R
RIO07R
RIO08R
RIO11
RIO13R
RIO15R
RIO16R
Mean
7
6
4
7
7
7
5
3
4
5.7
1.000
0.941
0.588
0.971
1.000
1.000
0.794
0.882
0.882
0.894
0.564
0.570
0.324
0.682
0.665
0.553
0.570
0.698
0.721
0.596
0.044
0.030
0.013
0.032
0.085
0.023
0.031
0.110
0.094
0.059
0.037
0.022
0.000
0.026
0.052
0.023
0.023
0.045
0.037
0.031
0.007
0.008
0.013
0.006
0.033
0.000
0.008
0.065
0.057
0.028
Table 3. Description, biological justification, and predictions of each a priori hypothesis developed for predicting river otter
population size in Missouri. Scat samples were categorized as either fresh (collected within 1 day of defecation) or old
(collected 1-6 days after defecation).
Hypothesis Model* Description; prediction
H1
latperkm
Number of active latrines per km; may increase with population size.
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
Hglobal
inter
scatperkm
jellyperkm
freshperkm
scatperlat
jellyperkm+freshperkm+
oldperkm
scatperlat+
jellyperkm
scatperlat+latperkm
latperkm+scatperkm+
jellyperkm+freshperkm+
oldperkm+scatperlat
intercept only
Total scats per km; may increase with population size.
Anal jellies per km; may increase with population size.
Fresh scats per km; may increase with population size.
Number of scats per latrine site; may increase with population size.
Proportion of each type of scat per km river; population size may be a
function of each otter depositing similar amounts of each type of scat.
Scats per latrine and abundance of anal jellies; population size may be
predicted by a combination of scats per latrine and jelly per km.
Scats per latrine and latrines per km; population size may be predicted by the
average number of scats per latrine, and the number of latrines.
All variables; each index contributes to estimation of population size.
Random effects
34
35
Table 4. Genotyping success rates (percent of genotypes which were complete for at
least seven loci) for each river, section, and season. NA indicates that the river was not
sampled for that time period.
River Section Winter -
0 days
Winter -
6 days
Winter -
12 days
Spring -
6 days
Big Piney
Courtois
Current
Maries
Niangua
Osage Fork
Roubidoux
West Piney
01
02
01
02
01
02
01
02
01
02
01
02
01
02
01
02
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.182
NA
NA
0.308
0.500
0.400
0.375
0.342
0.250
NA
NA
0.027
0.560
0.219
0.356
0.111
0.550
---*
0.333
NA
NA
NA
0.368
0.304
0.290
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.077
NA
NA
NA
0.273
0.211
NA
NA
NA
NA
1.000
0.167
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.145
0.144
0.308
0.184
* = Section was searched, but no scat was found.
36
Table 5. Genotyping success rates by time and type of scat for field samples. “Unknown” samples are
those that were not labeled by type.
Month Anal jelly (n) Fresh (n) Old (n) Unknown (n) Total (n)
January 0.80 (5) 0.10 (20) 0.31 (45) 0.00 (5) 0.27 (75)
February 1.00 (9) 0.16 (19) 0.19 (53) 0.00 (3) 0.26 (84)
March 0.71 (48) 0.21 (130) 0.30 (409) None 0.31 (587)
April 0.64 (39) 0.06 (210) 0.19 (424) 0.14 (7) 0.18 (680)
Total 0.71 (101) 0.12 (379) 0.24 (931) 0.07 (15) 0.24 (1426)
37
Table 6. Minimum, CAPWIRE, and model estimates for river otters, by river and season. The predicted
densities from the model are rounded to the nearest whole number.
River Genotyping estimate,
sex ratio (M:F)
Min. density
(otters/km)
CAPWIRE estimate
(95% CI)
CAPWIRE
model used
Model
estimate
Big Piney
winter spring
total
Courtois*
Current*
Maries
Niangua
Osage Fork
Roubidoux
winter
spring
total
West Piney
winter
spring
total
6 (2:4) 12 (6:6)
14 (6:8)
3 (3:0)
11 (8:3)
3 (3:0)
2 (2:0)
14 (9:5)
6 (4:2)
10 (8:2)
11 (8:3)
3 (1:2)
3 (2:1)
5 (2:3)
0.255 0.511
0.134
0.403
0.110
0.069
0.442
0.174
0.291
0.121
0.121
9 (6-16) 17 (12-26)
3 (3-3)
11 (11-11)
3 (3-3)
2 (2-2)
14 (14-15)
6 (6-6)
11 (10-13)
5 (3-10)
3 (3-3)
TIRM TIRM
ECM
TIRM
TIRM
TIRM
TIRM
ECM
TIRM
TIRM
ECM
5 9
3
9
5
6
16
6
19
3
3
*Lincoln-Petersen estimation 3.0 ±0 otters in Courtois, 11.1±0.11 otters in Current.
38
Table 7. Minimum population estimates (unique genotypes) obtained per river, given as total per
river and per section/sampling period.
River and Total
Length (km)
Total/
Sex ratio
(M:F)
Section
Section
Lengths
(km)
Total Genotypes (M:F)
Winter Spring
6 days 12 days 6 days
Big Piney (23.5)
Courtois (22.4)
Current (27.3)
Maries (27.2)
Niangua (29.0)
Osage Fork (31.7)
Roubidoux (34.4)*
West Piney (24.8)
14 6:8
3
3:0
11
8:3
3
3:0
2 2:0
14
9:5
11
8:3
5
2:3
01 02
01
02
01
02
01
02
01 02
01
02
01
02
01
02
14.0 9.5
11.3
11.1
11.7
15.6
13.7
13.5
16.3 12.7
12.9
18.8
14.6
19.8
13.5
11.3
1:2 1:2
1:0
2:0
4:1
5:2
1:0
3:0
1:0 1:0
4:1
6:4
2:0
4:2
0:0
1:2
NA NA
NA
3:0
3:1
5:2
NA
NA
NA NA
NA
NA
1:0
NA
NA
NA
3:0 5:6
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA NA
NA
NA
3:0
8:2
0:1
2:1
* = Section 2 of the Roubidoux was also sampled in the winter at 0 days, when all fresh samples
found during latrine site searches were collected. However, of 11 scats collected, only 2 generated
genotypes at seven loci, and both of these yielded ambiguous results.
39
Table 8. Sexes and number of recaptures for each river otter detected. Although otters in
each river are designated with the same letter, no otters were found in multiple rivers.
Otter BP CO CR MA NI OF RO WP
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
2(F)
1(M)
5(F)
3(M)
4(M)
6(F)
7(F)
6(F)
1(F)
2(M)
1(M)
2(M)
2(F)
1(F)
5(M)
5(M)
3(M)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
11(M)
8(M)
5(M)
10(M)
5(M)
5(M)
3(F)
6(F)
5(F)
1(M)
1(M)
---
---
---
1(M)
2(M)
5(M)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
4(M)
1(M)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
5(M)
2(F)
3(M)
9(M)
3(F)
4(M)
9(F)
3(F)
5(M)
3(M)
9(M)
24(M)
3(M)
1(F)
5(F)
12(M)
8(M)
4(M)
5(M)
1(F)
2(M)
9(F)
5(M)
1(M)
5(M)
---
---
---
7(M)
6(F)
1(F)
1(F)
2(M)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
40
Table 9. Ranked AICc results for the eight a priori hypotheses predicting population size of
river otters.
Hypothesis Description K AICc ∆AIC wi r2 p-value
H8
scatperlat+latperkm
3
-123.68
0.00
0.67
0.76
< 0.001
H5
H7
H1
Hglobal
H2
H6
H4
H3
inter
scatperlat
scatperlat+jellyperkm
latperkm
latperkm+scatperkm+
jellyperkm+freshperkm+
newperkm+scatperlat
scatperkm
jellyperkm+freshperkm+
newperkm
freshperkm
jellyperkm
intercept only
2
3
2
7
2
4
2
2
1
-120.99
-118.44
-116.85
-114.26
-109.15
-104.87
-101.74
-92.67
-87.14
2.17
4.71
6.31
8.90
14.01
18.29
21.42
30.49
36.54
0.23
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.73
0.71
0.68
0.75
0.58
0.56
0.44
0.22
NA
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
0.007
< 0.001
41
Table 10. Random combinations of rivers to further evaluate the accuracy of the top two predictive
models. “All” combines all rivers and seasons (except Niangua) and contains more than the
minimum number of unique genotypes (63) because of recaptures of individuals in separate
sampling periods. River sections are combined. Beside river abbreviations, S=spring, W=winter,
5=first sample collection date, 10=second collection date (5 days after initial sample collection).
Combination Unique Genotypes Predicted N, H8 Predicted N, H5
MA + WP-S
OF + CR-5
CR-10 + RO-S
BP-S + BP-W
CO-5 + OF
CR-5 + CR-10 + RO-S
BP-S + OF + CR-5
BP-W + CR-10 + RO-S
MA + WP-S + CO-5
RO-5 + CR-5 + OF
OF + CR-5 + CR-10 + BP-S
OF + RO-S + BP-S + CO-5
CO-5 + MA + WP-S + WP-W
BP-W + BP-S + MA + CR-10
CO-5 + CO-10 + MA + BP-W
CO-5 + CO-10 + BP-W + BP-S + MA
WP-W + WP-S + OF + CR-5 + CR-10
RO-W + RO-S + WP-W + WP-S + BP-S
MA + OF + CO-5 + WP-S + BP-W
CR-5 + WP-W + BP-S + CO-10 + OF
All (except NI)
6
24
20
18
17
30
36
26
9
30
46
39
12
31
15
27
40
34
29
42
85
13
26
29
15
22
39
35
35
15
34
45
51
19
30
16
27
48
50
40
44
113
14
26
30
14
23
41
35
36
16
35
45
50
21
31
16
28
51
52
42
46
120
42
Figure 1. Map of study area in central Missouri, USA. Dark circles delineate approximate
latrine site locations. Green circles and star represent locations of major regional cities.
43
Figure 2. Error rates and amplification success (with standard deviations) across time,
averaged across all loci, for the matched scat and tissue samples collected from 34
harvested otters.
44
Figure 3. Relationships between the two most supported candidate variables and
otter density. The top model predicting otter density, H8, incorporated both
variables, whereas the next model H5 used only scats per latrine
45
CHAPTER 2
POPULATION STRUCTURE AND LANDSCAPE USE BY RIVER OTTERS IN
MISSOURI
ABSTRACT
Over a ten-year period beginning in 1982, river otters (Lontra canadensis) were
reintroduced to Missouri, having been extirpated more than 50 years previously. Most of
the 845 otters were translocated from Louisiana (others from Ontario and Arkansas) and
were released at 43 sites across the state. The reintroduction is widely considered one of
the most successful carnivore recovery programs in history, with an estimated 11,000 -
18,000 otters existing in the state in 1999-2000. Using a combination of GIS data and
genetic data obtained from microsatellite genotyping of fecal samples from eight
southern Missouri rivers, I evaluated the genetic diversity and connectivity between
rivers, examined daily movements for otters captured multiple times, and made
inferences about the genetic structure of the eight otter populations. Overall, the river
otter population showed high genetic diversity, genetic structure analysis suggested the
existence of five distinct subpopulation clusters distributed throughout the eight rivers,
and no evidence of isolation by distance was observed. Daily movement patterns
averaged 0.76 - 1.13 km/day, and evidence of male social groups was observed. Despite
evidence of long-distance movements made by individual otters in a short time span, the
GIS and genetic data collectively suggest that 20-30 years after restoration efforts, the
46
current Missouri river otter population still reflects the genetic structure of the source
populations.
INTRODUCTION
After a nearly 50-year absence due to extirpation from overharvesting (Bennitt and Nagel
1937), the river otter (Lontra canadensis) was successfully restored to the state of
Missouri following a ten-year, statewide reintroduction effort spearheaded by the
Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC). Between 1982 and 1992, 845 river otters
were released at 43 sites across 35 counties (approximately 20 otters of equal sex ratio
per site; Hamilton 2007; Table 1). Most of the otters were obtained from a single
individual from Louisiana, who purchased the animals from private trappers around the
Houma area (D. Erickson, pers. comm.); however, a few were translocated from
Arkansas, USA and Ontario, Canada (Raesly 2001). Also, a small remnant population
(35-70 otters) may have existed in the southeastern corner of the state prior to the
reintroductions (Hamilton 2007), although the evidence for this is equivocal.
The Missouri reintroduction effort has been regarded as one of the most
successful carnivore recovery programs in history (Breitenmoser et al. 2001) and
regulated trapping was reinitiated in 1996. Population estimates since the reintroduction,
based on life tables incorporating reproductive rates and sex ratios from otter carcasses
harvested during trapping seasons, ranged from 3,000 in 1995 (Hamilton 1998) to over
18,000 in the year 2000 (Gallagher 1999). MDC estimated that the population decreased
to their management goal size of 10,000 animals in 2007 (Hamilton 2007) following
trapping seasons driven by high pelt prices ($40-$120). In 2009, after several years with
47
very low pelt prices, MDC lifted all bag-limit restrictions on otter trapping across the
state, hoping to continue monitoring to ensure maintenance of viable populations of otters
and fish (J. Beringer, pers. comm).
Few studies have been initiated on the recovered Missouri river otter population
beyond state-directed population assessments, evaluations of monitoring techniques, and
local-scale studies of diet and habitat use (e.g. Erickson and McCullough 1987, Roberts
et al. 2008, Crimmins et al. 2009, Boege-Tobin 2005, Roberts 2003). In part, this data
void is due to the logistical difficulties of conducting such studies. However, the use of
noninvasively-collected DNA for evaluation of population genetics of recovering
carnivore populations is becoming increasingly widespread. For example, Kendall et al.
(2009) used hair from hair traps and rub stations to evaluate the genetic structure of
recovering grizzly bears in Montana, and several Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) population
genetic studies used DNA extracted from scat and anal jelly samples (Dallas et al. 2003,
Janssens et al. 2008, Jansman et al. 2001). However, the use of such methods for
addressing landscape-scale questions about Nearctic river otters has not occurred. While
river otter-specific microsatellite primers have been developed (Beheler et al. 2004,
2005), they have only been used for a handful of fecal studies examining local
populations (Hansen et al. 2008, Guertin et al. 2010).
Using genotypes derived from fecal samples collected along eight rivers in
southern and south-central Missouri, I evaluated basic measures of genetic diversity,
within-river movement patterns, and population connectivity and substructure among
rivers. The rivers in the study area were chosen due to their high recreational and sport
48
fishing value, estimated higher otter densities, and more liberal trapping regulations in
previous years, making them particularly relevant for determining population size for
management decisions, as well as for identifying the factors influencing the genetic
patterns in this reintroduced population. Otters in rivers which are nearer to each other,
linked by common waterways or ponds, would be expected to show more genetic
similarities than more distant populations; however, since the restoration efforts began
only 20-30 years ago, the genetic structure of the eight rivers may show similarities
reflecting the source populations from which the founding otters were translocated.
METHODS
Surveys for otter scats were conducted on eight rivers in south and south-central Missouri
between 6 January and 23 April, 2009: Big Piney, Courtois, Current, Maries, Niangua,
Osage Fork of the Gasconade, Roubidoux, and West Piney (Chapter 1), each divided into
two sections of approximately equal length for sampling. Of these, only Big Piney,
Current, Niangua, and Osage Fork were directly stocked with otters during the 1982-1992
reintroductions (Table 1). Courtois, Maries, Roubidoux, and West Piney were naturally
recolonized by dispersing otters. These rivers span multiple primary watersheds in the
study area and contain river otter densities from 0.069 - 0.511 otters per km (Chapter 1,
Table 6). Upon locating a latrine site, field crews cleared all scat, returned after five full
days had passed, and collected all newly defecated scat and anal jelly (anal sac secretion)
samples. GPS coordinates for each latrine were recorded.
Methods for optimizing and redesigning microsatellite loci for river otter fecal
samples, calculating genetic error rates, and extracting DNA from field samples are given
49
in Chapter 1. In brief, I redesigned microsatellite primers to amplify shorter DNA
fragments, observing low rates of allelic dropout (0.028) and false alleles (0.031) for
these primers tested on DNA extracted from matched scat and tissue samples from
harvested otters. I then extracted DNA from 1426 field samples collected along the eight
rivers, obtaining genotypes (repeated 4-5 times to reduce genotyping error rates) across at
least seven loci for 343 (24%) of these samples.
Collectively, I identified 63 river otters, ranging from two in the Niangua River to
14 in the Big Piney River. After individual otters in each river were identified by their
unique genotypes, tests for deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and linkage
disequilibrium were conducted in GENEPOP 4.0.9 (Raymond and Rousset 1995, Rousset
2008) and evaluated using Bonferroni corrections. Observed and expected heterozygosity
values were calculated in ARLEQUIN 3.11 (Excoffier et al. 2005). Allelic diversity was
corrected for unequal sample sizes using rarefaction in the program HP-RARE
(Kalinowski 2005), which calculated the allelic diversity for a sample size of two otters
(minimum population estimate, Niangua River; Table 2).
I evaluated the genetic structure of the eight populations using the program
STRUCTURE 2.2 (Pritchard et al. 2000), which estimates the likelihood of population
clustering based on allele frequencies at each microsatellite locus. The program calculates
the probability of a variable number of population clusters (K), identifying the most
likely number of clusters as the K value with the highest likelihood. Results were based
on an admixture model with a burn-in period of 10,000 iterations followed by runs of
100,000 iterations, with allele frequencies independent in each population (λ = 1). I
50
performed ten independent tests for each K value from 1 to 9, following Evanno et al.
(2005) to determine the most likely K value by calculating ∆K. The Big Piney,
Roubidoux, and West Piney Rivers were sampled more than once during the study period
(e.g. in winter and in spring), but because no otter was ever observed moving between
rivers, genotypes collected in different seasons were pooled by river.
Genetic distances (FST) were calculated for each population pair using ARLEQUIN
3.11, and significance values were computed using permutation tests. I tested for isolation
by distance using the Isolde option in GENEPOP, with the default parameters (minimum
distance between samples 0.0001 and 1000 permutations for Mantel test). To calculate
geographic distance for the Isolde analysis, I used the straight-line distance (km)
separating the midpoints of each river, measured in ArcGIS 9.3. Because of the extensive
overlap of individuals' locations along each river during a given 6- or 12-day period,
isolation by distance was not evaluated between individuals.
Using ArcGIS, I calculated the total distance each otter traveled in the 6- or 12-
day study period by measuring the distance between all the latrine sites in which it was
identified. Because these movements may represent only a fraction of otters' home
ranges, and because the time period over which otters were observed was not always
uniform (e.g. when otters appeared in both river sections that were not sampled
simultaneously), total distances were not compared by sex or season; instead, I calculated
daily movement rates. I manually traced the course of each river between latrines at a
resolution of approximately 1:1000 meters, using Hawth's Tools (Beyer 2004) to
calculate total distances. I then divided this total by the time period over which the otter
51
was observed. For rivers that were sampled separately in both winter and spring, I
calculated distances for each of these periods independently, assuming otters may shift or
expand their home ranges between winter and spring (Gallant et al. 2007). Individuals
identified at only one latrine site were not included in this analysis.
RESULTS
No population showed significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (Table 3),
and no significant linkage disequilibrium existed for any loci in any population. The
number of alleles per locus for each population differed primarily due to population size
variation (2 -14 otters per river); corrected for sample size, the allelic diversity did not
differ significantly between rivers (ANOVA, F7,80 = 1.24, p = 0.295).
The mean FST between rivers was 0.071 (Table 4). The maximum observed FST
value (0.160) occurred between the Courtois and Roubidoux Rivers, while 11 pairwise
comparisons showed values below 0.005. The maximum straight-line geographic
distance (160.9 km) occurred between the Courtois and Niangua Rivers, the minimum
(4.5 km) occurring between the Big Piney and West Piney (the West Piney transect flows
into the Big Piney transect at its approximate midpoint). However, no significant
relationship existed between genetic and geographic distances, indicating no evidence for
isolation by distance (Mantel test, p = 0.202; Fig. 1).
STRUCTURE simulations indicated that the 63 river otter genotypes clustered into
five groups (Table 5). These groups corresponded most prominently with the Roubidoux,
Osage Fork, Big Piney/West Piney, Courtois, and Current Rivers (Maries and Niangua
showed less dominance by a single cluster; Figs. 2 and 3). Roubidoux and Courtois
52
individuals were each dominated by a single cluster, and Osage Fork showed similar
cluster homogeneity except for one individual which assigned more strongly to the
Current River cluster. The Big Piney and West Piney Rivers showed strong cluster
similarity, except for the occurrence of the Current cluster in Big Piney only.
Interestingly, several geographically distant rivers shared dominant clusters, such as the
Maries River (which contained the Osage Fork cluster) and the Niangua River (which
was similar to the Current, Roubidoux, and Big Piney/West Piney clusters, but not the
much nearer Osage Fork cluster; Fig. 3).
River otters moved extensively throughout the rivers during the study period, but
no individuals were detected in more than one river (Table 6). Three male otters in the
Roubidoux traveled the maximum total distance observed, which was 32.1 km in eight
days (2.29 km/day; approximately the entire length of the Roubidoux transect), and were
detected at many of the same latrine sites. A female in the Roubidoux showed the greatest
daily movement (3.18 km/day). Across both seasons, males were detected at more latrine
sites [3.46 ± 1.82 (SD)] and showed a significantly greater average daily movement rate
[1.13 ± 0.71 (SD) km/day, median 0.94 km/day)] than females [average 2.88 ± 0.96 (SD)
sites/otter, 0.66 ± 0.76 (SD) km/day, median 0.53 km/day; ANOVA, F1,51 = 4.66, p =
0.04; Fig. 4a)]. I did not calculate the significance of the seasonal difference in daily
movements of females, since only two females could be evaluated in the winter period.
However, males did not show significantly different daily movements between winter
and spring (ANOVA, F1,35 = 1.14, p = 0.29; Fig. 4b). In spring only, the difference
between male and female movement was marginally significant (ANOVA, F1,43 = 2.98, p
53
= 0.09).
DISCUSSION
The movement patterns I observed using GIS tracking of genetically identified otters are
similar to other reported daily movement rates of river otters. Previous studies have
reported otter movements of 1.6 - 2.0 km/day (Mack et al. 1994) and 0.7 - 5.1 km/day
(with a maximum observed consecutive-day distance of 42 km; Melquist and Hornocker
1983) in Idaho, 1.4 - 3.9 km/day in southeast Texas (Foy 1984), and 1.0 - 3.4 km/day in
Minnesota (Route and Peterson 1988). In this study, average daily movements ranged
from 0.53 - 1.41 km/day (maximum 0.71 - 3.18 km/day). Male home ranges have been
found to be larger than those of females (Boege-Tobin 2005, Gorman et al. 2006,
Melquist and Hornocker 1983), which is likely to increase encounter rates with females
(Blundell et al. 2002b). In northeast Missouri, a previous study found an average home
range of 17 km (range 9 - 43 km) for males and 9 km (range 7 - 12 km) for females
(Boege-Tobin 2005), while averages elsewhere in the species’ habitat range from 8 - 78
km (Melquist and Hornocker 1983) and 16 - 148 km (Mack et al. 1994) in Idaho, and 20 -
40 km of shoreline in Alaska (Bowyer et al. 1995). Because the total distances traveled
by otters in this study were calculated over very short time periods, these distances likely
underestimate total home range size. However, the maximum distance we observed
between scats of an individual (32.1 km) falls within these averages.
The longest observed distance traveled per day was recorded for a female in the
Roubidoux River (3.18 km/day). However, this observation was atypical, as females
typically showed less movement overall compared to males. Multiple males in my study
54
areas were frequently located at the same latrine sites and showed movement patterns
suggestive of substantial home range overlap and joint space use. In addition, GIS
calculations allowed me to identify a possible male social group, an aspect of river otter
social structure commonly reported throughout the species’ range. Three male river otters
traveled the same length of the Roubidoux river transect in eight days, covering a total
observed distance of 32.1 km. Blundell et al. (2002a, 2004) reported that male social
groups (not necessarily consisting of related individuals) in Prince William Sound,
Alaska may forage cooperatively, and Gorman et al. (2006) observed signs of
cooperation between males in Minnesota, suggesting that males may not be territorial or
may be jointly defending territories.
Differences in movement rates of males between winter and spring are frequently
reported (Melquist and Hornocker 1983, Reid et al. 1994) but were not observed in this
study, or in a previous study of Missouri river otters (Boege-Tobin 2005). In my study,
however, this result may have been confounded by the detection of young males in the
spring, at which time they may have been moving with their mothers, skewing the
average daily movements. These measurements are probably also dependent on the local
environment and seasonal weather variations; seasonal variation in home range size may
be more pronounced in more severe climates, such as Idaho (Melquist and Hornocker
1983) and Alberta (Reid et al. 1994). River otters in Missouri may increase movements
on unseasonably warm days in the winter, and movement patterns may differ between
rivers according to the density of conspecifics or prey available.
While the life histories of river otters are primarily tied to the river ecosystem,
55
they have been observed traversing land between streams (about 3.0 km; Melquist and
Hornocker 1983) as well as occupying farm ponds [(Schwartz and Schwartz 1981,
Hamilton 1999, J. Beringer (pers. comm.)]. Thus overland movement and/or dispersal
between disconnected rivers (using ponds as "stepping stones" between them) is possible,
although presumably far less frequent than traditional foraging movements up or down a
river system. Nonetheless, such movements are important when considering the
population-level genetic patterns observed in the eight rivers. The Courtois, Maries,
Roubidoux, and West Piney Rivers did not receive translocated otters (the other four
rivers were stocked with otters; Table 1). Due to their proximity, the similarities between
the Big Piney and West Piney Rivers are not surprising; both rivers showed similar
STRUCTURE cluster patterns and observed heterozygosities. The Roubidoux and Courtois
Rivers both showed strong STRUCTURE cluster homogeneity, indicating a possible
founder effect occurring in those rivers; the very high proportion of males in those rivers
(M:F = 8:3 in Roubidoux, 3:0 in Courtois) support this observation, as male river otters
disperse further than females and may be primarily responsible for initial colonization of
unpopulated habitat (Blundell et al. 2002b). The lower He in the Roubidoux River relative
to the other rivers also supports a likely founder effect. Overall, the presence of otters in
rivers not initially stocked with translocated individuals, containing primarily males
and/or showing evidence of founder effects, suggests that the Missouri population is still
expanding geographically, and otters are recolonizing suitable habitats from which they
were previously extirpated.
The processes occurring in the Maries and Niangua Rivers, which also contained
56
very small population sizes and no females, are less clear. Niangua was stocked with
otters in 1988 and 1990 (Table 1), and until recently was thought to contain a large
population of otters (based on harvest reports and scat indices; MDC, unpublished data).
However, the estimated 2009 population size was much lower than those for the other
rivers stocked with otters (Chapter 2). Heavy harvest rates reported in 2003-2006 (73
otters reported trapped in 2006, compared to 12 in Roubidoux and 21 in Osage Fork;
MDC, unpublished data) may have caused a decline in the otter population and facilitated
a subsequent influx of male otters from other areas, which may explain the genetic
differentiation of the two males identified there in 2009.
Two of the Maries River otters were similar to the Courtois River population,
while one more closely assigned to the Osage Fork cluster, indicating that the otters here
probably emigrated from different sources. However, the geographic distance between
the Maries, Courtois, and Osage Fork Rivers (and between other genetically similar
rivers), the overall patterns of genetic diversity evident in Table 1, and the pairwise FST
and isolation by distance evaluations in Table 4 and Fig. 1, cannot be explained by
typical river otter movement and dispersal. It is highly unlikely that the movements of
individual otters between rivers as geographically distant as Courtois and West Piney,
Osage Fork and Maries, and Osage Fork and Current, explains the STRUCTURE analysis
patterns. Instead, the population substructure evident in this analysis is likely an artifact
of the reintroduction, with otters from the same or similar source populations translocated
to different areas. Population structure analyses of Louisiana river otters showed
substantial population differentiation between different river drainages (Latch et al.
57
2008). Thus, the five genetic clusters may actually derive from genetically distinct
populations in Louisiana (Latch et al. 2008) and other source populations. Genetic
comparisons to otters in those sources may serve to test this hypothesis, as well as
provide a means for assessing evidence of a remnant Missouri population. The possibility
of multiple source populations may also explain the high levels of genetic diversity
observed throughout the eight river systems; about 20 otters were translocated during
each reintroduction event, and several rivers were stocked more than once (Table 1).
Such a strategy would have facilitated maintenance of high levels of genetic diversity for
an extended period of time. If this is the case, the development of population substructure
as a function of local processes occurring in the Missouri streams will take much longer
than the current time span (20-30 years since reintroduction), and important barriers to
gene flow may not become visible in the near future.
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63
Table 1. Years and locations of river otter reintroductions across the state of Missouri, USA. Source: J.
Beringer, Missouri Department of Conservation. NWR: National Wildlife Refuge. WA: Wildlife Area. SL:
Slough.
Year Location County No.
Otters
Year Location County No.
Otters
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
Swan Lake NWR
Fountain Grove WA
Lamine Riv
Fountain Grove WA
Ted Shanks WA
Four Rivers WA
Rebel’s Cove WA Little Chariton Riv
Big Creek
Blackwater-Perry WA
Little Chariton Riv
Rebel’s Cove WA
Schell-Osage WA
Shoal Creek
Cuivre River-Argent SL
Cuivre River-West Frk Moreau River-Burris Frk
Platte River-Castile Crk
Rebel’s Cove WA
South Fabius Riv
One Hundred Two Riv
Bourbeuse Riv
Meramec Riv
Middle Fabius Riv
Middle Salt Riv
Niangua Riv
Chariton
Linn
Cooper
Linn
Pike
Vernon
Putnam Chariton
Daviess
Pettis
Chariton
Putnam
Vernon
Caldwell
Lincoln
Lincoln Moniteau
Platte
Putnam
Marion
Andrew
Gasconade
Dent
Knox
Macon
Dallas
12
10
20
7
24
18
6 7
20
18
12
6
20
20
23
22 21
18
1
21
22
20
20
20
10
20
1989
1990
1991
1992
Middle Bourbeuse Riv
Middle Meramec Riv
Middle Salt Riv
Upper Gasconade
Big Piney Riv
Big Piney Riv
Current Riv
Dry Wood Crk Gasconade/Hazelgreen
Horse Crk
Jacks Fork Riv
Niangua Riv (2)
Osage Fork Riv
Pomm-Tin Town
S. Grand/Big Crk
Eleven Point Riv
Bryant Crk
Gasconade/Bell Chute Jacks Fork Riv
James Riv
Loutre Riv
North Fork, White Riv
Perche Crk
Franklin
Crawford
Macon
Wright
Texas
Pulaski
Dent
Barton/Vernon Pulaski
Barton
Texas
Laclede
Webster
Polk
Henry
Oregon
Douglas
Maries Texas
Christian
Montgomery
Douglas
Boone
24
21
10
20
20
21
17
22 20
22
17
17
21
20
18
21
20
20 2
20
4
20
20
64
Table 2. Minimum otter population sizes, sex ratios, and densities for eight
rivers in Missouri, USA, based on fecal genotyping (Chapter 1). For rivers
which were sampled more than once (Big Piney, Roubidoux, and West
Piney), total number of genotypes are given in bold above the counts per
season (accounting for otters which appeared in both seasons).
River
Population estimate
and sex ratio (M:F)
Length of
transect (km)
Density
Big Piney
winter spring
Courtois
Current
Maries
Niangua
Osage Fork
Roubidoux
winter
spring
West Piney
winter
spring
14 (8:6)
6 (2:4) 12 (6:6)
3 (3:0)
11 (8:3)
3 (3:0)
2 (2:0)
14 (8:6)
11 (8:3)
6 (4:2)
10 (8:2)
5 (2:3)
3 (1:2)
3 (2:1)
23.5
22.4
27.3
27.2
29.0
31.7
34.4
24.8
0.255 0.511
0.134
0.403
0.110
0.069
0.442
0.174
0.291
0.121
0.121
Table 3. Number of alleles (A), corrected number of alleles (Arare), and observed (He) and expected (He) heterozygosity values for each microsatellite locus in
each river otter population in Missouri, USA.
n
Locus
Big Piney (BP) Courtois (CO) Current (CR) Maries (MA)
14 3 11 3
A A (rare) Ho He A A (rare) Ho He A A (rare) Ho He A A (rare) Ho He
RIO01R2 4 2.1 0.714 0.537 4 3.2 0.667 0.867 4 2.4 0.662 0.662 2 2.0 1.000 0.600
RIO02R 6 2.4 0.571 0.614 3 2.6 0.667 0.733 5 2.7 1.000 0.740 3 2.3 0.667 0.600
RIO04R 3 1.3 0.143 0.140 3 2.8 1.000 0.800 2 1.5 0.273 0.247 1 1.0 NA NA
RIO06R 4 2.4 0.714 0.643 3 2.6 1.000 0.733 3 2.4 0.778 0.680 3 2.6 0.667 0.733
RIO07R 6 2.8 0.643 0.746 4 3.2 1.000 0.867 4 2.8 0.800 0.768 5 3.6 1.000 0.933
RIO08R 5 2.3 0.571 0.574 3 2.3 0.333 0.600 3 1.9 0.455 0.437 3 2.6 0.667 0.733
RIO11 4 2.5 0.714 0.691 3 2.3 1.000 0.733 4 2.4 0.818 0.645 3 2.6 1.000 0.733
RIO13R 6 2.9 0.714 0.794 4 3.0 0.667 0.800 7 3.1 0.818 0.840 4 3.2 0.667 0.867 RIO15R 3 1.9 0.357 0.421 2 1.9 0.667 0.533 2 1.9 0.364 0.520 2 1.9 0.667 0.533
RIO16R 6 2.6 0.769 0.677 2 1.9 0.667 0.533 5 2.8 0.900 0.774 3 2.6 1.000 0.733
All loci 4.7 2.3 0.591 0.584 3.1 2.6 0.767 0.720 3.9 2.4 0.684 0.631 2.9 2.5 0.815 0.719
n
Locus
Niangua (NI) Osage Fork (OF) Roubidoux (RO) West Piney (WP)
2 14 11 5
A A (rare) Ho He A A (rare) Ho He A A (rare) Ho He A A (rare) Ho He
RIO01R2 3 3.0 0.500 0.833 4 2.7 0.769 0.726 5 2.7 0.900 0.737 5 2.8 0.800 0.756 RIO02R 3 3.0 1.000 0.833 9 3.2 0.857 0.849 5 2.4 0.909 0.645 5 3.1 0.800 0.822
RIO04R 1 1.0 NA NA 2 1.8 0.429 0.476 3 1.5 0.273 0.255 4 2.7 0.600 0.733
RIO06R 3 3.0 1.000 0.833 3 2.2 0.714 0.595 2 1.9 0.727 0.485 4 3.1 0.000 0.857
RIO07R 4 4.0 1.000 1.000 6 3.0 0.786 0.815 2 1.5 0.273 0.247 3 2.5 0.600 0.689
RIO08R 3 3.0 1.000 0.833 4 2.5 0.786 0.667 3 2.3 0.909 0.628 3 2.5 0.200 0.689
RIO11 4 4.0 1.000 1.000 4 2.6 0.692 0.717 3 2.3 1.000 0.636 3 2.5 1.000 0.711
RIO13R 3 3.0 0.500 0.833 7 3.0 0.857 0.794 4 2.2 0.636 0.567 4 2.8 0.600 0.778
RIO15R 1 1.0 NA NA 2 1.3 0.143 0.138 2 1.3 0.182 0.173 2 2.0 0.200 0.556
RIO16R 2 2.0 1.000 0.667 3 2.1 0.786 0.542 3 2.0 0.636 0.507 3 2.3 0.667 0.600
All loci 2.7 2.7 0.875 0.854 4.4 2.4 0.682 0.632 3.2 2.0 0.645 0.488 3.6 2.6 0.547 0.719
65
66
Table 4. FST values (top half of matrix) and geographic distances (km, bottom half of matrix) between all
population pairs. For river abbreviations, see Table 3.
BP RO CO OF CR NI WP MA
BP
RO
CO
OF
CR
NI
WP
MA
---
29.5
102.9
54.0
46.4
87.3
4.5
118.1
0.116***
---
110.1
28.0
68.5
61.0
27.4
98.4
0.137**
0.160***
---
134.8
67.9
160.9
107.0
100.2
0.133***
0.147***
0.040*
---
97.4
32.8
52.1
104.5
0.082***
0.157***
0.133***
0.151***
---
129.0
51.4
123.4
-0.035
0.018
0.015
0.005
0.024
---
85.4
110.0
0.077**
0.096*
0.061
0.112***
0.081**
0.000
---
119.3
0.088*
0.106*
0.005
0.014
0.095*
-0.079
0.044
---
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
67
Table 5. Results from the Evanno et al. (2005) test of STRUCTURE simulation results for river otter
subpopulations in eight Missouri rivers. The number K with the highest ∆K value indicates the most likely
number of genetic clusters (in this case, K = 5).
K mean L(K) ∆K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-1717.5
-1750.9
-1640.3
-1658.4
-1577.1
-1651.8
-1733.6
-1772.6
-1783.8
---
7.0
15.9
1.1
50.0
2.0
2.4
2.5
0.8
68
Table 6. Summary of daily movement patterns for river otters detected at more than one latrine site (n),
calculated for winter and spring study periods in Missouri, USA.
Males Females
River
n
Avg. no.
locations
per otter
Max
distance/
day (km)
Avg.
distance/
day (km)
n
Avg. no.
locations
per otter
Max
distance/
day (km)
Avg.
distance/
day (km)
Winter
Big Piney Niangua
Roubidoux
West Piney
Average
Spring
Big Piney
Courtois
Current
Maries
Osage Fork
Roubidoux West Piney
Average
0 1
4
1
6
2
3
6
2
9
5 1
29
NA 2.00
2.25
2.00
2.17
2.50
2.67
4.50
3.00
4.11
4.00 3.00
3.72
NA 0.10
2.72
0.49
2.72
1.58
1.00
2.38
0.94
1.83
2.29 0.36
2.38
NA 0.10
1.97
0.49
1.41
0.98
0.78
0.95
0.79
1.09
1.67 0.36
1.07
2 0
0
0
2
4
0
3
0
4
2 1
14
3.5 NA
NA
NA
3.5
2.50
NA
2.67
NA
2.50
3.00 5.00
2.79
0.71 NA
NA
NA
0.71
0.69
NA
0.67
NA
0.56
3.18 1.54
3.18
0.53 NA
NA
NA
0.53
0.38
NA
0.44
NA
0.32
1.90 1.54
0.67
69
Figure 1. Isolation by distance analysis showing relationship between
genetic distance (FST) and geographic distance in kilometers. Typically, this
relationship is linear, as individuals in adjacent populations linked by
movement and dispersal are more genetically similar. In the Missouri river
otter populations, no such relationship exists (Mantel test, p = 0.202).
70
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
CO CR BP WP RO OF NI MA
5
4
3
2
1
Figure 2. Distribution of the five cluster assignments suggested by STRUCTURE.
Unlike Figure 3, which displays only the dominant cluster assignments for each
individual, this analysis represents all cluster likelihoods averaged for all
individuals per river. CO, CR, BP, RO, and OF showed strong cluster homogeneity
(i.e. one dominant assignment likelihood), whereas WP, NI, and MA were less
likely to be dominated by a single cluster.
71
Figure 3. Geographic representation of STRUCTURE simulations, displaying only
dominant cluster assignment(s) for each otter per population weighted with the strength
(% likelihood) of that assignment. Otters which assigned equally to multiple clusters
were divided; e.g. Niangua (8) included two otters, but one was equally likely to assign to
clusters B and C, while the other otter more strongly assigned to Cluster D. Size of pie
charts corresponds to sample size (number of otters in the population).
Figure 4. Average daily movement rate of female vs. male river otters across both seasons (a) and for males in spring vs.
winter (b). Bold lines indicate the median distance traveled per day, with minimum and maximum values indicated by the
dashed lines. Note the two female outliers in 5(a), including the otter with the greatest recorded movement rate for this study
(3.2 km/day).
a b
72
73
Appendix 1. Genotypes for all individuals along ten microsatellites (01R2, 02R, etc.) identified in the eight
rivers. BP=Big Piney, CO=Courtois, CR=Current, MA=Maries, NI=Niangua, OF=Osage Fork,
RO=Roubidoux, WP=West Piney.
01R2 02R 04R 06R 07R 08R 11 13R 15R 16R
BP-A 154154 131131 110110 130130 101101 108108 156158 158158 139139 155155
BP-B 146154 131133 110110 134134 087095 104108 156156 144148 139141 155157
BP-C 154154 121131 110110 130134 101101 108110 154156 144152 137139 155157
BP-D 146154 131131 110110 134134 091101 108114 154156 144152 137139 155161
BP-E 150154 129131 110110 126130 101101 106108 152158 158164 139141 155161
BP-F 146154 123127 110110 130138 091101 104106 152152 164164 139141 155157
BP-G 154154 121123 110110 130134 101101 108108 154156 144152 137137 155157
BP-H 154158 123131 110110 130134 099101 108108 156156 144152 139139 153155
BP-I 146154 131131 110110 130134 087093 108110 152156 150158 139139 155155
BP-J 146154 121131 106110 134138 099101 110114 152156 152158 139139 153157
BP-K 146154 123133 110110 130134 093101 108108 154154 158158 139139 153155
BP-L 154154 131131 110110 134134 093095 108108 152156 144152 139139
BP-M 150154 131131 110110 130134 087091 108108 152156 144144 139139 149151
BP-N 146154 131131 110116 126130 087087 104108 152156 144164 139139 155155
CO-A 146150 123123 108110 126134 093095 108110 156158 144156 139141 155157
CO-B 154154 119127 100110 130134 087093 104104 154156 154158 139141 155155
CO-C 150162 123127 100108 126134 087091 104104 154156 158158 139139 155157
CR-A 154158 127131 110110 126130 091101 104108 152154 146162 139141 153155
CR-B 154158 127131 110110 130134 093101 104108 152152 158162 139141 155161
CR-C 146154 127131 110110 126130 091091 108108 154158 146164 139141 157161
CR-D 154154 123135 100110 130134 091093 108108 152154 146162 141141 161161
CR-E 158158 129131 110110 126134 093101 108108 152152 150164 139139 155157
CR-F 150158 131135 110110 126126 097097 104110 152154 146150 139139 155157
CR-G 154154 123131 110110 130134 093101 108108 154156 164164 141141 155157
CR-H 154154 131135 110110 130130 091093 104108 152154 146146 141141 155157
CR-I 154158 123131 110110 126130 091101 104108 152154 162164 139141 153155
CR-J 146154 123131 100110 108108 154156 144158 139139
CR-K 150158 131135 100110 091097 108108 152154 160162 141141 157159
MA-A 146154 123127 110110 126134 089091 104110 154156 164164 139141 155157
MA-B 146154 127127 110110 126130 097101 106110 154156 150158 139139 155157
MA-C 146154 127131 110110 134134 091099 104104 152156 156158 139141 147157
74
NI-A 146158 129131 110110 126134 091095 104108 152156 158158 139139 155157
NI-B 154154 127131 110110 134138 099101 106108 154158 150164 139139 155157
OF-A 146150 119121 110110 126134 095097 110110 152154 150158 139139 155155
OF-B 154158 119133 110110 134134 087095 104110 152158 158158 139139 155157
OF-C 150158 121123 110114 126134 095097 104106 152152 146158 139139 155155
OF-D 146154 127129 110114 126130 093097 108110 154156 156158 139139 155157
OF-E 146146 127131 114114 134134 091093 104110 154154 146164 139139 155157
OF-F 146154 123123 110110 126134 091097 104108 154154 146146 139139 155161
OF-G 154158 127133 110114 126126 087087 110110 156156 144158 139139 155157
OF-H 154158 127131 110114 130134 087097 104106 154156 144156 137139 155157
OF-I 146154 125127 110110 130134 087097 104110 152154 144158 137139 155157
OF-J 150158 121135 114114 126134 093095 104110 152158 146158 139139 155157
OF-K 146154 121123 110114 126134 087097 106110 152154 158166 139139 155161
OF-L 146146 127131 110114 126134 093097 106110 154156 146164 139139 155157
OF-M 146146 127127 110110 126134 101101 110110 154156 158164 139139 155157
OF-N 123127 110110 134134 087087 104110 150158 139139 155155
RO-A 146154 129131 110116 134134 091099 108110 152154 144158 139139 155155
RO-B 150154 129131 110110 126134 091091 104108 152156 158158 139139 153155
RO-C 142150 123131 108110 126134 091091 104108 152156 158158 139141 153155
RO-D 146158 129131 110110 126134 091091 104108 152156 156158 139139 155157
RO-E 142154 129131 110110 126134 091091 108110 152156 158158 139141 155155
RO-F 125131 110110 126134 091099 108110 152156 144158 139139 155157
RO-G 146154 127131 110110 134134 091091 104108 154156 150158 139139 155157
RO-H 150154 123131 110110 126134 091091 108108 152156 150158 139139 153155
RO-I 146154 129131 110110 126134 091091 108110 154156 158158 139139 155155
RO-J 146154 129131 110110 126134 091091 108110 152156 144150 139139 155157
RO-K 154154 131131 110116 134134 091099 104108 152156 144158 139139 155155
WP-A 146154 129131 110110 126126 091091 108108 152154 150150 139139 155155
WP-B 150154 123131 100108 134134 091101 108110 152156 146158 139139 155157
WP-C 146154 123131 110110 099101 110110 152156 152158 141141
WP-D 154154 121131 106110 138138 099101 114114 152156 152158 141141
WP-E 148156 133133 100108 128128 091091 110110 154156 152152 139141 153155
75
Appendix 2. Detailed description of genotyping methods, particularly assignment of
confidence intervals and other techniques for recognizing potential genotyping errors
(e.g. false alleles and allelic dropout).
Genotypes were assigned a confidence level ranging from 1-5, with 1 representing very
low confidence and 5 being very high confidence (Appendix 3). Samples that showed no
or irregular allele peaks, usually at lower fluorescence values, were described as “bad”
and were not assigned a confidence level. Confidence scores of 1-2 generally represented
fragment analysis results with fluorescence values of 200 or less, or higher fluorescence
values with highly questionable allele peaks. Scores of 3 were usually results with
fluorescence values between 400-1000, or higher fluorescence values with questionable
allele peaks. Scores of 4 were generally assigned to strong fluorescence values (greater
than 1000) but which displayed smaller alleles that could potentially represent allelic
dropout. Scores of 5 were assigned to samples with high fluorescence values and no
questionable allele peaks. When stutter bands or multiple alleles were present, genotypes
were called but marked with a description of the irregularity (most commonly on samples
with confidence levels of 3 or 4).
Consensus genotypes were assigned for heterozygotes with two matching PCR
runs, and homozygotes were confirmed after three matching PCR runs. All genotypes
were called by the same researcher to avoid bias. When samples were repeated up to 5
times, those that were already confirmed were genotyped again. Occasionally, samples
with fewer than the required number of matching PCR runs were assigned consensus
genotypes if all calls were of high confidence, but all such cases were flagged. In
76
addition, samples that met the required number of matches but were of generally low
confidence were also flagged. This method was employed to maximize the number of
samples that could be genotyped, while reducing errors.
Following the elimination of failed samples, I compared genotypes manually for
identification of unique individuals and recognition of recaptures, taking into account all
samples flagged for poor quality, rounding, or too few matching genotypes (e.g. two
homozygous calls at locus). Some samples were labeled as “ambiguous”, meaning that
the consensus genotypes generated were at less-informative loci which matched more
than one previously identified otter, or the genotypes were of consistently lower
confidence. These samples were not included in further analyses. Genotypes which
appeared to match otters located in other rivers were checked carefully for contamination
issues at every step in the sample processing.
One otter identified in the Courtois River had a matching genotype to an otter
identified in West Piney Creek. However, after checking the DNA extraction daily data
forms, I concluded that this was a misidentification caused by contamination of the
Courtois sample by one of the West Piney samples processed in the same batch. Also,
one otter identified in the Niangua River had a very similar genotype to an otter found in
the Roubidoux. No contamination was detected between these samples. Besides these
two cases, no other close similarities between individuals in different rivers were
detected.
77
Appendix 3 (page 78). Examples of confidence level assignments for GeneMarkerTM
genotypes on locus RIO16R. Genotypes were assigned manually (e.g. allele calls
suggested by the program were not always used). Generally, smaller peaks to the left of
the called allele are disregarded as "stutter" bands, but occasionally represent real alleles
that have dropped out. Small peaks occurring after the called alleles were common and
generally disregarded but flagged. Also, peaks appearing one base pair above the called
allele are added by Taq during PCR, and disregarded.
bad: No clear allele peaks, and overall fluorescence values below 200.
1(a): Potential allele peaks, but fluorescence below 200. 1(b): Low fluorescence
and unclear peaks.
2(a): Unclear allele peaks, but higher fluorescence. 2(b): Clear allele peak but low
fluorescence.
3(a) and (b): Fluorescence values higher (>1000). 3(b): Possible second allele at
156.1.
4(a): Very high fluorescence, but allele peaks are similar in height; 152.9 may be
a real allele or stutter. 4(b): High fluorescence, but small peak at 152.5 may not be
a real allele.
5(a) and (b): Very high fluorescence and unquestionable allele peaks
(homozygote and heterozygote).
78
Appendix 4. Data set used for AICc model selection. BP02-S was not included in the analysis, and a control data
point was added. Success (%) indicates the genotyping success relative to the 24% average.
Section Latperkm Scatperkm Scatperlat Freshperkm Newperkm Jellyperkm Density Success
CO01-05 0.354 1.327 3.750 0.000 1.327 0.000 0.089 1.667
CO02-05 0.270 0.721 2.667 0.360 0.360 0.000 0.180 1.563
CO02-10 0.451 1.712 3.800 0.180 1.441 0.090 0.270 1.533
BP01-W 0.286 0.929 3.250 0.214 0.714 0.000 0.214 1.283
BP02-W 0.842 2.105 2.500 0.421 1.368 0.316 0.316 2.083
BP01-S 0.429 1.571 3.667 0.571 1.000 0.000 0.214 1.138
BP02-S 1.790 14.000 7.824 2.737 10.526 0.737 1.158 0.879
MA01 0.219 0.292 1.333 0.000 0.146 0.146 0.073 4.167
MA02 0.370 1.778 4.800 0.074 1.704 0.000 0.222 0.696
WP01-W
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 4.167
WP02-W 0.531 1.593 3.000 0.531 0.885 0.177 0.266 1.388
WP01-S 0.370 0.963 2.600 0.296 0.593 0.074 0.074 1.283
WP02-S 0.885 4.336 4.900 1.681 2.566 0.089 0.266 0.767
OF01 1.008 8.140 8.077 1.163 6.434 0.543 0.388 0.913
OF02 1.223 11.489 9.391 2.181 8.989 0.319 0.532 1.483
79
CR01-05 0.513 3.248 6.333 0.769 1.880 0.598 0.427 1.425
CR02-05 0.577 4.872 8.444 1.346 3.077 0.449 0.449 1.042
CR01-10 0.684 4.786 7.000 1.111 3.077 0.598 0.342 1.267
CR02-10 0.641 4.423 6.900 1.603 2.115 0.705 0.449 1.208
NI01 0.491 2.270 4.625 0.368 1.841 0.061 0.061 0.113
NI02 0.236 0.709 3.000 0.158 0.236 0.315 0.079 2.333
RO02-0 0.354 0.556 1.571 0.455 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.758
RO01-05 0.548 1.233 2.250 0.069 1.027 0.137 0.137 0.463
RO02-05 0.404 1.010 2.500 0.253 0.556 0.202 0.303 2.292
RO01-10 0.274 0.890 3.250 0.069 0.822 0.000 0.069 0.321
RO01-S 1.164 8.973 7.706 2.877 4.247 1.849 0.206 0.604
RO02-S 1.212 14.343 11.833 5.455 8.737 0.152 0.505 0.600
control 0.051 0.051 1.000 0.051 0.000 0.000 0.051 4.167
80
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