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A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators –Production and Distribution
H.R.McK. Hyder1 and R. Hellborg2
1 Department of Physics, Oxford University, Denys Wilkinson Building, KebleRoad, Oxford OX1 3RH, [email protected]
2 Department of Physics, Lund University, Solvegatan 14, 223 62 Lund, [email protected]
A.1 Invention and Early Development
Van de Graaff’s demonstration of a reliable electrostatic generator, capableof 1 MV and with the necessary stability and charging current to act as a par-ticle accelerator, occurred as the need for such a tool was being recognizedin nuclear-physics laboratories world wide. The first accelerator-based exper-iments were, of course, carried out by Cockcroft and Walton using a high-voltage cascade generator, but the prospect of voltages in excess of 1 MV fromVan de Graaff’s belt generator encouraged him and others to build improvedmachines in university laboratories and in national and industrial researchinstitutions. A record of these early developments can be found in Bromley’s1974 review. From 1932 until 1946, if you wanted an electrostatic generatoryou built it yourself. More projects were started than came to fruition; evensuccessful projects were not always recorded in accessible publications, andany list of these endeavors must inevitably be incomplete and inaccurate.Details of some of the more important of these early accelerators are givenin Table A.1.
A.2 The War Years: 1939–1945
With a few exceptions, the outbreak of war in 1939 brought accelerator de-velopment to a halt. Military research claimed the attention of many whohad been developing accelerators before 1940. Herb, Cockcroft and Trumpwere among those drafted to work on radar. While Herb worked on radar,his accelerators were taken to Los Alamos to provide cross section data. AtMIT, small Van de Graaffs were developed to generate high-energy X-rays forexamining armor plate and torpedoes. In other laboratories, existing accel-erators were pressed into use to provide cross section data, but few resourceswere available for development and construction of new machines.
596 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg
Table
A.1
.E
arl
yel
ectr
ost
ati
cacc
eler
ato
rs
Inst
ituti
on
Loca
tion
Des
igner
Yea
rV
olt
age
(MV
)In
sula
tion
Bea
mLay
out
Note
s
Pri
nce
ton
Univ
ersi
tyP
rince
ton,N
JV
an
de
Gra
aff
1931
1.5
Air
None
Ver
tica
lPosi
tive
and
neg
ati
ve
term
inals
,no
tube
DT
MW
ash
ingto
n,D
CTuve
etal.
1932
1.2
Air
alfr
esco
None
Ver
tica
lB
reit
tube,
no
ion
sourc
eD
TM
Wash
ingto
n,D
CTuve
etal.
1933
0.6
Air
p,d
Ver
tica
lFir
stex
per
imen
tal
use
MIT
Round
Hill,
MA
Van
de
Gra
aff
1935
+2.4
Air
pV
erti
cal
Hori
zonta
ltu
be
bet
wee
nte
rmin
als
and−2
.7U
niv
ersi
tyof
Wis
consi
nM
adis
on,W
IH
erb
1934
0.4
Air
,0.4
MPa
pH
ori
zonta
lFir
stpre
ssuri
zed
mach
ine
Univ
ersi
tyof
Wis
consi
nM
adis
on,W
IH
erb
1936
2.4
Air
,C
Cl 4
,p
Hori
zonta
lH
oops
round
colu
mn
0.6
MPa
Univ
ersi
tyof
Wis
consi
nM
adis
on,W
IH
erb,
1940
4.5
N2,C
Cl 4
p,d
Hori
zonta
l2
inte
rshie
lds
McK
ibben
DT
M,D
epart
men
tofTer
rest
ialM
agnet
ism
;M
IT,M
ass
ach
use
tts
Inst
itute
ofTec
hnolo
gy.
Van
de
Gra
aff’s
firs
tm
ach
ine
was
mov
edto
the
DT
Mand
equip
ped
wit
ha
Bre
it-t
ype
acc
eler
ato
rtu
be
bet
wee
ntw
ote
rmin
als
.T
he
Round
Hillm
ach
ine
was
even
tually
mov
edto
MIT
and
reass
emble
dw
ith
asi
ngle
colu
mn
and
aver
tica
lacc
eler
ato
rtu
be.
The
Wis
consi
n4.5
MV
mach
ine
(“Long
Tank”)
was
mov
edto
Los
Ala
mos
and
hel
dth
evolt
age
reco
rdfo
rte
nyea
rs.
A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 597
A.3 Commercial Production After 1945
Commercial production of DC accelerators started in the late 1930s withthe series of Cockcroft–Walton machines built by Philips in Eindhoven. Pro-duction of these machines continued for some years after 1945. During theoccupation of France in World War II, Felici in Toulouse developed cylin-drical high-voltage generators operating in compressed hydrogen. After thewar, machines of this type, manufactured by SAMES and capable of sup-plying currents of 100 µA or more at voltages up to 1 MV, were widely useduntil overtaken by improvements in solid-state power supplies and by stricterregulations about the use of compressed hydrogen.
In Switzerland, Hafely developed cascade voltage generators, both air-insulated and pressurized, for industrial use and for such scientific applica-tions as electron microscopes and synchrotron injectors. After the end of thewar, an increasing demand for industrial and medical X-ray generators andfor neutron sources led Van de Graaff and his colleagues to set up the HighVoltage Engineering Corporation in 1946. Electron and ion accelerators withenergies ranging from 0.4 to 5.5 MeV went into production and demand wassuch that in 1958 a European subsidiary, High Voltage Engineering Europa,began operation in the Netherlands. True to their origins, HVEC and itsassociated companies offered belt-charged electrostatic accelerators for mostapplications, supplemented by insulated-core transformer power supplies forlow-voltage electron beams. Production of tandem accelerators began in 1958and the first 6 MV EN was delivered to Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories in1959. Over the next 30 years more than 60 belt-charged tandems were made,with terminal voltages ranging from 1 to 22 MV.
In the USSR, production of a range of belt-charged accelerators, bothsingle-ended and tandem, began in 1955 at the Efremov Electrophysical Re-search Institute in Leningrad. Single-ended machines with voltages up to5 MV and a vertical tandem rated at 5–6 MV were designed and suppliedwithin the USSR and exported to Finland and China, and elsewhere.
In 1958 Radiation Dynamics Incorporated began to manufacture high-current accelerators, using the parallel-fed cascade generator developed byCleland. Initially they made both electron and ion accelerators, mainly foruniversities and government laboratories, including one 5 MV horizontal tan-dem. Since the 1970s, they have delivered 250 electron machines for industrialapplications.
During this period, Herb at Wisconsin was pursuing a different strategy.He developed the Pelletron chain charging system as an alternative to theinsulating belt and emphasized the importance of ultrahigh vacuum in theaccelerator tube. In 1964, he founded the National Electrostatics Corpora-tion and began construction of a vertical 8 MV tandem for the University ofSao Paulo. Subsequently NEC has developed a range of small vertical andhorizontal accelerators for analytical and research use and has constructeda small number of very high-voltage vertical tandems for nuclear physics,
598 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg
including the 25 MV machine at Oak Ridge, which holds the world record foroperating voltage.
In 1978 Purser, at General Ionex Corporation in Massachusetts, began tomake small horizontal tandems for research and analysis, using the parallel-fed cascade generator invented by Cleland. Under the trade names Tandetronand Singletron, machines based on these solid-state voltage generators arenow made by High Voltage Engineering Europa with voltages ranging from1 to 5 MV.
In 1984 Letournel in Strasbourg set up VIVIRAD to manufacture high-current electron accelerators for industrial use. The lower-voltage models useinsulating-core transformer power supplies; belt charging has been retainedfor voltages above 1 MV.
Records kept by some of these companies enable the numbers, voltagesand locations of their products to be compiled with reasonable confidence.However, lack of information about subsequent shutdowns and transfers, andreasons of security and commercial considerations (which exclude some ma-chines from published lists) mean that the tables are inevitably incomplete.Subject to these reservations, lists of research-oriented electrostatic acceler-ators, grouped by country, age and voltage, are given in Tables A.2, A.3 andA.4. These lists include a selection of home-made accelerators. In some in-stances the destination country or the voltage is not known. Consequently,the total numbers vary from table to table.
A.4 Noncommercial Developments After 1940
Construction of electrostatic accelerators by noncommercial bodies, mainlyuniversities and government agencies, did not cease in 1946. In many cases,foreign exchange difficulties or shortage of American dollars prompted insti-tutions in Europe and elsewhere to build accelerators similar in design andspecification to machines available, at a price, from the American suppliers.In other cases, the desire to develop indigenous accelerator technology led tothe formation of design and production teams that might lack experience,but were not under the same constraints of time and expense as the commer-cial companies. Finally, innovative ideas were not confined to the industrialdesign teams, and some users wanted machines that went beyond what wasspecified in the catalogues.
Many small Van de Graaff accelerators of conventional design, some pres-surized, some air-insulated, were built in university laboratories in the 1950sand 1960s in support of local research and to provide experience in nucleartechniques for students. Records of these machines are sparse, often confinedto internal reports, and most are no longer operating. No attempt has beenmade to compile a list of them. Some examples of larger projects are listedbelow. These include machines whose specifications equaled or exceeded what
A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 599
Table A.2. Distribution of electrostatic accelerators by country
Continent Number Continent Number Continent Number
Africa Europe Middle EastAlgeria 2 Austria 6 Iran 1Egypt 2 Belarus 2 Israel 4Mozambique 1 Belgium 10 Lebanon 1South Africa 4 Croatia 1 Saudi Arabia 1TOTAL 9 Czech Republic 1 Turkey 1
Denmark 8 TOTAL 8Asia Finland 2Bangladesh 1 France 48 North AmericaChina 18 Germany 80 Canada 23India 10 Greece 3 Mexico 4Japan 59 Hungary 2 USA 405Korea 4 Italy 24 TOTAL 432Siberia 4 Netherlands 17Singapore 1 Norway 3 South AmericaTaiwan 4 Poland 4 Argentina 2TOTAL 101 Portugal 1 Brazil 5
Romania 1 TOTAL 7Australasia Russia 25Australia 12 Slovenia 1New Zealand 2 Spain 3TOTAL 14 Sweden 13
Switzerland 5Ukraine 2UK 61TOTAL 323
was commercially available at the time, as well as those with innovative de-signs. The technical reports published by the builders of these machines,especially those from Debrecen, Daresbury and Kyushu, are important con-tributions to electrostatic-accelerator technology, much of which would stilllurk behind the veils of commercial security in their absence. The choice ofprojects in the list below is arbitrary. Low-voltage accelerators, cascade gen-erators, disk generators and dust generators have generally been excluded.No technical judgment is to be inferred from absence from this list.
A.4.1 Selected Noncommercial Accelerator Projects
Canada
(i) AECL, Chalk River: “Cambridge” design 4 MV vertical Van de Graaff
600 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg
Table A.3. Distribution by year of manufacture
Period Number
Pre-1935 61936–1940 71941–1945 31946–1950 221951–1955 611956–1960 1671961–1965 2031966–1970 1301971–1975 361976–1980 121981–1985 211986–1990 421991–1995 441996–2000 402001–2004 (part) 27
Total 821
Table A.4. Distribution by voltage and manufacturer
Voltage (MV) HVEC HVEE NEC Other Total
0.11–0.50 79 0 6 3 880.51–1.00 72 23 22 10 1271.01–2.00 151 41 55 19 2662.01–3.00 59 25 32 17 1333.01–4.00 24 0 6 18 484.01–5.00 1 1 7 15 245.01–7.50 69 3 1 9 827.51–10.00 2 0 3 5 1010.01–15.00 13 0 5 0 1815.01–20.00 0 0 2 1 3>20.00 1 0 1 1 3
Total 471 93 140 98 802
China
(i) Lanzhou: folded tandem(ii) Academia Sinica, Shanghai: 6 MV vertical Laddertron Tandem (Lai)
A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 601
France
(i) CEA, Saclay: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff with liner stabilization (Win-ter)
(ii) CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette: 2 MV horizontal tandem “Aramis” (Chaumont)(iii) IReS, Strasbourg: 20 MV horizontal Van de Graaff tandem with multiple
intershields and radial insulator posts (Letournel)
Germany
(i) MPI, Mainz: 6 MV vertical Van de Graaff(ii) ZfK, Rossendorf: 5 MV EGP-10 vertical Van de Graaff tandem(iii) Siemens, Erlangen: 2.5 MV electron accelerator
Hungary
(i) KFKI, Budapest: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff with magnetic tube sup-pression (Kostka)
(ii) ATOMKI, Debrecen: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff with innovative elec-trostatic design and electrostatic tube suppression (Koltay)
India
(i) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay: 7 MV folded tandem (Singh)
Italy
(i) CISE, Milan: 3.5 MV vertical Van de Graaff (Iori)(ii) CISE, Milan: 4 MV vertical tandem Van de Graaff (Caruso)
Japan
(i) Kyushu University, Fukuoka: 7 MV vertical pellet-chain accelerator(Isoya)
(ii) Kyushu University, Fukuoka: 10 MV horizontal pellet-chain accelerator(Isoya)
(iii) Kyushu University, Fukuoka: 1 MV disk generator for ion implantation(Isoya)
Netherlands
(i) Groningen University: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff (Boerma)
602 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg
United Kingdom
(i) AERE Harwell: “Cambridge” design 4 MV Van de Graaff (W.D. Allen)(ii) AEI Research Laboratory, Aldermaston: “Cambridge” design 4 MV
Van de Graaff, incorporating microwave terminal control (Chick)(iii) Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge: “Cambridge (Mass.)” design 4 MV
Van de Graaff (Shire)(iv) AERE Harwell: 7 MV vertical tandem Van de Graaff (W.D. Allen and
K.W. Allen)(v) AWRE Aldermaston: 7 MV vertical tandem Van de Graaff, identical to
(iv)(vi) Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Oxford: 10 MV vertical bipolar Van de
Graaff, coupled to HVEC EN tandem (W.D. Allen)(vii) Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Oxford: conversion of (vi) to 10 MV folded
tandem (K.W. Allen, Hyder)(viii) Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Daresbury: 20–30 MV vertical Laddertron
tandem with single intershield (Voss, Aitken)
USA
(i) MIT: 4 MV vertical “Cambridge” Van de Graaff with intershields (Trumpand Van de Graaff)
(ii) Los Alamos National Laboratory: 10 MV vertical Van de Graaff “P-9”with multiple intershields and separation column (McKibben)
(iii) MIT: 8–10 MV vertical “MIT-ONR” Van de Graaff with one intershield(Trump and Van de Graaff)
USSR
(i) KphTi, Kharkhov: ESU-2 2 MV horizontal Van de Graaff(ii) Kurchatov Institute, Moscow: 3.5 MV vertical tandem(iii) IPPE, Obninsk: EGP-15 7.5 MV vertical tandem(iv) INR, Kiev, Ukraine: 7 MV vertical tandem (Vishnevsky)
Acknowledgments
The authors of this appendix acknowledge with gratitude the help of thefollowing in compiling the tables: P. Dubbelman, J. Groot and R. Koudijs(HVEE); G.A. Norton (NEC); R. Repnow (MPI, Heidelberg); V.A. Romanov(IPPE, Obninsk); and F.F. Komarov (Minsk).
A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 603
Literature
T.W. Aitken: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 328, 10 (1993)K.W. Allen: Nature 184, 303 (1959)W.D. Allen: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 55, 61 (1967)G.A. Behman: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 3, 181 (1958) and 5, 129 (1959)D.O. Boerma: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 86, 221 (1970)D.A. Bromley: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 122, 1 (1974)E. Caruso: Report, Centro Informazioni Studi Esperienze (Segrate, Milano), Milan,
CISE-N-176 (1975)J. Chaumont: Nucl. Instr. Meth. B 62, 416 (1992)D.R. Chick: Proc. IEEE 103b, 132 and 152 (1955)H.R.McK. Hyder: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 184, 9 (1981)I. Iori: Energia Nucleare 8, 770 (1961)A. Isoya: Proc. First Int. Conf. Electrostatic Accelerator Technology, Daresbury,
DNPL/NSF/R5, p. 89 (1973)E. Koltay: Proc. First Int. Conf. Electrostatic Accelerator Technology, Daresbury,
DNPL/NSF/R5, p. 200 (1973)P. Kostka: IEEE Trans NS-18, 82 (1971)W.Q. Lai: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 382, 89 (1996)M. Letournel: IEEE Trans. NS-30, 2713 (1983)J.L. McKibben: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 122, 81 (1974)H. Naylor: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 63, 61 (1968)V.A. Romanov: Proc. European Particle Accelerator Conference Location –
Stockholm 1998, 696U. Schmidt-Rohr: Die Deutschen Teilchenbeschleuniger, Max-Planck-Institut fur
Kernphysik, Heidelberg (2001)E.S. Shire: Br. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. 2, S56 (1953)P. Singh: Ind. J. Pure Appl. Phys. 35, 172 (1997)J.G. Trump: Elec. Eng., September 1951, p. 1R.J. Van de Graaff: Rev. Sci. Instr. 12, 534 (1941)I.N. Vishnevsky: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 328, 39 (1993)R.G.P. Voss: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 184, 1 (1981)S.D. Winter: Onde Elec. 35, 995 (1955)M.H. Ye, J.P. Chen: Electrostatic Accelerators (in Chinese), probably State Science
Publisher, Beijing (1965)
B Appendix: SI Units and Other Units
R. Hellborg
Department of Physics, Lund University, Solvegatan 14, 223 62 Lund, [email protected]
Throughout this book, the International system of Units (SI system) is used.This system was adopted in 1960 by the Conference Generale des Poids etMesures (CGPM), which can be roughly translated as “General Conferenceon Weights and Measures”.
In many accelerator laboratories, a broad variety of equipment, metersetc., produced in different countries and with different ages, are in use. Thisresults in a variegated set of units – SI units and non-SI units, some ofthem very old – being in use. Also, a great deal of the existing literature inphysics and technology has been expressed in terms of older systems. It isthus necessary to understand the relationships between SI and these systemsif the literature is to be fully utilized. The presentation in this Appendix isof course not intended to be a complete review of these systems, its onlypurpose is to provide a basis for their translation into SI.
The SI system is a coherent system based on seven basic units, listed inTable B.1. In a coherent system, the derived units are expressed in terms ofthe base units by relations with numerical factors equal to unity. The presentdefinitions of the various basic units are available in the literature from theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP).
Table B.1. SI base units
Base Quantity SI Restricted Name SI Symbol
Length meter mMass kilogram kgTime second sElectric current ampere AThermodynamic temperature kelvin KAmount of substance mole molLuminous intensity candela cd
From these seven basic units, several coherent, derived SI units have beenobtained. Specific names and symbols have been given to several of these;some of them are listed in Table B.2. SI units related to ionizing radiationare not included, as they are discussed in detail and defined in Chap. 17.
B Appendix: SI Units and Other Units 605
Table B.2. Derived SI units with special names
Quantity SI Name SI Symbol Expression in Expression inTerms of Base Terms of OtherUnits SI Units
Plane angle radian rad mm−1
Solid angle steradian sr m2 m−2
Frequency hertz Hz s−1
Force newton N mkg s−2 J m−1
Pressure pascal Pa m−1 kg s−2 N m−2, J m−3
Energy, work, quantity joule J m2 kg s−2 N mof heat
Power, radiant flux watt W m2 kg s−3 J s−1
Electric charge coulomb C A sElectric potential volt V m2 kg s−3 A−1 W A−1, J C−1
differenceCapacitance farad F m−2 kg−1 s4 A2 CV−1
Electric resistance ohm Ω m2 kg s−3 A−2 V A−1
Conductance siemens S m−2 kg−1 s3 A2 A V−1, Ω−1
Magnetic flux weber Wb m2 kg s−2 A−1 V sMagnetic flux density tesla T kg s−2 A−1 Wb m−2
Inductance henry H m2 kg s−2 A−2 Wb A−1
The CGPM has recognized certain units that are important and widelyused, but which do not properly fall within the SI. The special names andsymbols of those units that have been accepted for continuing use and thecorresponding units of the SI are listed in Table B.3. Although the use ofthese units is acceptable, their combination with SI units to form incoherentcompound units should be authorized only in limited cases.
The CGPM has also accepted a few units that must be obtained by exper-iment. The energy unit electronvolt is such a unit. The symbol is eV, and itis defined as 1 eV = (e C−1) J. The atomic mass unit is another. The symbol
Table B.3. Commonly used non-SI units
Quantity Name Symbol Definition
Plane angle degree 1 = π (180)−1 radminute ′ 1′ = 1 (60)−1
second ′′ 1′′ = 1′ (60)−1
Time minute min 1 min = 60 shour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 sday d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
Volume liter l, L 1 l = 1 dm3 = 10−3 m3
Mass tonne t 1 t = 1000 kg
606 R. Hellborg
Table B.4. Conversion factors between the SI system and other systems
Given Multiply by To obtain Given Multiply by To obtain
Lengthin (US) 25.4 mm ft 304.8 mmyd 914 mm
Areacmil 0.0005067 mm2 in2 645.2 mm2
ft2 0.09290 m2
Volumefl oz 29.57 cm3 gal (US) 3.785 dm3
in3 16.39 cm3 ft3 0.02832 m3
Speedft per min 5.080 mms−1
Massoz 28.35 g lb 0.4536 kgshort ton 0.9072 metric ton
Densitylb ft−3 16.02 kg m−3
Pressure
lb in−2a
6.895 kPa mb 100.0 PammHg 133.322 Pa Torr 133.322 Paµ 0.133322 Pa atm 1.013 × 105 Pa
Powerhp 745.7 W erg s−1 10−7 Wft lb s−1 1.356 W
EnergyeV 1.60219 × 10−19 J erg 10−7 Jcal 4.1868 J ft lb 1.356 W
Forcedyn 10−5 N lb 4.448 N
Magnetic fluxV s 1 Wb Mx 10−8 Wb
Magnetic flux densityWb m−2 1 T G 10−4 Ta lb in−2 is often abbreviated to psi.
B Appendix: SI Units and Other Units 607
is u, and it is defined as 1 u = m(12C)(12)−1. Both units are accepted forcontinuing use with the SI units.
Several old units belong to a group whose use may be discontinued. Tothis group belong the length unit angstrom, the area unit barn, the pressureunits bar and torr, the quantity-of-heat unit calorie, the activity unit curie,the exposure unit rontgen, the absorbed-dose unit rad and the dose-equivalentunit rem.
Conversion factors and equivalents between the SI system and older unitsin the metric system, as well as nonmetric and related units, which may beuseful for people in an accelerator laboratory, are to be found in Table B.4.
Index
11th of September 2001, 445
aberration, 279, 531absorption, 429accelerator mass spectrometry, 33, 140,
461accelerator tube, 123–126, 128–134,
136, 138, 140, 142, 143, 145,147–150, 276, 284–287, 289, 291,292, 294, 296, 302
assembly, 140breakdown, 125conditioning, 143design, 136electrodes, 139entrance/exit aperture lens, 284–286fault diagnosis, 144functions, 123gluing technology, 140, 147, 148ideal, 124inclined-field, 133, 276, 295, 296
model, 292, 295, 296insulators, 138limiting gradient, 74mechanical design, 136model, 289, 292operating procedure, 142physical processes in, 124radiation levels, 143summary of performance, 145vacuum, 140
accelerator tube beam optics, 132, 278,280
aberration, 132analytic calculation, 132effect of suppression systems, 136effect of thick electrodes, 133emittance, 133
entrance lens, 132
entrance/exit aperture lens, 278
finite-element calculations, 132
inclined-field, 292
preacceleration, 132
acceptance, 306
adjusted normalization of decay curves(ANDC), method, 563–565
adsorbed gas, 129
aerial effects, 110, 118, 119
Agata, 416
air, dielectric strength, 64
alpha (α) cluster properties, 431
alternating-gradient focusing, 19
aluminum-26, 474
Alvarez, 5
ambipolar diffusion, 514
ammonium nitrate (AN), 452
amorphization, 507, 508
amplifier, 380
analytical techniques, 530
analyzing magnet, 165
Ancore, 455
ANDC method, 563–565
aperture lens, 285–287
archaeology, 478, 547, 553
area effect (on breakdown voltage), 78
Ariel, 383
art objects, 531, 553
astigmatism, 282, 287, 288
asymptotic breakdown gradient, 84, 85,87
atomic
branching fractions, 561, 566, 568,570, 571, 577–579
energy levels, 560
ions, 560
Index 609
lifetimes, 562, 564–567, 570, 571, 573,575–579
line strength factors, 567, 568,571–574, 578
transition probabilities, 561, 563,566, 570, 577, 578
attachmentcoefficient, 77time, 77
attenuation coefficient, 341energy absorption, 342energy transfer, 342photons, 361
Auger electrons, 338, 534automatic beam tuning, 334automatic inspection technologies, 445average energy loss, 487
band termination, 417Barkas effect, 491barn (= 10−28 m2), 447barrier distributions, 437beam
aberration, 279brightness, 225, 317, 531current, 317–322, 325, 326diagnostics, 317envelope, 300focal constraints, 288loading, 175–178matching, 280, 285–289profile, 317, 324–326profile monitor, 324, 326stopper, 326tandem, 285–288transport, 278–294, 296, 300
aberration, 279axes, 280coupling, 278, 285, 286focal constraints, 282, 283matrix, 280single-stage, 284tandem, 285
waist, 280, 283, 284beam transport
tandem, 286, 287beam–foil spectroscopy (BFS), 560–564,
567, 568, 573, 578, 579bearings, 91, 95, 99, 100
belt, 89–95, 97, 98, 101–103guides, 92–95
Berkeley, 26beryllium, 367beryllium-10, 472betatron, 11, 24BGO (bismuth germanate oxide), 452binary-collision approximation, 487,
488, 508biomedicine, 547biomolecules, 524biosensors, 524BK model, 493Bohr velocity, 184boron trifluoride, 351brachytherapy, 24Bragg’s rule, 498breakdown, 77
gas insulation, 84, 85products, 115, 121voltage, 84, 85, 87
breakup, 431, 439bremsstrahlung, 130
electron, 536projectile, 536
brightness, 225, 317, 531bunching, 380
C4 explosive, 456cadmium, 367calcium-41, 476CAMAC, 331cancellation effects, 570capacitive pickoff (CPO), 91–93capacitive pickup, 160carbon-11, 32, 408carbon-14, 33, 471carbon buildup, 175carbon ions, 30carbon stripper foils, 182, 187–189cascade accelerator, 8, 104cascade generator circuit
asymmetrical, 104parallel-driven, 106symmetrical, 105
CASINO, 514catalysts, 516CERN, 20chain, 89, 94–100
610 Index
chain scission, 522Chalk River, 56channeling, 544
contrast microscopy, 544charge, 89–94, 96–100
exchange, 181, 183, 231exchanger, 192selection, 288selector, 288, 296state, 166–169, 172, 173, 175–179,
181–185distribution, 182equilibrium, 182
charging efficiency, 92, 97–100charging system, surge protection, 81chemical agents, 445Child–Langmuir relation, 223chiral symmetry, 420chlorine-36, 473clearing dose, 523clinical oncology, 551close encounter, 540closed-loop control, 334clumps, initiating breakdown, 130clustering phenomena, 419cobalt-60, 24Cockcroft–Walton accelerator, 5, 64,
105coherent system of units, 604coincidence counting
techniques, 579collector, 382collector screen, 91, 94colliding-beam system, 20collimator, beam, 280collision cascade, 499, 510column
dead section, 74internal field distribution, 73structure, 74
complex materials, ion beam analysisof, 547
Comptonscattering, 378suppression shields, 415
computed tomography (CT), 28computer control
response time, 332
system, 164conditioning, 167, 334conductance, pumping, 169, 171–174confined space, 369–371confinement time, 194contact band, 96, 99, 100controlled corona discharge, 154, 160controlled down charge, 160conveyor, 587, 588, 591Cooper pair, 416, 417, 421core polarization model, 575Coriolis forces, 417corona, 110–115
current, 77needle assembly, 161point, 153points, 154, 164, 165stabilization, 77, see also controlled
corona dischargecorrosion process, 554corrugated waveguide, 383Cosmotron, 18Coulomb explosion, 168, 169coupled-channel calculations, 431, 438coupling, beam, 278, 285, 286CPO (capacitive pickoff), 91–93CPU (capacitive pickup), 160Cranberg theory of breakdown, 130CREOL, University of Central Florida,
384crosslinking, 522, 582, 583cross section, 341, 447, 448, 451, 534crystallography, 46current recirculation, 384cyclotron, 11, 24
AVF, 17cyclotron frequency, 194
d, T, 450damage peak, 515Daresbury, 59, 287, 418dead section, 169, 178dead-time correction, 537Debye length, 195deep inelastic, 435deep inelastic collisions, 441definition
dose, 526electron volt, 526
Index 611
fluence, 527fluence rate, 527G value, 526linear energy transfer (LET), 526mass stopping power, 526Particle flux, 527stopping cross section, 527stopping force (power), 527
delta (δ) electrons, 511density effect, 184Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
54detection limit, 534detector, 350, 531deuteron, 340deuteron beam, 455device interface, 329dielectric constant
alumina, 126glass, 126
dielectric materials, 507differential pumping, 173differential-pumping tube, 142diffractive effects in scattering, 430diffusion bonding, 140diffusion models, 441dipole
matrix, 282dipole magnet, 275dipole radiation, 36direct voltage technique, 8discharges, high-voltage in vacuum, 128disinfection, 582, 583dispersion, beam, 279, 283, 289dissolution rates, 516distorted-wave Born approximation,
431distributed-feeedback (DFB) lasers, 520divergence, 168, 172DLC foils, 190, 191dose, 584, 586, 587, 592
about ion track, 513absorbed, 342definition, 527effective, 342equivalent, 342measurement, 351neutron, 363
personal, 343personal monitors, 352
drift matrix, 281drugs, 445dust, 78, 92, 93dynamic recovery, 516Dynamitron, 106
earthquakeprotection, 372–374protection system, 374sensor, 375
ECPSSR treatment of ionization crosssections, 534
effective charge, 182, 493einzel lens, 276, 287elastic collisions, 489elastic-recoil detection analysis
(ERDA), 540electrical breakdown, 77–80, 84, 85electrical components, surge protection,
81electrode material properties, 139electromagnetic spin–orbit coupling,
424electron, 338, 340, 581–591, 593electron affinity, 225electron and hole transport, 514electron beam lithography (EBL), 524electron capture, 181, 182, 184, 185electron cascade, 511, 513electron cyclotron resonance heating
(ECRH), 384electron–hole recombination, 514electron loading, 167, 169electron loss, 181, 182, 185electron optics, 278, 382electron–phonon interactions, 507electron storage rings, 20electron suppression, 133, 177electron surface emission, 128, 507electron temperature, 193electron tunneling, 128electronic excitation, 510, 520electronic excitation in dielectric
materials, 514electronic personal dosimeters, 353electronic stopping, 490electronic stopping cross section, 490
612 Index
electronic stopping in channels, 499electronic stopping power, 487electrostatic accelerator, 9, 299
air-insulated, 64FEL (EA-FEL), 380nuclear structure, 413
electrostatic deflector, 275electrostatic field, 67, 84
distribution along surfaces, 86systematic errors, estimate, 84
electrostatic lens, axially symmetric,312
electrostatic mirror, 326electrostatic suppression, 318–320elemental composition, 445elemental content, 456elemental features, 446ellipse, phase space, 280, 283, 284emittance, 168, 175, 224, 300, 317emittance measurement, 317empirical scaling rule, 493EN tandem, 56, 116, 382, 414energy
analyzing system, 153–156balance, 508dispersion, 156loss, 486retrieval, 384spread, 317stored, 78straggling, 495
entrance/exit lens, tube, 132, 278,284–288, 296
environment, 547Er2Zr2O7, 519ethylene-cracked foils, 189Euroball, 414evaporation–condensation, 188, 190evaporation residue, 440Exogam, 427expansion cup, 204Experimental Physics and Industrial
Control System (EPICS), 330explosive materials, 366explosives, 445exposure-age dating, 480extraction, 202
Bayly and Ward type, 214
beam, 223efficiency, 386Thonemann type, 214
extremely high frequency, 389
far infra-red (FIR), 384Faraday cup, 318–321, 323, 326
retractable, 321fast ion beams, 561fast-neutron analysis (FNA), 450FEL (free-electron laser), 378Feldmuhle, 157FEM (free-electron maser), 378field distribution, 67
column, 73cylindrical geometry, 67hoops, 72intershield, 69single-ended accelerator, 66spherical geometry, 69terminal, 72
film badge, 352filter, beam, 279, 288flammable materials, 366flat-topping, 333fluence, 318, 327, 340, 526fluorine-18, 32, 409FN tandem, 56, 116, 414focal constraints, 282focus, beam, 280–289focusing device, 531folded tandem, 67, 285, 288, 372FOM Institute, 384form factor, 435Fowler–Nordheim law, 128fragmentation of molecular ions, 181Fraunhofer diffraction, 430free-electron laser (FEL), 378free-electron maser (FEM), 378Frenkel pairs, 510fret corrosion, 99fringing field tube, 286fringing field, tube, 278full-width half-maximum (FWHM),
386fusion, 389fusion–fission, 440
gamma flash, 456
Index 613
gamma rays, 338, 456characteristic elemental, 445multidetector systems, 414
Gammasphere, 415gap lens, 285, 286gas discharge, 197
arc, 197glow, 197high-frequency, 198
linear, 198ring, 198
Townsend-type, 197gas insulation, 84, 85gas or foil, 182gas stripping, 182, 183gas-filled magnet, 470Gd2Ti2O7, 519Ge (germanium), 452General Ionex Corporation, 107generating voltmeter (GVM), 153, 155,
157, 158, 160, 162, 164, 468amplifier, 159
glazes, 554gradient bar, 93, 95grading bars, 74gray, 584Greinacher, 105gridded lens, 285, 286gridded windows, 404Group3, 331GSI, 30GVM, see generating voltmeter
half-value layer, 361hazardous materials, 445hazards
electrical, 365fire and explosion, 366mechanical, 366toxic, 367
Heavy Ion Accelerator TechnologyConferences, 62
Herb, Ray, 6, 89, 95high-resolution transmission electron
microscope (HRTEM), 516high-temperature superconductors
(HTSCs), 388High Voltage Engineering Corporation,
55
high-voltage (HV) terminal, 381high-voltage DC accelerator, 8high-voltage supplies, surge protection,
82Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 346hoop design, 72HVEE, 108hydrocarbons, 170, 171, 173, 175hyperdeformation, 419hyperfine quenching, 576, 577
Ice Man, 479ICRP (International Commission on
Radiological Protection), 360idler, 99image point, 281, 283, 284, 288, 289image slit, 156, 165imaging, portal, 29immobilization of actinide-containing
nuclear waste, 516impact parameter, 429inclined-field tube see accelerator tube,
inclined-field 133incomplete fusion, 439induced radiation, 357inductor, 96, 97, 99, 100industrial applications, 549, 581–584,
588, 591inelastic process, 448inelastic scattering, 431infrared (IR), 380instrument protection, 333insulating gas, 75, 369, 371
carbon tetrachloride, 75compressed air, 75nitrogen/carbon dioxide, 75sulfur hexafluoride see sulfur
hexafluoride 75insulating-core transformer, 107insulators, 80
properties, 138surface shape, 127, 139tracking length, 127, 139
intensity-modulated radiotherapy(IMRT), 29
interacting-boson model, 418interaction potential, 429interaction quantities, 341interatomic potentials, 489
614 Index
International Union of Pure andApplied Physics (IUPAP), 604
intershield, 69effect on maximum voltage, 70
interstitial, 510interstitials and vacancies, 516iodine-129, 475ion beam, 299ion beam analysis (IBA), 530ion beam mixing, 520ion metastable, 229ion-optical calculation, 311ion optics, 278, 285, 287, 299ion range, 508ion–solid interactions, 530ion source, 200, 274, 531
ANIS, 261Cs-sputter, 244diode, 231duoPIGatron, 204duoplasmatron, 200, 231ECR, 216external-oven, 250gas field ionization (GFIS), 219high frequency (RF)
capacitively coupled, 212inductively coupled, 212
high-frequency (RF), 212inverted sputter, 247liquid-metal (LMIS), 219multiple sample, 258of single-ended machines, 192Penning-type (PIG), 205plasma-sputter, 260RF plasma-sputter, 263SNICs, 251
ion spectrum, 317ion straggling, 510ion track dose model, 511ion trajectories, 300ionization
chamber, 469cross section, 193electron impact, 195field, 196in plasma column, 514ion impact, 196multiple, 195
surface, 196ionizer
conical, 252cylindrical, 254ellipsoidal, 256spherical, 256spiral-wound, 255
ionoluminescence, 545iron-60, 478irradiation, 587, 589, 592irradiation lifetime, 187irradiation-induced damage, 500
in pyrochlores, 516in SiC, 514
Ising, Gustaf, 6isochronal annealing, 515isochronous cyclotron, 18isoelectronic sequences, 561, 567, 570,
578isospin, 421isospin-breaking effects, 424isospin mixing, 425Israeli FEL, 384
Japan Atomic Energy ResearchInstitute, 372
K isomer, 418Kapchinskiy–Vladimirskiy density
distribution, 311kerma, 343Kerst, 16kinematic coincidence, 441Kobe University of Mercantile Marine,
372Korean FEM, 384
LabVIEW, 330laddertron, 59, 97, 98, 100Lamb shift, 576Laplace’s equation, analytical solution,
66large-angle scattering, 496laser, 378laser plasma ablation–deposition, 190lateral spreading, 510lattice disorder, 514
in pyrochlores, 516in SiC, 514
Index 615
Lawrence, 5lead, 367leakage current, 318, 321LED display, 323, 324lens, accelerator tube, 278, 284–287lens matrix, 281LHC, 7, 21lifetime
of belt, 101, 102of ion, 194of ion source, 192, 198, 202, 206, 209,
214light ions, 30linac (linear accelerator), 12, 26, 378Lindhard–Scharff–Shott (LSS) model,
492linear accelerator (linac), 12, 26, 378liner, 163linewidth, 386Liouville’s theorem, 224liquid-drop model, 441Livingston, 6, 19Livingston plot, 6LNT (linear–no-threshold) hypothesis,
347local-density approximation, 492logarithmic amplifier, 157Long Tank accelerator, 10, 55, 65, 66Los Alamos, 55low-voltage arc breakdown, 128
magic numbers, 423magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 28magnetic rotation, 420magnetic spectrometer, 433, 539magnetic suppression, 320magnetostatic wiggler, 382manganese-53, 478mass asymmetries, 441Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
54Massey adiabaticity criterion, 233matching, beam, 280, 285–289material discrimination, 446material processing, 389material-specific inspection technolo-
gies, 445materials engineering, 506materials science, 526, 539
matrixaccelerator tube, 284beam ellipse, 283beam transport, 280dipole, 282drift, 281thin/thick lens, 281transfer, 303
maximum field, safe working value, 68McMillan, 5mean free path, 193mechanical fuse, 375medicine, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35mercury, 367metal oxide resistors, 116–118, 120, 121metastability, 576MeV ion implantation, 514microbeam, 31microdischarges, 130microparticles, 131microscopy, 45microtron, 11mid-column lens, 285, 286mineral, 550mineralized tissue, 552Miniball, 427minimum, beam, 283–285mirror energy differences, 424mirror nuclei, 424mm wavelengths, 380mode competition, 386modulation, beam, 289molecular dynamics, 487molecule, 168, 169, 173MP tandem, 57, 68multileaf collimator (MLC), 26, 29multimodal decay, 440multiparameter detector systems, 531multiphonon excitations, 438multiple scattering, 167, 168, 175, 176,
548multiply excited states, 575multistage depressed collector, 384
N = Z nuclei, 422n, γ, 448, 450, 451n, n′γ, 451NaI (sodium iodide), 452nanobeam, 532
616 Index
nanoscale engineering, 506nanoscience, 547National Electrostatics Corporation, 57negative-ion injector, 286negative resist, 522neutron, 340, 351, 362, 445
14 MeV, 450fast, 449thermal, 445, 447
neutron-based technologies, 445neutron capture, 356, 451neutron capture cross section, 447neutron flash, 456neutron generator, 356, 449, 450
electronic (ENG), 450sealed, 449, 450
neutron–proton pairing, 421neutron source, 448neutron therapy, 24newsprint paper, 549nickel-59, 478nickel-63, 478nitrogen-13, 32nondestructive analysis, 530nonintrusive inspection, 445Nottingham effect, 131nuclear displacement, 507nuclear material, 445nuclear microprobe, 531nuclear rainbow, 430nuclear reaction, 327, 445
2H(d, n)3He, 456nuclear-reaction analysis (NRA), 518nuclear scattering, 510Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi, 373nuclear stopping cross section, 490nuclear stopping power, 487nucleon evaporation, 435nucleon correlations, 432
Oak Ridge, 58, 288, 373object point, 285, 286, 288object slit, 156, 165occupation probability, 434Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, 369, 370oil paintings, 554optical waveguide, 526
optics, accelerator, 278, see alsoaccelerator tube beam optics, 285,287
organic elements (hydrogen, carbon,nitrogen, oxygen), 446
organic resists, 522oscillations, Z1, 497oscillations, Z2, 497oscillator, 380outgassing rate, 142oxygen-15, 32, 407
pair condensate, 421pairing interaction, 416, 431, 435parallel beam, 278, 281–284, 292–295particle elastic-scattering analysis
(PESA), 540particle flux, 526particle-induced gamma-ray emission
(PIGE), 542particle-induced X-ray emission
(PIXE), 534parting agent, 188Paschen curves, 197peak-to-background, 534Pelletron, 58, 89, 95, 98–100, 306, 372,
380, 453permanent magnet, 275permittivity, 223perovskite-type oxides, 516personnel safety, 333perveance, 223phase space, 224, 279–281, 283phase-stabilized acceleration, 16phonons, 514photoluminescence, 524photon, 338, 339pickup, 317, 318pickup electrode, 317Pierce-type electron gun, 381pigments, 554pixel, 456planes, focal, 281, 284plant science, 551plasma
column, 514density, 193electron density, 193flare, 128
Index 617
frequency, 194electron, 194ion, 194
ion density, 193sheath, 195state, 193temperature, 193
plutonium, 476plutonium-239, 446Poisson’s equation, 223polarization effects, 423pollution, 581–583poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA),
513polyvinyl acetate, 140ponderomotive force, 380portico intershield, 59, 71position-sensitive detector (PSD), 565positive resist, 522positron emission tomography (PET),
28, 32, 396positron emission tomography com-
bined with computed tomography(PET/CT), 28
postaccelerator, 166, 177, 179potential divider, 74potential-drop accelerator, 8potential-energy surfaces, 441prebreakdown processes, 128precious artefacts, 554prompt α-decay, 426prompt emissions, 508prompt proton decay, 426proton, 340, 354proton beam writing (PBW), 523proton decay, 425proton storage rings, 20proton therapy, 26, 27, 30provenance, 554proximity exposure effect, 523pulse pileup, 537pulsed fast-neutron analysis (PFNA),
450, 453pulsed-neutron inspection (PNI), 450,
452pulsing, ns, 452pyrochlore materials, 516
Q snout, 132
quantitative analysis, 531, 537quantum beats, 562, 566quantum defects, 570quantum well structures, 520quasi-classical scattering, 511quasi-elastic collisions, 435quasi-fission, 440quasi-optical delivery system, 383
Rontgen, 24radiation
damage, 516dose, 531hazards, 326, 327ionizing, 337nonionizing, 337therapy, 27
radiation cooling, 321radiation effects, 344, 518
in materials, 507late
cancer, 345hereditary, 348leukemia, 347
pregnancy, 344skin, 344threshold, 345whole-body, 344
radiation field quantities, 341radiation protection, 337radiation user facility, 384radiative energy transmission, 389radioactive decay, 338radioactive ion beam, 414, 427radiocarbon calibration, 479radiography, 457radiopharmaceuticals, 31radiotherapy, 27radium, 24rare-earth elements, 545ray vector, 283recirculating gas stripper, 468recoil, 540recombination, 510recovery stages, 515reference particle, 279refractive effects in scattering, 430refractive index, 524relativistic effects, 569
618 Index
residual gas, 130, 141, 318–322, 326analyzer, 143ionization, 318–322, 326
resistor, 110, 112, 115–122surge protection, 82
resonance acceleration, 11resonant excitation, 511resonator, 386respiratory system, 367RF discharge source, 274Righi, Augusto, 52Rising, 426rotating shaft, 169rotational bands, 438rotational motion of nuclei, 416Round Hill, 54, 64round-trip reflectivity, 386Rubbia, 5Rutherford, 4, 538Rutherford backscattering (RBS), 4,
538spectroscopy, 518
safetyadministrative, 358confined space, 369sulfur hexafluoride, 369, 370technical, 359
saturation current, 319scaling, 334scanner, 587, 590, 591scattering, 496scattering integral, 489Schwinger, 5, 16scintillation detectors, 448screen, 90–94screening function, 502screening length, 493second stripper, 166, 176–178, 181secondary-electron-induced modifica-
tion, 511secondary electrons, 125, 318–321, 324,
325, 507, 511–514secondary reactions, 431semiclassical model, 434sheaves, 100shielded resistors, 118, 119shorting rod, 143SI system, 526, 604
base units, 604conversion factors from other
systems, 606derived units, 605non-SI units, 605
SiC, 514SiC polytypes, 514signatures, nuclear, 446silicon-32, 477silicon nitride window, 469simulation of treatment, 28single-particle motion of nuclei, 416slot aperture, 287slowing down, 486, 487Sm2Ti2O7, 519small-angle scattering, 168, 496space charge sheath, 128spark, 110–112, 115–121spark gap, 80, 140spectrum
gamma-ray, 456ion, 317
sputtered foils, 189sputtering, 175, 499stabilization, 152–154, 157, 164, 165stabilization system, 153sterilization, 34, 582, 583, 593STIM, 543stopping force, 508, 526, 527stopping power, 342, 526, 527stopping power for a heavy ion, 493stored energy, 78strength
dielectric, 101, 103interlayer connection, 101, 102mechanical, 101, 102
stripper, beam scattering, 133stripper density, 317stripper gas recirculator, 142stripping, 182
electron, 181foil, 184, 185gas, 184, 185second, 166, 176–178, 181
strontium-90, 478subcascades, 510sublattices, 515sulfur hexafluoride, 75
Index 619
biological effects, 369breakdown vs. pressure, 76
superconducting magnets, 21superdeformed nuclei, 418superheavy elements, 441suppression electrode, 318–322suppression system, 133
alternating inclined electrodes, 133axial-field modulation, 136compressed geometry, 137electron trajectories, 137spirally inclined electrodes, 134transverse magnetic, 134
surface contaminants in acceleratortubes, 130
surface tracking of tube insulators, 126surge damage, 80Swedish Work Environment Authority,
369, 370Symposium of North Eastern Accelera-
tor Personnel, 62synchrotron, 18synchrotron radiation, 31
coherence, 39facilities, 39monochromators, 40–42power, 37spectral range, 37
synchrotron undulator radiation, 378
Talbot reflector, 383tandem accelerator, 10, 107tandem accelerator geometry, 67Tandetron, 107tank geometry, 67tank, soft elastic suspension, 375Tel Aviv University, 382tension of belt or chain, 89, 92, 93,
98–100terminal
impedance, 152, 160magnet, 285pumping, 142shape, 72
therapyelectron beam, 26microbeam, 31neutron, 24photon activation, 31
proton beam, 26thermal neutrons, 445, 451thermal-neutron analysis (TNA), 450thermalized neutrons, 447Thomas–Fermi effective-charge model,
182, 184Thomas–Fermi velocity, 184Thomson scattering, 378threats, 445time of flight, 433, 450, 453, 454, 456,
470, 539, 560, 561, 564, 573tin-100, 423TL dosimeter, 352tomographic reconstruction, 544total-voltage effect, 67, 130, 148trajectory, particle/ray, 293, 294, 296transfer matrix, 303transient arc current, 79transient voltage, 127transport, beam, 278transport efficiency, 385transport, beam, see beam, transporttriple junction, 126tritium, 350, 357, 477Trump, John, 24tunneling, 436Turin Shroud, 479
Ubitron (undulating-beam interaction),378
undulator, 37, 379University of California Santa Barbara
(UCSB), 380University of Hawaii, 384University of Tsukuba, 372, 373University of Wisconsin, 54unmanned airborne vehicles, 389Uppsala, 26upright ellipse (beam waist), 283uranium-235, 446uranium-236, 477
vacancy, 510vacuum, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173,
175vacuum breakdown, particle-induced,
130vacuum conductance, 141Van de Graaff, Robert, 6, 24, 89
620 Index
Van der Meer, 5vehicle explosives detection systems
(VEDS), 453Veksler, 16ventilation, 369, 370very large-scale integration (VLSI)
devices, 522VIVIRAD, 60, 108VIVITRON, 59, 288, 414voltage surges, calculation, 79volume, phase space, 279
waist, beam, 280, 283, 284wave packet, 379waveguide, 379, 526weakly bound nuclei, 431wear resistance, 101–103Weizmann Institute, 382
Widerøe, Rolf, 6Wien filter, 192wiggler, 379Wigner term, 422Wimshurst machine, 52wobbling mode, 420
X-ray detector, 532X-ray emission, 338X-spectrometry, 534
y-branch waveguide, 526Yale University, 57yrast transitions, 575
ZBL (Ziegler–Biersack–Littmark)parametrization, 494