88 Dean Street

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88 DEAN STREETSoho, London W1

A Report on the Decorative SchemesFollowing an Examination

of the Shop Front

A BRIEF SYNOPSIS

The shop front was extensively refurbished in the first quarter of the twentieth century and muchevidence of earlier coatings has been lost. Many surfaces display just eleven decorative schemes.Partial information has been gained from three elements but it is only in two areas that the fullsequence of coatings appears to have survived. Here twenty-seven decorative schemes have beenfound. If the first was applied in 1791 and the last in ca.2000 the repainting cycle would havebeen about 8 years.

The first scheme was an off-white / pale stone colour in an oil paint based paint. Many stone-coloured paints follow this until a sequence of brownish red layers. Wood graining seems tohave been employed from the last decade of the nineteenth century and has been continued withon the fascia since that time. Following the Second World War a dark green paint was applied toall surfaces bar the fascia. Black paint was employed on a couple of subsequent occasions beforea return to dark green. The window has only been painted white on this last occasion.

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88 DEAN STREETSoho, London W1

A Report on the Decorative SchemesFollowing an Examination

of the Shop Front

Introduction

I was asked by Mr David Bieda to carry out an examination of the painted schemes applied to theshop front of No. 88 Dean Street, in Soho. This was undertaken with the aim of reporting on thesequence of coatings and to identify any technical issues that might affect the redecoration ofthose areas.

Historical Background1

No 88 Dean Street dates from 1791. The first occupant was a Thomas Norman whose trade is notknown: he was succeeded by 'Widow Norman' in 1792, until 1794. The next occupant did notpay his rates and soon went; the rate-collector noted: 'goods sold'. The first occupant of thepremises whose calling is known is William Hawkins, broker, in 1801.

It is a wide single-fronted house containing a cellar, three storeys, and a mansard garret. A shopoccupies most of the ground floor, with the house entrance-passage on its south side (L/H). Theupper floors are arranged with two front rooms, the south with two windows and the north withone, and two small back rooms to the north of the dog-legged staircase.

The shop front is the one noteworthy feature of the building. It is a design of great charmconstructed in wood with compo ornamentation. It is divided by slender pilaster-strips into fourbays, the first and third, which are narrow, containing respectively the door to the house and theshop. The second and third bays are wide, and each contains a display window which projectsabove the stallboard and has canted ends. The entablature-like fascia breaks forward, with asegmental curve at either end, above the display windows and shop doorway. Much of thedecorative detail is in the pretty 'Classical' mode of the late eighteenth century, but Rococo panel-frames are used with happy effect on the fascia. Each pilaster-strip has a plain base; a shaftmodelled with vertical mouldings, comprising a rope-like bead centred between paired plainbeads of triangular section, with plain fillets on the outside; and a capping block decorated with acompo ornament combining crossed trumpets and a lyre. Both display windows are divided bymoulded glazing-bars into two series of five large panes, each a tall oblong, the end panes beingcanted on plan. The two-leaved glazed door to the shop appears to be late Victorian, but thehouse door is original, with five flush panels— two small horizontal oblongs at the top, a largesquare in the middle, and two small vertical oblongs below—all being decorated with a border of

1 Copied, almost verbatim from the online version of F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor). Survey of London:volumes 33 and 34. 1966.

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cross-banded fluting. Above the door is a fanlight with glazing set in a metal frame formed of alarge oval intersected by diagonal bars converging on a small central oval. The entablature, orfascia, has an architrave composed of a narrow band of fluting below a guilloche band. On thewide frieze are panels enclosed by Rococo frames. That over the shop door is an open ovalformed by C-scrolls flanked by palm branches; over each display window is a long panelenclosed by elongated C-scrolls and rocaille ornaments; and above the house door more C-scrollsform a panel shaped roughly like a knuckle-bone. The cornice is of unorthodox profile,consisting of a rope-ornamented ovolo beneath a corona that has a reeded soffit and a plain ovoloprofile.

The upper part of the front is very simple, a stock brick face containing two storeys of threewindows, widely and evenly spaced. The first floor windows are slightly wider than those of thesecond floor, but all have Victorian sashes recessed in plain openings, with thin stone sills,plastered reveals, and flat gauged brick arches. In the mansard roof are two dormers.

Areas Examined

Representative areas of the painted elements were examined.

A list of the samples taken can be found at Appendix Three and photographs of samplinglocations can be seen in Appendix One. Photomicrographs can be seen in Appendix Two.

Some further appendices are as follows:

4) Some pigments found during the investigation;5) Graining;6) Some contemporary references to the painting of shop fronts.

Investigation of Samples

A total of 11 samples were taken by Patrick Baty during a visit made on 31st March 2010.Methods of analysis are dealt with in Appendix Seven.2

Limitations

Occasionally in this report an effort has been made to suggest possible dates for a number of theschemes found during analysis. It is believed that to provide some sort of context for thesequence of paint layers will be of more use than to offer no suggestion at all. Where dates havebeen proposed they may have been based on a number of factors:

a) The position of a particular layer in relation to known events;

2 The full process is described in (Baty 1995, 27-37) http://bit.ly/v5zhF See also (Baty 2002) http://bit.ly/1emVve

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b) The occurrence of pigments with a known date of introduction;c) The position of a scheme in the sequence of coatings applied to a surface (i.e. those appliedfirst will be earlier than those at the top). Often, by dividing the age of a surface by the numberof schemes applied to it, an approximate repainting cycle can be obtained.3

Any dates given are indicative only, and there will be instances where these may be amiss by 10-20 years or even longer.

Some Notes on Terminology

The following terms appear throughout the report.

Scheme A series of coats of paints usually applied within days of each other when(re)decoration is carried out. A scheme in oil paint may consist of a primer(initially), one or two undercoats and a top / finish coat. Distemper was oftenapplied in one or two coats.

White A paint made up of a white pigment such as chalk, or lead white, with no visiblecolouring matter (pigment) added. The overall effect would often have been ofan off-white due to the inherent yellowness of the pigment and / or the medium.

Off-White A paint consisting of a white pigment such as chalk, or lead white, with smallamounts of visible colouring matter (pigment) added. Sometimes, however, avery small quantity of blue or black was added to a white paint to make it appear“whiter” (i.e. to appear white). It is sometimes difficult to judge when pigmentwas added to correct the inherent yellowness of some paints or to impart a slighttint. At the other end of the scale the difference between an off-white and a palestone colour is minimal and, as a result, inconsistencies in description are likelyto occur.

Stone Colour A variety of colours ranging from off-whites to quite dark shades. Designed(broadly) to resemble the colour of stone in its many forms (e.g. Bath stone orPortland stone). The difference between a pale stone colour and an off-white isminimal and, as a result, inconsistencies in description are likely to occur.

Detailed Analysis of Samples

GeneralFor much of its existence the paintwork on the shop front of this building would have had aglossy finish. It is appreciated that this will come as a surprise to many who believe that all early

3 This sort of technique has been written about in American technical publications (e.g. Doonan 1982, 27-29) but hasalso been dismissed as being unscientific by other writers (Welsh 1986, 4-5).

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painted surfaces were “chalky”.4 A number of schemes were actually varnished to produce asglossy a finish as possible.

It appears that the shop front was extensively refurbished in the first quarter of the twentiethcentury. Parts of the fascia, the house door and window all display paint layers from this periodalone. Although this is not clear on all samples extensive paint stripping is thought to have takenplace at this time.

Partial information has been gained from a number of elements but it is only on parts of the fasciathat the full sequence of coatings appears to have survived. It appears that two colours /treatments have been employed on the shop front for a number of years; certainly that has beenthe case since the mid nineteenth century.

There is no direct evidence to suggest that green paint had been applied to the external joinerybefore the scheme applied in ca.1950.

The majority of the elements that were sampled displayed only eleven schemes. The following,however, show more layers of paint (see Appendix One for images of locations):

a) The decorative scrollwork on the fascia;b) The ropework moulding at the top of the fascia;c) The narrow band of fluting.

The Decorative ScrollworkThe decorative scrollwork on the fascia and the ropework moulding at the top of it both display atotal of approximately twenty-seven decorative schemes, although the more recent varnish layersare not altogether clear.

The first scheme was applied in three coats – the compo moulding was primed initially with astone-coloured oil paint based on lead carbonate and tinted with small amounts of yellow andbrown iron oxide5 (see photomicrographs of 88DS/5 in Appendix Two).6 An undercoat of stonecolour was then employed and the finish coat was a white oil paint. This sort of colour wasknown as pale stone colour7 in the eighteenth century and is recorded as being used on shopfronts of the period.8

The eighteenth century shop front of No 56 Artillery Lane was recently found to have beentreated in exactly the same way.9

A stone colour made up of a lead white base that was tinted with small amounts of yellow and

4 This issue and other misconceptions concerning early paint and colours are discussed in a recent chapter in awork entitled John Fowler. The Invention of the Country-House Style (Baty 2005, 31-40).5 See Appendix Four for some information on these pigments.6 Until the second half of the twentieth century, the main constituent of most architectural paints was leadcarbonate, a white compound derived from metallic lead. Throughout this report it is referred to as "lead white".7 The combination of lead white and boiled linseed oil produces a pale cream colour rather than a white.8 See some transcriptions of contemporary published and unpublished works on the painting of shop fronts inAppendix Six.9 (Baty 2006).

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brown iron oxide was next employed. There appears to have been a long interval betweenrepainting as a distinct layer of dirt can be seen.

At this stage in the report it would be as well to introduce some thoughts on the dating of thepaint layers encountered:

Repainting CycleThe principal purpose of painting external elements is to protect them from the weather. Whensampling such surfaces it is always helpful to first establish that they have not been repaired,replaced, or stripped of their early paint. One method of doing so is to compare the number ofdecorative schemes with the age of the building.

Experience in sampling numerous external surfaces suggests that a repainting cycle ofapproximately six years was not uncommon in London during the last 250 years. More frequentredecoration is encountered occasionally, especially where the requirements of the leasestipulated such. In these cases the cycle may be reduced to just less than five years.

The closest comparable surface that has been examined – the 1757 shop front of No 56 ArtilleryLane - displayed forty-two decorative schemes. In that case the first scheme is likely to date fromabout 1757 and the last from about 2000 which suggests that the repainting cycle was about 5.9years. This was perfectly in line with what has been encountered on other external surfaces inLondon dating from the eighteenth century.10

However, the shop front of No 88 Dean Street displays only twenty-seven schemes. If the firstdates from 1791 and the last from about 2000 this suggests a repainting cycle of about 8 years.The suggestion is that it wasn’t particularly well maintained. There is some evidence, especiallyin recent years, of weathered paint layers.

The third scheme seems to have been an oily paint in a stone colour. In cross section it has aslightly translucent appearance and a layer of an oily varnish was then applied. The finish wouldhave had a high sheen level.

The fourth scheme is quite distinctive because the undercoat has a very obvious ‘speckled’appearance. This layer was made up of lead white, calcium carbonate and small amounts ofblack and iron oxides.11 The top coat was a paler stone colour.

Four more schemes of a mid stone colour can be seen in succession, each with a distinct layer ofdirt on the upper face. It therefore seems likely that variants of stone colour were visible for thefirst sixty or so years of the building’s life.Probably in the 1850s a dramatic change in the shop front’s appearance took place, when a

10 Various external surfaces in London that illustrate this are as follows: The Foreign and Commonwealth Officeand the Royal Hospital, Chelsea - 6 years; the Benjamin Franklin House, Craven Street – 5.8 years; 18 BrookGreen, W6 – 5.5 years and Home House, Portman Square and 6 Fitzroy Square – both 4.8 years. The two latterexamples were on London estates. Similar results have also been found in other cities, notably Edinburgh (Baty2000:2, passim).11 See Appendix Four for some information on these pigments.

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brownish red paint was applied. The colour was based on red iron oxide with a small amount ofred lead added to brighten it up.12 This was applied over a grey undercoat.

A brownish red colour was employed on the subsequent four occasions – probably until the1890s. It appears that varnish was applied on top of the last one to provide extra protection and ahigher sheen level. This sort of colour was given a variety of names – purple brown, Indian redand Venetian red for example – and many variants can be seen in the later British Standardcolour range of 1930.13

It seems that a grained14 effect was introduced in the ca.1890s. This was probably designed toimitate a dark oak. As part of the process a coat of a gloss varnish was applied over the paintedimitation of wood. It is interesting to note that graining first appeared on the Artillery Lane shopfront at the same time.15

When the shop front was redecorated the grained finish was retained and was given a further coatof protective varnish.16 More varnish was applied on the next occasion.

Probably in about 1920 a major refurbishment took place and a new grained scheme was applied.This scheme is the first that can be found on a number of the samples taken. Many further coatsof varnish can be seen on top of this graining.

It seems that graining was retained on the fascia, with one more scheme and many coats ofsubsequent varnish, while dark green and black was employed elsewhere.

The Narrow Band of FlutingA sample taken from the fluting below the guilloche moulding at the base of the fascia showsquite a different sequence of paint layers (see photomicrograph of 88DS/10 in Appendix Two).Approximately twenty-three decorative schemes can be seen, although it is thought that some ofthe early ones may be missing.

The wood was primed with an oil paint based on lead white.

A series of stone-coloured paint schemes can be seen at the bottom of the sequence.

Probably in ca.1920 the fluting was grained in imitation of wood, in common with all othersurfaces examined.

12 See Appendix Four for some information on these pigments.13 BS 381C: 1931. The same sort of colours were found to have been used on at least two other London exteriorsduring the early twentieth century on the gates of St John’s Church, Hoxton (Baty 1998, 2) and the gates of TheRoyal Hospital, Chelsea (Baty 2004, 5).14 See Appendix Five for more details on the history and process of graining.15 (Baty 2006, 12).16 The practice of re-varnishing a grained scheme whilst repainting other surfaces has been found on manyoccasions. It was known as “carrying over” (Baty 2000:1, 24). Graining was often carried over - in 1904, JohnRea was quoting a price of 4d per square yard for cleaning and touching up a grained scheme, compared to 1s 3dfor a new oak scheme (Rea 1904, 348). It is worth emphasising that at this time a coat of varnish invariablymeant that the surface would have had a shiny finish.

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A sequence of varnish layers can next be seen, the exact number of which is unclear. However,probably in the mid 1980s the first of a sequence of three dark green paints were applied.

WindowA sample taken from the L/H upright member of the window displays a fairly typical sequence ofpost ca.1920 paint layers (see photomicrograph of 88DS/8 in Appendix Two).

The timber was primed with an oil paint based on lead white. Two coats of stone-colouredundercoat were applied before a ground coat of a dark reddish brown. A thin coat of an oil glazewas then applied and figured prior to a protective coat of varnish.

Further coats of varnish were applied when the shop front was redecorated. The last of these ismuch degraded and suggests that a number of years had elapsed in the maintenance schedule.

In about 1950 a coat of dark grey undercoat was applied and this was followed by a dark greengloss paint. The undercoat contained small quantities of zinc oxide.17

Dark green was applied once more before being succeeded by two schemes of black gloss in the1960s and 1970s.

Dark green was applied once more, probably in the 1980s. About eight years later anotherscheme of dark green was employed.

The existing scheme on the windows is in a white gloss that is based on titanium dioxide.18 Atthis time the other painted (as opposed to grained) surfaces were given a coat of dark green gloss.

Conclusions

Now that some idea has been gained of the earlier decorative treatment of the shop front it will benecessary to consider what the aim will be for its redecoration. There seem to be three options:

a) To recreate one of the earlier schemes for which there is evidence;b) To base the redecoration on the general treatment over the years, orc) To decorate in a contemporary idiom.

If option a) was considered the best approach - in view of the partial information prior to ca.1920it would make sense to adopt one of the later decorative schemes. This might mean a full grainedscheme, or a part-grained and part-painted (dark green or black) scheme. However, with theevidence presented by a few of the samples and the recent analysis of the Artillery Lane shopfront it might be thought that an all-over plain stone coloured paint might be appropriate (optionb).

17 See Appendix Four for some information on this pigment.18 See Appendix Four for some information on this pigment.

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A sandwich of paint and varnish layers is likely to lead to chipping. The surfaces should be wellrubbed back, ideally until a brownish red colour is observed, prior to repainting.

In terms of the paint to be used in the redecoration there seems no reason why anything other thana good quality conventional exterior paint system is used.

It was noticed that the fanlight above the L/H door is damaged. It is suggested that specialistadvice is obtained so that this might be repaired properly.

Patrick Baty BA (Hons) FSA Scot FRSA

2nd May 2010Papers and Paints Ltd4 Park WalkLondon SW10 0AD

APPENDIX ONE

LOCATION OF SAMPLING

88 Dean Street: Shop Front

R/H side: Pilaste

1 4

10

r R/H side: Fascia

2

5

3

6

9

8

10

11

11

L/H side: Fascia

L/H Door

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APPENDIX TWO

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS

PhR/H Fasci

primer

Dirtbetween 1st

and 2nd

schemes Dirt
1st
12

otomicrograph of 88DS/5 (x500)a: Decorative Scrollwork – Lower Layers

compo

scheme

undercoat 3rd

scheme

2nd

scheme

13

Photomicrograph of 88DS/5 (x500)R/H Fascia: Decorative Scrollwork – Upper Layers

Graining

1st

scheme

4th

scheme

Brownishred

14

Photomicrograph of 88DS/10 (x200)L/H Fascia: Fluting – Lower Layers

1st scheme

Wood

Stonecolours

Split

15

Photomicrograph of 88DS/10 (x200)L/H Fascia: Fluting – Upper Layers

Stonecolours

Darkgreens

Varnishlayers

Graining

16

Photomicrograph of 88DS/8 (x500 digitally enlarged)L/H window. L/H upright member

Undercoat(NB two coloursbecause twophotographsstitched together)

Dark green

Dark green

Blackca.1960s-70s

Black

Graining:consists of

varnish;glaze;groundcoat;

undercoatsand primer

W

Weathereddark green

Existingwhitepaint(TiO2)

Dark green
ca.1950
Varnish layers(several are
weathered)
ood

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APPENDIX THREE

CROSS SECTIONS MADE

(Samples shown in bold are illustrated)

88DS/1 R/H side. Pilaster. L/H (inner) face88DS/2 R/H side. Pilaster. Cable twist88DS/3 R/H fascia bed – on curve88DS/4 R/H fascia overhang – Cable twist88DS/5 R/H fascia carving88DS/6 L/H door. Bottom R/H panel - flat88DS/7 L/H door. Bottom R/H panel – scalloped moulding88DS/8 L/H window. L/H upright member88DS/9 L/H fascia (under ‘I’ of ‘Stationer’)88DS/10 L/H fascia. Fluting lower edge under ‘O’ of ‘Stationer’)88DS/11 L/H door – rectangular block between door and fanlight

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APPENDIX FOUR

SOME PIGMENTS FOUND ON THE SHOP FRONT

White Lead"White may be said to be the basic colour in all painting practice, for few pigments are usedwithout the incorporation of some white to give body (opacity) or to reduce colour strength.Until some fifty years ago [about 1900] white lead was the only white pigment produced inany great quantity, but since then other whites have been introduced which have practicallysuperseded white lead for some purposes, notably interior painting. In spite of certaindrawbacks, however, white lead remains unsurpassed for exterior painting. The otherprincipal basic whites used in this country are zinc oxide, lithopone, antimony andtitanium".19

Zinc OxideZinc oxide is a bright white pigment that is non-poisonous, and is not discoloured bysulphurous fumes. These properties led to its consideration as a replacement for white leadtowards the end of the nineteenth century. One of the earliest references to it appears in abook of specifications published in 1859.20 In this instance it was recommended in roomswith gaslights where the "clearness and brilliancy" of the white was to be preserved. Its chiefdisadvantage is the hardening effect it has on oil, which causes it to produce a hard non-elastic and brittle paint film. This may lead to premature breakdown of the paint on externalsurfaces by cracking or chalking unless corrected. In mixture with white lead it produces avery good paint. The zinc hardens the lead and helps it to maintain colour in a smokyatmosphere, while the lead moderates any hardening action of the zinc and so preventsbrittleness. Paints containing such a blend of lead white and zinc oxide were used in the firstquarter of the twentieth century.

The use of zinc oxide appears to have reached its peak in the second decade of the twentiethcentury. It was at this time that Arthur Jennings, the prolific writer on paint, wrote:

Before 1914 nearly the whole quantity of zinc oxide used in this country wasimported from France, Belgium, Holland, and the United States of America, but sincethat time several factories have been started in England, and the present produce hasalready reached an output almost sufficient to fill all home requirements.21

Its appearance in paint stratigraphy usually indicates the period ca.1890-1960.

Titanium DioxideA pigment known as titanium white, which was a combination of titanium oxide and bariumsulphate was introduced into Britain in 1921, and this rapidly became established as one ofthe staple pigments for paint manufacture. The earliest use encountered by this author was onthe Civil Service Rifles war memorial at Somerset House, London. This was designed by

19 (Hurst 1949, 61).20 (Donaldson 1859, xxi).21 (Jennings 1921, 1:184-185).

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APPENDIX FOUR (continued)

Sir Edwin Lutyens and built in 1924.22

Towards the close of 1927, however, as a result of long experience and research, thedifficulties of preparing a satisfactory pigment from the pure oxide were finally overcome,and a pigment of brilliant whiteness and intense opacity was introduced containingapproximately 98 per cent titanium oxide. The outstanding qualities of this were soonrecognised, and by the late 1940s it had largely superseded the original type of pigment formany purposes, although the composite pigment was still manufactured and used for a while.It has been the prime white pigment in house paints for the last thirty years.

The following figures show how the production of the pigment increased sharply after the lastwar:

Estimated UK Production of TiO2 in Thousands of Tons23

1935 41937 61945 91948 161950 30

Spanish White / Whiting / ChalkSpanish White was one of those pigments, whose name might originally have been associatedwith its origins, but which had, over time, come to be used regardless of its source. In fact, theforeign references are contradictory over its meaning; not only did the Frenchman Watin treat itas an alternative name for China Clay, or Kaolin, but both editions of Tingry described it asbeing a pure clay, washed in vinegar in order to remove any element of chalk, which would haveeffervesced away. It could be used in oil, but only if completely dry, for otherwise it would tendto granulate under the brush.24

However, Spanish white, or simply Spanish, was generally regarded, in this country, as beingwhiting, or finely powdered white chalk, "neutralized by the addition of water in which alum hasbeen dissolved, and afterwards washed in several waters".25

It was commonly used, as was the basic washed chalk, to whiten plaster surfaces, especiallyceilings, in the form of a simple slurry with water, when it was termed whitening. When boundwith a small amount of animal glue and pigment it was known as colouring or soft distemper.The author of the Pocket Manual pointed out that it was sometimes used, for the sake ofcheapness, in priming. However it was not at all durable by itself, and would work better if aproportion of white lead was added.26

22 (Baty 1999, passim).23 (Chatfield 1955, 248).24 (Tingry 1804, 287; Tingry 1830, 46).25 (Whittock 1827, 9).26 (ibid., 87).

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Robert Dossie confused the issue somewhat by calling this pigment by the name of Troy white,which was the name given by some authors to the rather less refined white chalk.27

Carbon BlackLamp black was the soot collected after burning the resinous parts of fir-trees. It came mostlyfrom Sweden and Norway, although it was manufactured on a large scale in Germany at thebeginning of the nineteenth century.28 John Smith referred to its being "made up in smallboxes and barrels of deal, of several sizes, and so brought over to us".29

It was the most commonly used of the blacks, being cheap and plentiful. It was a very finepigment, that would serve most needs, without grinding, if mixed up well with linseed-oil. Ifused in this manner, however, the greasiness would retard its drying time, unless a dryingagent were added.30

Blacks, of various forms, were often added to white paint in order to combat the inherentyellowness of a lead white and linseed oil paint.

Yellow Ochre / Yellow Iron OxideIn common with the umbers, the earth pigments designated ochres (or oxides) saw constantuse in house-painting, not only were they readily obtainable, but they encompassed a largerange of hues, both in their natural and their calcined state.

Tingry explained how readily they were obtained:

Ochres are easily purified by simple washing. They mix readily with water, and the sand

and stones which they contain being heavier than themselves, subside. The water,turbid with the ochre, is decanted, by making it pass into a trough lower than thevessel in which it was washed; when the ochre has subsided the clear water is drawnoff. The ochre is then taken out, and being dried is divided into small masses.31

John Smith mentioned the two basic types:

Yellow Oaker, Is of two sorts; the one gotten in England, the other brought frombeyond the Seas: the one is light Yellow, much like the colour of Wheat straw; theother is somewhat of a deeper colour.32

27 Dossie 1796, 1:110-11).28 (Tingry 1804, 347).29 (Smith 1687, 16-17).30 (Pocket 1825, 89).31 (Tingry 1830, 74).32 (Smith 1676, 22).

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The second edition clarified this, by referring to the first as "Plain-Oaker" most of which wasfound in the Shotover Hills near Oxford,33 and the other as "Spruce-Oaker".34 The formerdisplayed many of the best properties for a house-painting pigment, being described as a"Colour, that with pains, will grind very fine, it bears an excellent body, and resists theweather well".35

A darker ochre called "Common Brown or Bristol Oker" by Pincot was recommended forfilling imperfections in the body work of carriages, presumably a greater capacity for dryingrendered it useful for this purpose.36 This facility for drying could relate to the confusionmentioned earlier under Umber, where Tingry recorded the use of the name Brown ochre as asynonym for umber. Dossie pointed out that its colour was as a result of calcination "eitherby subterranean fires or artificially".37

As well as various sorts of yellow and brown, Tingry told us that:

Many of the yellow ochres when burnt become of a red colour, and are thenoccasionally used for more delicate processes.38

In this state the pigment was generally known as light red.

Hay accounted for the wide variety of colours, and told us that its price varied with the shade:

They are a native earthy mixture of silica and alumina, coloured by oxide of iron, withoccasionally a little calcareous matter and magnesia, and are found between strata ofrock and sand. Ochre varies in...price from 1d. to 1s. per lb.39

Red & Brown Ochres / Red & Brown Iron OxidesRed ochres came in many different forms, and provided a number of reds for the house-painter during the period under review. Spanish brown, Venetian red, and Indian red, when intheir natural state, were pigments used as they were found, while light red was made bycalcining yellow ochre, and English red was one of a large number of artificial red oxidesproduced from the by-products of certain industrial processes. These latter appeared, largely,as a result of the Industrial Revolution.

The natural red ochres were obtained from many locations, and prepared very simply:

Ochres are easily purified by simple washing. They mix readily with water, and the sand andstones which they contain being heavier than themselves, subside. The water, turbid with

33A very detailed account of where to obtain this Oxford ochre is given in (Plot 1677, 55).34 Dr. Harley suggests that spruce was an old form of Prussia or Prussian (Harley 1982, 89).35 (Smith 1687, 22).36 (Pincot ca.1811, 31).37 (Dossie 1796, 1:104).38 (Tingry 1830, 73).39 (Hay 1847, 108).

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the ochre, is decanted, by making it pass into a trough lower than the vessel in whichit was washed; when the ochre has subsided the clear water is drawn off. The ochre isthen taken out, and being dried is divided into small masses.40

Spanish brown was described by Smith as coming from Spain, the best of it being of a deepbright colour, although inclined to be gritty.41 He went on to say that it was the only colourused in priming woodwork, not least for its cheapness. Tingry mentioned the west ofEngland42 as being the more likely source of this pigment,43 and Robert Dossie suggested thatit was probably brought from abroad originally, at a time when it would have been muchfiner than now "dug up in several parts of England". He confirmed that it was mainly used asa primer for coarse work by house-painters, needing no other preparation than "freeing it wellfrom stones and filth".44 Pincot pointed out that in new houses the inside work may beprimed with "strong double size, just stained with a little Spanish Brown, merely to see wherethe brush has been".45

The naming of colours has always given rise to confusion, the Frenchman Watin referred to ared ochre imported from England, which he called "rouge brun", or "brun-rouged'Angleterre", which was used in oil and distemper, and for the painting of floors and carts.46

This English brown red was probably the same as the English red mentioned by the author ofthe Pocket Manual and by George Field, who described Prussian red as the same pigment.47

In his later work, Smeaton was more precise, calling them both colcothar of vitriol (q.v.).48

However, although, in the nineteenth century, they were both regarded as artificial ironoxides, Watin clearly states that Prussian red was "une terre calcinée donnant une rougeimitant le vermillon", indicating a brighter red than the English variety.49 Either the namewas given to a similar pigment, or Watin was confusing it with something else.

In a similar fashion, Venetian red was brought from Venice; but it was also produced inFrance, Germany, and many other places, according to Tingry.50 Both Nicholson, andWhittock, lifting the words from Dossie, described it as being a native pigment, inclining tothe scarlet, and being used in the imitation of mahogany.51 It was grouped with Spanishbrown and light ochre, by Hay, as being amongst the coarse red pigments.52 Field, however,indicated that it was prepared artificially from iron sulphate [often known as green vitriol] in

40 (Tingry 1830, 74).41 (Smith 1676, 14).42 Probably the Forest of Dean and the Mendip hills, in Somerset.43 (Tingry 1830, 73-74).44 (Dossie 1796, 1:59).45 (Pincot ca.1811, 38).46 (Watin 1778, 23).47 (Pocket 1825, 96; Field 1850, 45).48 (Gilder's ca.1827, 32).49 (Watin 1778, 23).50 (Tingry 1830, 73).51 (Dossie 1796, 1:59; Nicholson 1823, 413; Whittock 1827, 10).52 (Hay 1847, 113).

23


the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He gave the alternative name of scarlet ochre.53

A more prized red earth was that known as Indian red, which Dossie said had originally beenimported from the East Indies, but since the manufacture of the artificial variety from caputmortuum,54 was no longer imported.55 Field, writing over fifty years later, described it as apurple-russet iron ore brought into the country from Bengal, and "now obtained abundantly"from "respectable colourmen".56 He gave the name Persian red as an alternative, which issimilar to the Persian ochre which Tingry presumed came from Persia, and called a "a dearcolour" used mainly in portrait painting.57

A red iron oxide with the rather exotic name of colcothar of vitriol, was:

the purplish red peroxyde of iron, made by adding solution of soda to the solution ofsulphate of iron or copperas, is another red used by the house-painter. It produces thechocolate paint so much in use for the woodwork of kitchens, servant's halls &c.. It ischeap in price, and very durable.58

Red LeadJohn Smith described very clearly the manufacture of red lead:

this colour is made out of common lead, by first reducing it to a litharge; and thatlitharge being afterward ground to a powder in a mill is afterward conveyed into a hotfurnace, for that purpose, where 'tis continually kept stirring with an iron rake, till ithas attained to the colour of a fine, pale red.59

This pigment had a very mixed reputation, and was often used more for its drying properties,than its orange-red colour, which was liable to turn black in oil. Whittock said, however, thatit kept its colour in water-based media, and was consequently, sometimes, used indistemper.60 Vanherman found little use for its colour in house-painting, except as a groundfor mahogany graining.61

As well as being used in the manufacture of drying oils, this pigment came to replace Spanishbrown or red oxide as a priming colour. Its quick drying nature was of considerable use at atime when a coat of oil paint could take several days to dry, and the decoration of a room,perhaps, a week. The addition of red lead to the undercoats would ensure that these would be

53 (Field 1850, 45).54 The ferric oxide residue obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of fuming sulphuric acid (Harley 1982,121). Caput mortuum literally means death’s head. The name originally derived from alchemy where it wasused to denote the residue after an alchemical operation such as distillation or sublimation.55 (Dossie 1796, 1:58).56 (Field 1850, 44).57 (Tingry 1830, 73).58 (Hay 1847, 113). For an account of its use on exteriors see: (Baty 1992, 44-47).59 (Smith 1687, 21).60 (Whittock 1827, 10)61 (Vanherman 1829, 29).

24


ready to receive the finish coat as soon as possible. One consequence of this characteristicwas that it was somewhat difficult to work with, hardening into an unmanageable mass,62 andadhering:

so strong to the bottom of the paint-pot, that it proves a troublesome task to liberate itand bring it into a working condition again.63

The pigment was often mixed with size and used to kill knots, prior to painting.

62 (Tingry 1830, 106).63 (Vanherman 1829, 29).

25

APPENDIX FIVE

GRAINING

The imitation in paint of materials usually more expensive, or exotic, is thought to have beencarried out since ancient times.

As a means of decoration in interiors, Wyatt Papworth believed that:

The processes of graining and marbling may be traced back as far as the time ofJames VI of Scotland, (1567-1603).64

The growing use of softwood for the building and internal cladding of houses in the lateseventeenth century, led to an increased demand for the painted imitation of woods in thiscountry. In his second edition, Smith referred to the imitation of "Olive Wood" and "WalnutTree", and described them being veined over with a darker pigment.65

Ian Bristow's commentary on the seventeenth century decoration at Dyrham Park, inGloucestershire, lists a number of painted woods, referred to in the accounts for the house;amongst them cedar colour, walnut colour, wainscot colour, and princes-wood colour.66 Atfirst sight, such names might be understood to imply merely the colour and tone of thesewoods, but in this early period, either the colour or the imitation of a wood could beindicated,67 and it is usually context or recorded price that makes clear what had been carriedout.

A clue to some of the conventions of the day can be obtained from a letter of 1700 thataccompanied three samples of graining prepared for a client:

B, ye properest for a Bedchamber, if well performed (withe the pencil), and not toumucht withe a brushe as is the common way, it will requier moor skill to paynes &will coste the moor, it represents a Light wall-nut tree color as I have seen somecabinets, and is proper for Antirooms & Bedchambers, the other A is a dark wallnuttree & will require a glossey varnishe and is very proper in Light chambers - C is awainscot color muche in voge (since wright wainscot is subject to (since wrightwainscot is subject to groe dark and in spots ,) and generally speaking ye use atpresent is a flate color that of torteschall68 [italics mine].69

64 (Papworth 1857-58, 9).65 (Smith 1687, 52).66 (Bristow 1979, 141). Prince wood, or prince's wood, is a dark-coloured and light-veined timber produced bytwo West Indian trees, Cordia gerascanthoides and Hamelia ventricosa; also called Spanish elm. SOED 1986.S.v. "Prince-wood." Sir Roger Pratt, writing in the 1660s in his capacity as architect of Kingston Lacy Hall,Dorset, listed three of these four woods, making no mention, however, of wainscot (Gunther 1928, 282).67 Smith, in dealing with umber, said that "it resembles the colour of new oaken wainscot the nearest of anycolour in the world" (Smith 1687, 27). The earliest use of the word "graining", encountered by the author in apublished text, is in a list of painting prices of 1786 (Pain 1786, 14).68 "Flate color" probably refers to the low sheen on tortoiseshell.69 (Winde 1700, quoted in Beard 1981, 60).

26

APPENDIX FIVE (continued)

Not only could wood be represented in light and dark forms, but the finish could also vary inlevels of sheen, some combinations being more appropriate than others.

Olive wood and Walnut appear in the 1788 edition of Smith,70 yet by this time, the use ofboth of these woods was probably rather old-fashioned, being replaced by wainscot (or oak),and mahogany, which began to feature in price books of the period.71

It appears that, once again, the architect Sir John Soane was amongst the first to introducenew ideas. His use of graining to imitate light oak or satinwood on the dado and skirting ofhis Dining Room at 12 Lincoln’s Inn Fields in 1793 was some years before any otherrecorded use.72

No mention of graining is found in the first English edition of Tingry, of 1804, which is nodoubt a reflection of both the book's continental origins, and the fact that the process had notyet become fashionable again. In England, however, during the next ten years, a rekindledinterest in the technique of imitating woods in paint developed. Papworth recalled a friendsaying that:

…the doors of the Chapel in Conduit Street, Bond Street, attracted much attentionfrom the novelty of their being grained to imitate wainscot, done perhaps, about theyear 1810 when a new front was given to the building. From some letters in mypossession I find that mahogany was imitated in 1815, and maple wood in 1817.73

Price books of the time reflect this growing interest in fancy woods, and Laxton's TheImproved Builders' Price Book of 1818, contains an early and wide range, amongst them:new wainscot, white oak, old or dark oak, air wood, satin wood, Hispaniola mahogany,coromandel wood, amboyna wood, yew tree and black rose wood.74

By the 1820s the interest was such that even Butcher had changed the original list of woodsmentioned by Smith, deleting olive wood, and adding mahogany and wainscot75 to the walnutalready listed. Smeaton, reflected this, and added satin wood and two varieties of rosewood.76

Whittock confirmed the approximate date of this renewed enthusiasm, in his work of 1827:

The very great improvement that has been made within the last ten years [italicsmine] in the art of imitating the grain and colour of various fancy woods and marbles,and the facility and consequent cheapness of this formerly expensive work, hasbrought it into general use; and there are few respectable houses erected, where the

70 (ibid., 5).71 (Pain 1786, 14; Taylor 1813, 125).72 (Bristow 1996, 208-09).73 (Papworth 1857-58, 9).74 (Laxton 1818, 99).75 (Butcher 1821, 3).76 (Pocket 1825, 105, 109, 160-62; Gilder's ca.1827, 49, 51-52, 189-90).

27


talent of the decorative painter is not called into action, in graining doors, shutters,wainscots, &c.77

He went on to tell us that:

Much has certainly been done by modern decorative painters, within the last fifteenyears.78

One of the features of this new trend was the extent to which some house-painters developedthe art of imitating the natural product. Whereas the late seventeenth century representationsof woodgrain are almost theatrical in their handling, in that they only read as wood from adistance,79 the early nineteenth century grainer was encouraged to observe nature, for the"foundation of his future proficiency"80 and to produce realistic specimens.

Whittock, as well as producing actual coloured examples of many of the popular woodeffects in his The Decorative Painters' and Glaziers' Guide, gave an indication of where suchwoods might be used. Writing some twenty years later, Hay showed how this had changedby the end of the period:

[Of Oak, or Wainscot]1827Oak is the wood that is commonly preferred to any other for outside

work...preferred to any other wood for doors and shutters where strength is required.The decorative painter, therefore, who considers propriety, will generally recommendthe imitation of oak for street doors, shutters, &c..81

1847Imitation oak has been greatly used in halls, staircases, libraries, and dining-rooms,and it will be observed, from the description of the process, that it must be verydurable.82

It appears that the fashion for a wide variety of fancy woods began to wane within a fewyears, and Vanherman told us that, having "formed a considerable part of the decorativesystem", graining and marbling are "now giving place to the plain and simple".83 The tworeasons given for this change being, the:

additional expense to the painter's bill, and the short-lived beauty they exhibit; forbeing generally executed in water colours, and then varnished, should this coveringcrack and chip, the work will consequently look shabby, ragged, and mean.84

77 (Whittock 1827, 20).78 (ibid., 46).79 See the walnut graining, carried out by Sergeant Painter Robert Streater, on the panelling of Apartment 7 atHampton Court Palace, and exposed by Catherine Hassall a few years ago.80 (Whittock 1827, 20),81 (ibid.).82 (Hay 1847, 140).83 Vanherman 1829, 40).84 (ibid.).

28


He added that:

Graining, like diamonds in portrait painting, should be sparingly employed for itsscarcity constitutes in a great measure its value.85

The process of graining was, inevitably, labour intensive. Papworth, relying heavily on Hay'sdescription,86 said that:

in the first instance [it is] the same as for ordinary painted work, but it requires morecare in obliterating the marks of the brush. The last coat, instead of being flatted, iscomposed of equal portions of oil and spirits of turpentine, and is brought up to thecolo[u]r characteristic of the wood to be imitated.87

When this ground-work was quite dry, a thick layer of a semi-transparent paint was prepared,in the colour of the wood to be imitated. This was laid smoothly over the ground-work, afterwhich a graining comb,88 made of steel, ivory, horn, or wood, was:

drawn through this composition, by which it is separated upon the ground-work intominute portions, representing the grain of the wood.89

The heart grain and flowers would then be wiped out using a thumb nail, or a piece of horn,covered with a cloth. This was left to dry before being overgrained with a transparent layerof oil or water colour. Two or three coats of an oil varnish based on a resin such as copalwould then be applied.

85 (ibid., 41).86 (Hay 1847, 137).87 (Papworth 1857-58, 9).88 These combs were made in a range of sizes, a number being illustrated on plate II, facing page 22 ofWhittock's The Decorative Painters', and Glaziers' Guide. Tingry tells us that they were obtained at the comb-makers in London (Tingry 1830, 282).89 (Hay 1847, 138).

29

APPENDIX SIX

SOME HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO THE PAINTING OF SHOP FRONTS

1) Stephen Primatt. The City & Country Purchaser & Builder. 1667. p.70.

PAINTERS

"For a fair stone-colour laid in oyl for windows, doors, rails, and bannisters for staircases,shop-windows and mundilions, is worth twelve pence the yard being coloured over thrice.For a timber colour in oyl over doors and windows at nine pence a yard. For a door paintedon the one side with a stone-colour, twelve pence a yard. And for a light of a window sixpence. For a lead-colour in oyl, nine pence or ten pence a yard. Painters work of ordinarylights or windows in oyl at six pence a yard, or three pence a light. For painting the bestCerulian or blew colour in oyl 1s 6d a yard."

2) William Leybourn. The Mirror of Architecture... 4th edn. 1700. p.71

" Painting of Outside-works; as Doors, Shop-Windows, Window-Cases, Pediments,Architraves, Friezes and Cornices, and all other Timber-works which are exposed to theweather, ought at first setting up to be primed with Spanish brown, Spanish white, and Redlead (about a 5th part) to make the other two colours dry, well grown'd with Lintseed oyl, willmake excellent primer: Then afterwards the same colour (but much more whiter) for secondprimer; and lastly, with fair white, made of white lead, and about a fifth part in quantity (notin weight) of Spanish white."

3) Richard Neve (pseud. T.N. Philomath). The City and Countrey Purchaser, and Builder'sDictionary. 1st edn. 1703, p.215.; 2nd edn. 1726, p212. & 3rd edn. 1736, p.215.

PAINTING

Of out-door work in general. Doors, Shop-windows, Window-frames, Pediments,Architraves, Friezes, and Corniches, and all other Timber-works that are exposed to theweather, ought at first setting up to be primed with Spanish-brown, Spanish-white, and Red-lead (about a fifth part) to make the other 2 colors dry; these well ground with linseed-oyl,will make excellent primer; then afterwards with the same colour, (but much whiter) for asecond primer, and lastly, with fair white, made of white-lead, and about a fifth part inquantity, (not in weight) of Spanish-white. Out-door work thus colour'd, may be afforded for3d or 3d half penny, or 4d the yard square, for each time laid over.

4) James Ayres. Building the Georgian City. 1998. p.227.

As a house painter Edkins did a variety of work including the painting of a "Summer HouseGreen" (8 June 1765), a grocer's shop "Mahogany Colour"...the Parlour Stone Colour" (10

30

APPENDIX SIX (continued)

March 1765).

5) William Deas. Day Book. 1774 - 1778. From the Early Businesss Records of MessrsMoxon & Carfrae Ltd, painters and decorators, Edinburgh. Edinburgh. SRO GD1/548/1.

August 6th 1774Mr. Alexr. Duvall DrTo 8 yds: Two Coat Vernish green on your shop front @ 8d --..5..4To 2 yds Do do Chacolet [chocolate] colour on Do @ 6d --..1..--To Writting your name wt. common Yellow on do --..1..6

September 21st 1774Mr Mckenzie Druggist DrTo 6 yds. Painting fine green on your Shop front Two Coats @ 9d --..4..6To Painting a Mortar & Gelly potts & writting on Do --..4..6

May 30th 1775Mr Patrick Bowie DrTo 14 yds fine green Two Coat on Mr Angus McDonell Shop front in Lawn Mercat [Market]@ 9d --..10..6To 7 yds. Chaccolet [chocolate] Colour two Coats on do @ 6d. --..3..6To Writting his name in yellow Letters on Shop door Lawn Mercat --..1..6To Washing his sign board & painting the mouldg with fine Red --..1..6

June 12th 1775Mr John Taylor Potter row Dr.To 22 yds Three Coat painting on a shop front finished Light blue @ 8d. --..14..8To painting Loaves &c. &c [sic] & writing the name wt Common yellow --..6..--

August 4th 1775Miss Elizth. Bowie & CompyTo painting the Shop front Green & doors ["Chaccolet" crossed out] Mahogany --..10..6

August 11th 1775Messrs Butter & Torry Merchts. DrTo painting the windows white & Styles green of the Shop front --..5..—

6) Nathaniel Whittock. The Decorative Painters' and Glaziers' Guide. 1827.

p.37[Spanish Mahogany]...For all common work, such as the fronts of shop counters, hand rails,or any work in constant view...

31

APPENDIX SIX (continued)p.41

ROSE WOOD.

...This when varnished, will form a brilliant coloured specimen, very fit for bookcases,cabinets, or other work that is likely to be much handled, as it will not soil quickly, andthough easily produced is a shewy standing colour...

...The specimen Fig. 2. Plate XII. is the rose wood that is now so fashionable for shop fronts.It is the coarsest kind, and is therefore very fit for the purpose.

p.43BIRD'S-EYE MAPLE.

...The foregoing process will only answer where the work is required to be finely executed;for shop fronts, halls, &c. the imitation must be produced with more boldness and rapidity...

p.44CORAL WOOD.

Plate XIV. is coral wood from Ceylon, a wood which has hitherto from its great scarcenessand consequent value, only been used in the most valuable and light kinds of cabinet work,and is therefore, from its novelty, a fit wood for the grainer to imitate, particularly in shopfronts that require glare and show, such as oilmen, hatters, and others;

7) Alfred Bartholomew. Specifications for Practical Architecture. 1841.

Para. 1646: To comb finely, grain in imitation of wainscot in the very best manner, andvarnish twice with the best copal, the whole of the external wood-work of the shop-front andof the doors therein, the mahogany sashes only excepted. [1873 edn. has the following added:“as they are to be french polished.”]

Para. 1718: To finish the sashes and the frieze of the shop-front with vermilion; to finish thedoors and the shutters in the best manner in imitation of wainscot; to finish the remainder ofthe shop-front in stone colour; and to varnish twice with the best copal the whole of thepainting of the shop-front.

8) T. Elliott. The Modern Painter: A Treatise on Painting, Gilding, Bronzing, Staining,Japanning, Varnishing, Polishing, Etc.. 1842. p.17

...and conclude by noticing imitation painting, or the art of imitating woods, marbles, &c.This part of painting is now much in use, and is brought to great perfection. The manner inwhich the woods, &c., are imitated are wonderfully correct. The principal shops in Londonare most beautifully decorated - the shop furniture, &c., being imitation of marbles of therichest vein, or woods of the finest grain, and of the most beautiful and varied colour, which,

32

APPENDIX SIX (continued)

to the eye of the most minute observer, can scarcely be detected as imitation.

9) Edwards, Trystan A.. Good and Bad Manners in Architecture. 1924. pp.58-59.

In Oxford Street there is a shop which, in response to a call for more brightness in Londonstreets, has been decorated with a pattern embodying all the hues of the rainbow. Needless tosay, it adds nothing whatsoever to the attractiveness of that thoroughfare and until its stuccois once more painted a decent white or cream it will remain a monument of tediousness andmediocrity. It is painful to reflect that the colour scheme for this facade is not a private freakbut the result of an architectural competition most solemnly instituted. Actually in Englandthere was recently erected a suburban residence in which broad bands of green tiles, thatexactly match the grass, cry against blue, yellow and other colours. What if the next house isbright orange, pink and purple? But perhaps if we were to put this question, like Alice at thetea-party, we should be invited to change the subject!

33

APPENDIX SEVEN

SAMPLE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Sample Preparation Procedures

PigmentsSamples of pigments from specific paint layers were permanently cast in Cargille Meltmount(with a refractive index of 1.66) onto microscope slides. The pigment samples wereexamined at 500x and 1000x magnifications under both transmitted, and plane polarizedlight.

The pigments were identified using polarized light microscopy (PLM) techniques whichallows identification of different pigment particles based on the characteristics of particleshape, colour, refractive index, and optical properties. In certain instances, where furtherconfirmation was required, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), using the scanningelectron microscope, was carried out.

Cross SectionsSamples of finish coatings and substrates were removed from representative surfaces in therooms being examined with a scalpel, craft knife or dental drill. Depending on the material,the samples varied in size from 5mm to 10mm. The samples were divided before casting,leaving a portion of the sample available for future testing. Samples were cast in small cubesin silicon rubber moulds using clear casting polyester resin (Alec Tiranti Ltd, Reading,Berks.). The resin was allowed to cure for 24 hours at room temperature and under ambientlight. The cubes were then cut in half to expose the cross sections, and wet polished with240, 400, 600 and 1200 grade wet-and-dry papers.

The cross section samples were examined under visible light using a Brunel metallurgicalmicroscope at 100x, 200x and 400x magnifications. Those that appeared to have the fullsequence of layers, i.e. that displayed an intact sequence from the substrate through to thefinal scheme, were examined particularly closely. These intact samples were compared withthose samples that were distorted or unclear, and with those that were incomplete. Thecombined information has provided the details in this report.

The cross sections were also tested for lead using potassium iodide, and examined under UVin order to identify the presence of zinc oxide.

The cross sections were photographed digitally using a Nikon Coolpix 5000 camera. Thebest photomicrographs for each element have been included with this report. Photographswere taken at 200x and x500 and have been digitally altered to fit the page.

34

WORKS CONSULTED

All works that were published appeared first in London, unless otherwise indicated

Ayres, James. Building the Georgian City. Yale University Press .1998.

Bartholomew, Alfred. Specifications for Practical Architecture. 1841.

Baty, Patrick. "Palette of the Past". Country Life, 3 September 1992: 44-47.

________. "The Role of Paint Analysis in the Historic Interior," The Journal of ArchitecturalConservation, March 1995.

________. "Some Tips on Commissioning Paint Analysis," in Layers of Understanding:Setting Standards for Architectural Paint Research Proceedings of a seminar held on 28thApril 2000. Donhead Publishing, Dorset. 2002.

________. "Inspired by the Past?" in John Fowler. The Invention of the Country-HouseStyle, ed. Helen Hughes, 31-40. Donhead, 2005.

Beard, Geoffrey. Craftsmen & Interior Decoration in England, 1660-1820. JohnBartholomew. 1981.

Bristow, Ian C.. "The Balcony Room at Dyrham" in National Trust Studies 1980 (1979).

________. Architectural Colour in British Interiors 1615-1840. Yale University Press. 1996.

Butcher, W.. Smith's Art of House-Painting. 1821.

Chatfield, H.W.(ed.). Paint and Varnish Manufacture. George Newnes. 1955.

Donaldson, Thomas Leverton. Handbook of Specifications. 1859.

Doonan, Nancy L.. "Historic Exterior Paints." Bulletin of the Association for PreservationTechnology (US), vol. xiv, no. 4 (1982): 27-29.

Dossie, Robert. The Handmaid to the Arts. 2 vols. Rev. edn. 1796.

Edwards, Trystan A.. Good and Bad Manners in Architecture. 1924.

Elliott, T. The Modern Painter: A Treatise on Painting, Gilding, Bronzing, Staining,Japanning, Varnishing, Polishing, Etc.. 1842.

Field, George. Rudiments of the Painters' Art, or a Grammar of Colouring. 1850.

Gunther, R.T.. The Architecture of Sir Roger Pratt. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1928.

Harley, Rosamund. Artists' Pigments c.1600-1835. 2nd Edn. Butterworths. 1982.

35

Hay, David. The Laws of Harmonious Colouring Adapted to Interior Decorations, withObservations on the Practice of House Painting. 6th edn. 847.

Hurst, A.E.. Painting and Decorating. Charles Griffin & Company Ltd. 1949.

Jennings, Arthur Seymour and Guy Cadogan Rothery. The Modern Painter and Decorator.The Caxton Publishing Company Limited. 1921.

Laxton, W.R.. The Improved Builder's Price Book. 2nd edn. 1818. 1869.

Leybourn, William. The Mirror of Architecture... 4th edn. 1700.

Neve, Richard (pseud. T.N. Philomath). The City and Countrey Purchaser, and Builder'sDictionary. 1st edn. 1703; 2nd edn. 1726 & 3rd edn. 1736.

Nicholson, Peter. The New Practical Builder. Appended is The Practical Builder's PerpetualPrice Book. 1823.

Pain, William, & James. British Palladio. 1786.

Papworth, Wyatt. "An Attempt to Determine the Periods in England, when Fir, Deal &House Painting were First Introduced." Transactions of the RIBA. 1st series, vol. viii: 1-13.1857-8.

Pincot, John. Pincot's Treatise on the Practical Part of Coach and House Painting. ca.1811.

Plot, Robert. Natural History of Oxfordshire. Oxford and London. 1677.

Primatt, Stephen. The City & Country Purchaser & Builder. 1667.

Rea, John T.. How to Estimate being the Analysis of Builders' Prices giving full details ofestimating for builders, and containing thousands of prices, and much useful memoranda.2nd. edn. B.T. Batsford. 1904.

[Smeaton, G.A.]. The Painter's and Varnisher's Pocket Manual. 1825.

________. The Painter's, Gilder's, and Varnisher's Manual. ca.1827.

Smith, John. The Art of Painting in Oyl. 1676. 2nd edn. 1687. (The Art of Painting). 5th edn.1723.

[SOED] The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd edn., rev., Oxford. Clarendon Press.1986.

Taylor, I. Builder's Price Book. 1813.

Tingry, P.F.. The Painter's and Varnisher's Guide. 1804.

36

________. Painter's and Colourman's Complete Guide. 1830.

Vanherman, T.H.. The Painter's Cabinet, and Colourman's Repository. 1828.

Watin, Jean Felix, L'art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur. Liege, nouvelle edition. 1778.

Welsh, Frank S[agendorph]. "Who is an Historic Paint Analyst ? A Call for Standards."Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology (US), vol. xviii, no. 4 (1986): 4-5.

Whittock, Nathaniel. The Decorative Painters', and Glaziers' Guide. 1827.

Assorted Unpublished Documents

Baty, Patrick. "St John the Baptist, Hoxton, London N1. A Report on the First SchemeFollowing an Examination of the Paint on the Railings." 29th March 1998.

________. "Civil Service Rifles War Memorial: Somerset House, London WC1. A ReportFollowing an Examination of the Painted Surfaces". 4th September 1999.

________. "Report on An Analysis of the Paint on the Exteriors of 26-31 Charlotte Square,Edinburgh". 3rd June 2000 (1).

________. "Report on an Analysis of the Paint in Various Areas of No.26 Charlotte Square,Edinburgh." 26th November 2000 (2).

________. "23 & 25 Brook Street, London W1. A Report on the Early Decoration Followingan Examination of the Painted Surfaces in Various Areas." 22nd April 2001.

________. "Royal Hospital, Chelsea, London. A Report on the Paint Following anExamination of the Gates & Railings of the South Grounds." 20th April 2004.

________. "56 & 58 Artillery Lane, Spitalfields. A Report on the Decorative SchemesFollowing an Examination of a Number of the Painted Surfaces on the Interior and Exterior."29th January 2006.

Deas, William. Day Book. 1774 - 1778. From the Early Businesss Records of Messrs Moxon& Carfrae Ltd, painters and decorators, Edinburgh. Edinburgh. SRO GD1/548/1.

Penn, Theodore Zuk. "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750-1850: Materials, Process,and Craft." M.A. diss., University of Delaware, 1966.

Winde, William to Lady Mary Bridgeman. Letter dated 3rd August 1700. (Staffs CRO, Earl ofBradford's Archives, 18/4). Quoted in Beard 1981.