6 x 10.5 Long Title - assets.cambridge.orgassets.cambridge.org/97805215/72446/index/... · alkahest, and alchemy, 513 Almaz´em de Guin ´e e India (Lisbon), 471, 483 Alpers, Svetlana,

INDEX

Abano, Pietro d’, 141, 544–5Abel, Niels Henrik, 709n23Abu Ma‘shar (Albumasar), 578Academiae Naturae Curiosorum (Schweinfurt),

167, 269, 301, 394Academie Royale d’Arles, 196Academie Royale des Sciences (Paris): and

acoustics, 609; and Cartesianism, 399; andexperimental philosophy, 127, 130–1, 172;and laboratories, 301; and man of science, 185;and mathematics, 699; and mechanicalphilosophy, 46; and museum, 288–9; andnatural history, 467; and natural philosophy,394, 403–5; and patronage, 269, 270; andpopular culture, 221–2; publications of, 170,171, 325; and selection of members, 405n178;and travel, 356n62; and women, 195–6, 197–8

Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres,198

academies, scientific: and courts, 267–71; andexperimental investigations, 130–1; and familymodel, 231; and laboratories, 301–2; and manof science, 185, 186; and mathematics, 723;and mechanics, 659–64; and museums, 288–9;and natural philosophy, 394; and printinghouses, 325–6; rise of in early modern periodand issues of proof and persuasion, 169–74;and social conventions, 403–5; and women,195–8. See also Academie Royale des Sciences;Royal Society of London

Accademia del Cimento (Florence), 127, 170,172–3, 268, 301, 303, 325, 393–4, 609

Accademia dei Lincei (Rome), 268, 269, 393,452, 467

Accademia dei Secreti (Naples), 170, 301, 325,393

Accademia Secretorum Naturae (Naples), 269

Accademia Segreta (Naples), 301accidental causes, and scientific explanation,

92–3Acontius, Jacopo, 139Acosta, Cristobal, 453Acosta, Jose de, 351n40, 450, 836–8acoustics: development of in seventeenth

century, 604–11; and harmonics, 630; andmusic theory, 597–8; optics compared to, 597;Pythagorean and Aristoxenian traditions in,598–604; and study of sound in sixteenth andseventeenth centuries, 596

Acta eruditorum (journal), 167, 200, 331, 394,671

active principles, and scientific explanation,93–105

Adelard of Bath, 710ad vivum, and naturalism in art, 794–5, 796agriculture, and natural knowledge, 218Agricola, Georgius, 187, 213, 515Agrippa von Nettesheim, Henricus Cornelius,

379, 500, 501–2, 514, 519–26, 734, 803–4Aguilon, Francois d’, 122Ailly, Pierre d’, 478Alberti, Leon Battista, 295n14, 315, 499Albert of Saxony, 83, 371n28Albertus Magnus, 72, 82, 83, 295n13, 543–4, 546,

548n27Albrecht V, Duke of Bavaria, 264alchemy: and astrology, 555n61; and classification

of knowledge, 4; and courts, 261–2; andexperimentation, 516; and gunpowder, 308;and laboratories, 294–5, 299; and medicine,421, 423, 498; modern distinction betweenchemistry and, 497–8; and Newton, 94n60;and Paracelsus, 502–10; status of in earlysixteenth century, 499–502. See also chymistry

841

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842 Index

Aldrovandi, Ulisse: and botanical gardens, 116,281; and correspondence, 349; and magic, 526;and medicine, 459–60; and museums, 246,287, 448; and natural history, 437, 444n29,451, 455, 458, 462, 463; and patronage, 266;and study of fish, 193, 210

Alembert, Jean Le Rond d’, 23n7, 672Aleotti, Giambattista, 315Alexander of Aphrodisias, 368Alfonsine Tables, 343, 565Alfonso V, King of Portugal, 472Alfonso the Wise, King of Castile, 343algebra, 705–6, 708–10, 714–18Alhazen. See al-Haythamalkahest, and alchemy, 513Almazem de Guine e India (Lisbon), 471, 483Alpers, Svetlana, 794Alpetragius. See al-BitrujıAlsted, Johann Heinrich, 405–6Amico, Giovanni Battista, 567analysis and synthesis: and mathematics, 703–6,

722; Newton’s method of, 94n60, 99–100, 101,102–3

anatomy: and development of medicine, 415,430; and executions of criminals, 216; andexperience, 111–15; and illustration, 782–6; andoptics, 615–18; and theaters, 273–80, 285–6,415. See also ear; eye

Andrade, Antonio de, 359Andreae, Johann Valentin, 301Anguillara, Luigi, 445Anna of Denmark, Queen of England, 254Annae litterae (Annual Letters), 351, 353anthropology, and travel literature, 766–70antipodes, and cosmography, 470, 474, 477,

479antivivisectionism, 797Antwerp, and cosmography, 486–7aphorisms, as genre of early printed book, 167Apian, Peter (Petrus Apianus), 470, 485–6, 635,

682, 693Apian, Philip, 486Apollonius of Perga, 705, 707, 712–13apothecaries: and global trade, 210–11; and

gunpowder, 312; and practice of medicine, 419Aquinas, Thomas, 8, 27n17, 72, 75n14, 93, 371,

381–2, 523, 732Archimedes, 634–5, 639, 644, 651, 705–6, 712–14architecture: of homes and households, 226; and

mechanical arts, 677–8; and military science,315

Aretino, Pietro, 762Argoli, Andrea, 553aristocracy: and French salons, 198; and man of

science, 189. See also class

Aristotelianism: and anti-Aristotelianism inphysics, 29–43; and concept of body, 51; criticsof and changes in scientific explanation, 71,72–7, 82–6; definition of, 368n15;historiography of, 70n1; and knowledge ofnature, 106–7; and Leibniz, 52; and naturalphilosophy, 370–95; and physical sciences,21–8; and rhetoric, 136; and scientificdemonstration, 142

Aristotle: and anatomy, 113; and astrology, 546;and classification of sciences, 120; and conceptof causal explanation, 73–5, 105; andexperience, 106, 108–11; on household andsocial order, 229; on manual crafts, 293; andmechanics, 634, 636, 637; and medicine, 407;and natural history, 438, 439; and naturalphilosophy, 366; on sex and gender difference,801–2, 803–4; on space and the body, 27, 52.See also Aristotelianism

Aristoxenus and Aristoxenian tradition, inacoustics, 598–604

armor, and military science, 313–17Arnaud, Pierre, 366n3Arnauld, Antoine, 163, 398art: and artist as scientist, 786–91; and interest in

depicting nature, 773–4; and mechanical arts,693–5; and naturalism, 775–9, 785, 791–6; andnatural objects, 529; and optics, 763n20. Seealso illustration

artisans: and development of new epistemologyin natural philosophy, 296; and distillation ofdrugs, 211; and elitism of scientific academies,222n78; and women in sciences, 199–201. Seealso craft tradition; guilds

Ascoli, Cecco d’, 528, 529Aselli, Gasparo, 429Ashmole, Elias, 246, 287, 560n82Ashworth, William, 361–2astrolabe, 684, 687astrology: and astronomy, 577–81; continued

popularity of, 558–61; and courts, 258–9;history of and transition from Renaissance toEnlightenment science, 541–2; and intellectualand institutional structures in 1500, 542–7;loss of intellectual legitimacy duringeighteenth century, 552–8; and medicine, 579;and public performances in piazzas, 215–16;and reforms in sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, 547–52; and universities, 541, 542,545–6, 553

astronomy: and Aristotelian natural philosophy,386–7; and astrology, 577–81; celestial physicsand heavenly bodies, 28; and changes inscientific explanation, 71; and changes instructure of learning, 569–73; and concept of






Index 843

Scientific Revolution, 13–14, 16–17; andcourts, 255; and Descartes, 586–90, 657–8; andeducation in early sixteenth century, 564–5;evolution of in sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, 594–5; families involved in, 232, 235;and geography, 491; and Jesuits in China,833–4; Kepler and revolution in, 581–4,587–90; and literature, 764–6; and mapping,344; and mathematics, 41, 119, 120, 121–2,401–2, 707; and navigation, 686–7; andNewton, 592–4, 664–5, 667–8; and optics,614; and religion, 573–7, 589–90, 645, 727,740–8; and Renaissance humanism, 565–9;status of in late Middle Ages, 562–3; anduniversities, 563; and women, 200–1, 235. Seealso comets; Copernicus; Earth; Galileo;heliocentrism; planetary motion; stars

Athenian Society (London), 335–6atlases. See maps and atlasesatomism: and chymistry, 512; and mechanical

philosophy, 47, 53; and natural philosophy inRenaissance, 375–6; and scientific explanation,87–8

Aubrey, John, 220Augsburg Confession, 736Augurelli, Giovanni, 501August of Braunschweig-Luneburg, 264Augustine of Hippo, 78, 294, 730–1August of Saxony, 264Austen, Ralph, 218authority: challenges to traditional sources of,

802–3; and influence of religion on astronomy,740–8; patterns of in family, 230; proof andargument from, 161; and science, religion, andpolitics in seventeenth century, 748–53

Auzout, Adrien, 356n62Avempace. See Bajja, IbnAverlino, Antonio Francesco (Filarete), 297, 315Averroes (Ibn Rushd), 75n14, 83, 368, 637, 641Avicenna (Ibn Sina), 72, 83, 408–9, 499n8, 523

Bachmann, Augustus, 117backstaff, and navigation, 687Bacon, Francis: and acoustics, 604–5; and

alchemy, 516; and aphorism as genre, 167; andart, 776–7, 787, 796; and astrology, 542,550–2; and cosmography, 495–6; descriptionof ideal research facility, 272–4, 289, 345, 750;education of, 194; on empiricism inworkshop, 212–13, 221; and experience, 106,110–11, 115, 127, 130; and feminist critiques ofscience, 798–9; on gender and nature, 810–11;and gunpowder, 307, 308; and history of earlymodern science, 8; influence of Italiannaturalists on, 36; and laboratory, 295, 301;

and laws of nature, 45n75; on libraries, 244,249; and literature, 771; and magic, 532; onman of science, 180, 185, 189; and mechanicalarts, 676; and natural history, 116, 458, 463;and natural philosophy, 379, 400; and optics,612; and physics, 64n144; and religion, 730,749–51; and scale of practice, 345; andscientific explanation, 83, 84–5; and study oflaw, 461; and theories of proof and persuasion,145, 148, 149, 151–2, 158; on travel andexploration, 839

Badiano, Juan, 826Baer, Nicholas Reymers (Ursus), 258Baglivi, Giorgio, 431, 432Bajja, Ibn (Avempace), 637Baldwin, William, 370Baliani, Gianbattista, 651, 653Barbaro, Ermolao, 441, 499Barozzi, Francesco, 155Barrow, Isaac, 121n58, 125–6, 129, 155, 183, 623–4,

718, 720Bartholin, Erasmus, 701–2Bartholin, Thomas, 429Basso, Sebastian, 47, 395Bauhin, Caspar, 277, 458n83, 459, 464Bauhin, Jean, 455Bauhin family, 232, 460n89Bautista, Juan, 822Bayern, Ernst von, 506Bayle, Pierre, 144–5, 331Becher, Johann Joachim, 217, 261, 302, 304Bede, Venerable, 474Beeckman, Isaac, 45, 183, 428, 587n65, 596,

608n25, 654Beguin, Jean, 304, 508–9, 511Behn, Aphra, 761, 769Belgium. See Antwerpbelief, and rhetorical account of proof and

persuasion, 147–8Bellarmine, Robert, 377, 746Belleval, Pierre Richer de, 283Bellini, Lorenzo, 430Belon, Pierre, 446, 526Ben-David, Joseph, 180n4Benedetti, Alessandro, 275, 441Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 596, 603, 604, 606,

634, 638–9Benedict of Nursia, St., 294Berengario of Carpi, Jacopo, 236Berkeley, George, 68, 624n60Bernoulli, Jakob, 163, 650, 670, 671, 672, 721Bernoulli, Johann, 672, 721Bernoulli, Niklaus, 670, 672Berry, Jean, Duc de, 252Berulle, Cardinal Pierre de, 395






844 Index

Bessarion, Cardinal Basilius, 566Besson, Jacques, 317Biancani, Giuseppe, 155, 375n46Bianchini, Francesco, 589Bible: and natural philosophy, 371n26, 745–6,

750; and printing houses, 326; sex and genderdifference in, 801, 803, 804

Biringuccio, Vannoccio, 210al-Bitrujı (Alpetragius), 566–7Blaeu, Joan, Jr., 492Blaeu, Joan, Sr., 353, 492Blaeu, Willem, 591Blake, William, 772Blancanus, Josephus, 739Blondel, Francois, 650blood, circulation of, 425–6, 429Blotius, Hugo, 256Bodenstein, Adam von, 262, 506Boderie, Guy Lef evre de la, 770Bodin, Jean, 137, 166, 210, 387Bodley, Thomas, 245body: and alchemy, 504; Aristotle on space and,

27, 52; and concept of nature, 813; Descarteson extension and, 89n49; and Leibniz’sphysics, 52n103, 62; mechanistcorpuscularianism and Aristotelian conceptof, 51; observational account of, 769–70;theories of matter and concepts of, 49–50

Boehme, Jakob, 374Boerhaave, Hermann, 305, 432Boethius, 599Bombelli, Rafael, 709–10books: in Chinese language, 831; dedication of to

courtly patrons, 258; and Galileo, 645; andmagic, 529–31; and natural history, 439;printing houses and character of, 323; proofand persuasion in, 164–8. See also libraries;literature; printing and printing houses;textbooks

Bordelon, Laurent, 771Borel, Pierre, 226Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 431, 588, 659, 660Borough, Stephen, 487Borough, William, 492, 688Borro, Girolamo, 641Boscovic, Rudjer, 68Bosschaert, Ambrosius, 793botanical gardens: and collection of specimens,

116; colonialism and plants in, 201–2; andcourts, 256–7; and curiosity cabinets, 283, 285;emergence and development of, 273–4, 280–3;and natural history, 444, 468

botany: global trade and interest in, 207–8; andillustrations, 116–17, 235n39, 773, 780–2; and

medicine, 442, 444–5, 446, 460n89; andnatural history, 442–3. See also botanicalgardens; herbals and herbalists

Botero, Giovanni, 838Bouchereau, Jacques, 370Bouillau, Ismael, 588, 591Boujou, Theophraste, 370n21, 390Bourne, William, 318Bouver, Joachim, 834Boyle, Robert: and acoustics, 609–10; and

astrology, 552; and concept of nature, 812–14;and corpuscular theory, 512, 537–8; anddiscovery of chemical color indicators, 210;and essay as genre, 167; and experience,129–30, 131, 400–1, 402, 466n114; andfoundations of physics, 58; and interest inchymistry, 32; and laboratory, 295, 303; andman of science, 182, 189, 194; and mechanicalarts, 694; and mechanical philosophy, 43–4,47, 49, 64; and medicine, 418; and naturalhistory, 466n114; and natural philosophy, 365,400–1, 402; and proof or persuasion, 138, 152,157; and religion, 751, 752–3; and RoyalSociety, 289; and scale of practice, 345; andscientific explanation, 77, 78–81, 91; andtheories of colors, 626n69; and transmutation,511; and workshops in home, 227

Bracciolini, Poggio, 146, 375Bradley, James, 590, 672Bradwardine, Thomas, 637Brahe, Sophie, 236n41Brahe, Tycho: and alchemy, 571; and astrology,

548–9; and courts, 257; and design ofUraniborg, 229; and history of astronomy,574–7, 590n73, 687, 702; and Kepler, 42, 402,578n40, 582, 613; and natural philosophy, 386;and scientific explanation, 71; and scientifichousehold, 236n41

Brasavola, Antonio Musa, 443n24Braudel, Fernand, 343Brazil: and cosmography, 478; natural history of,

453Breidenbach, Bernhard von, 474Brendel, Zacharias, 510Breyne, Jakob, 202Breyne, Johann Philip, 235Brissot, Pierre, 412–13Browne, Thomas, 221, 771Brueghel, Jan, the Elder, 793Brunelleschi, Filippo, 677, 692, 787Brunfels, Otto, 116, 442, 457, 780, 794n68Bruni, Leonardo, 373, 472Bruno, Giordano, 33, 35, 36, 375, 377–8, 518, 570,

571–2, 734, 757






Index 845

Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de, 465Buonamici, Francesco, 641Bureau, Jean and Gaspard, 312n20Bureau d’Adresse (Paris), 325, 329, 394–5Burgi, Jost, 261, 691Buridan, Jean, 474–5, 637Burton, Robert, 757Burtt, E. A., 13Busbeck, Oliver, 256Busschof, Herman, 205Butler, Samuel, 140n10Butterfield, Herbert, 13

Cabeo, Niccolo, 121–2, 388Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, 768cabinets of curiosities. See curiosity cabinetsCaboto, Sebastien, 484Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 478calculatores, and mechanics, 637–8calculators, and mechanical arts, 685calculus, and mathematics, 671, 705, 706, 718–22Calvin, John, 579Calvinism: and natural philosophy, 369, 382; and

study of nature, 298n24Calzolari, Francesco, 210, 460n90Cambridge University, and natural philosophy,

389–90Camerarius, Joachim, 738Camerarius family, 232Camers, Joannes, 494–5Campanella, Tommaso, 33–5, 240, 267, 301, 377,

518, 570, 571–2, 605n17, 734, 810Campanus of Novarra, 710cannons, and military science, 308–9Cantimori, Delio, 735n25Cardano, Girolamo: and astronomy, 570–1; and

curiosity cabinets, 286; and development oftextbooks, 166, 387; and experience, 115; andmagic, 518; and mathematics, 6, 699, 709; andmechanics, 638n20; and medicine, 412; andnatural philosophy, 33, 35, 376, 390; andprobability, 162; and scientific debates, 339

Cardenas, Juan de, 823Caroline, Princess of Wales, 669Cartesianism: explanations for success of, 397–9;

and innovations in natural philosophy, 393; inItaly, 46–7n85; medicine and debate on, 429;Newton’s rejection of, 666–7, 669. See alsoDescartes, Rene

Cartier, Jacques, 757, 768cartography: and cosmography, 473, 491; and

mechanical arts, 689–91. See also maps andatlases

Casa de la Contratacion (Spain), 358, 471, 483–4

Casaubon, Isaac, 246, 522Cassini, Gian Domenico, 184, 343, 344, 493, 624,

834Cassini, Jacques, II, 594Cassini family, 232Castagne, Gabriel, 263Castelli, Benedetto, 644, 648, 649, 650Castiglione, Baldassare, 253Catena, Pietro, 156Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, 198Catholic Church: and control of universities,

184; and Galileo, 589–90, 645, 727, 746–8;and libraries, 249; Luther and intellectualchallenges to, 734–5; and magic, 529–32;monasteries and alchemy, 498; monasticmovements and laboratories, 294; andrejection of Copernicanism, 746. See alsoInquisition; Jesuits; religion

Cauchy, Augustin, 720n43causation: and changing forms of scientific

explanation, 70–105; and mechanicalphilosophy, 63–6

Cavalieri, Bonaventura, 646Cavalieri, Emilio de’, 265Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle,

197, 254, 255, 763, 769–70Cavendish, William, Earl of Newcastle, 400, 752Cazre, Pierre le, 653Cecil, William (Lord Burghly), 260Celaya, Juan de, 373celestial instruments, and mechanical arts,

679–83Cellini, Benvenuto, 296Centlivre, Susanna, 771centrifugal force, and mechanics, 663Ceriziers, Rene de, 370n21certainty, and proof in mathematics, 162–4Cervantes (Saavedra), Miguel, 317Cesalpino, Andrea, 117, 282, 417n30, 425Cesi, Federico (Marchese di Monticello), 268,

269Chalcidius, 99n69Chamber, John, 580n47Chambers, Ephraim, 552, 558–9Champaignac, Jean de, 370n21Champier, Symphorien, 374Chapman, George, 757Charles II, King of England, 185, 560n82Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 461Charles V, King of France, 252Charleton, Walter, 58Chartres Cathedral, and Portail Royal, 599, 600fChatelet, Emilie, Marquise du, 198, 669Chauvin, Etienne, 115–16






846 Index

Chavez, Alonso de, 484chemistry: and alchemy, 29n27; 497–8; and

medicine, 422–3, 430–1. See also alchemy;chymistry

China, and Jesuits, 827–35Chladni, Ernst, 630Choppin, Rene, 217chorography, 470Chouet, Robert, 398Christina, Queen of Sweden, 194, 254Christine de Pizan, 195n8Chronicles of the Indies, 351chronology, and cosmography, 490–1chronometer, and cosmography, 492Church of England, and Royal Society, 752chymistry: definition of, 509–10; and

foundations of physics, 29–33; schools ofthought in, 513–17; transmutations and mattertheory, 510–13; and universities, 498, 508–9,510. See also alchemy; chemistry

ciarlatani, and performance in town squares,214, 215, 216

Cicero, 522Cigoli (Ludovico Cardi), 787circumferentor, and surveying, 690Clairaut, Alexis, 672Clarke, Samuel, 56–7, 556–7, 669class: and coffeehouses, 333; and concept of man

of science, 184–5, 188–91; and culturalperformances in piazza, 214; and early moderndiscourse on femininity, 806; and militaryscience, 317, 318, 319; and participation innatural inquiry, 192–3; and physicians, 416–17;and Royal Society of London, 197. See alsoaristocracy; artisans; elites

classification: and natural history, 467–8; ofscience in Arabic tradition, 294

Claturbank, Waltho Van, 214Clauberg, Johann, 61, 399Clavius, Christoph: and astrology, 553; and

astronomy, 577, 585n57; and cosmography,485; and Euclid’s Elements, 771; and Galileo,641n30; and “Jesuit science,” 739, 831; andJesuit universities, 183; libraries and works of,352; and natural philosophy, 388; on scientificstatus of mathematics, 120–1, 125, 155

Clement VIII, Pope, 377clocks: and mechanical arts, 662, 664, 679–83;

metaphor of nature as, 748–9Clusius, Carolus (Charles de l’Ecluse), 204–5,

283, 445, 446–7, 453–4, 456, 458n83, 459, 463,826

coffeehouses, discussion and demonstration ofsciences in, 320–2, 332–40

Coigner, Michael, 679Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 222, 399, 404, 493Colden, Jane, 235Colegio de San Francisco (Mexico City), 821Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, 822, 825Collegio Romano, 488, 577, 641Collegium Experimentale, 394Collenuccio, Pandolfo, 441, 499Collins, John, 699Colombo, Realdo, 112colonialism: and cosmography, 482–3; and

European expansion and self-definition,818–39; and natural history, 466–7; and travelliterature, 768–9; and women in sciences,201–5. See also New World; postcolonialism;Spain

Colonna, Fabio, 461–2colors, and theory of light, 626–9Columbus, Christopher, 351, 448–9, 477–8,

819Comenius, John Amos, 240, 301, 751comets, and astronomy, 71, 386, 575–6, 591, 592Commandino, Federico, 633, 635, 639, 699, 711,

712n27, 738commerce. See tradecommunication: and fundamental changes in

early modern period, 347–55; geography andexpansion of scientific, 361. See also language;letters; printing and printing houses

Commynes, Philippe de, 309compass, and mechanical arts, 686, 687–8confessionalization, and religious identities,

735–6conic sections, Apollonian theory of, 716–17consonances, theory of, 605–7continuity, Galileo’s views about motion and,

652–3Cook, Harold, 193, 355Copernicanism: and Aristotelian natural

philosophy, 375, 385–6; and Church, 746; andGalileo, 223, 645; Wittenberg interpretationof, 738

Copernicus, Nicolas: and astrology, 541; andcosmography, 479–80, 496; and history ofastronomy, 14, 567–8, 573, 740–3, 747–8; andman of science, 181; printing of works of, 328;travel and distribution of ideas of, 352. See alsoCopernicanism

Cordemoy, Gerauld de, 61Cordus, Valerius, 445, 446corn, and natural history, 449–50Coronel, Luis, 373corpuscular philosophy: and Aristotelian

concept of body, 51; and chymistry, 512, 517;






Index 847

and occult theory of medicine, 537–8; rise ofmechanical philosophy and, 43–7; andscientific explanation, 87–93; and theories ofmatter, 49, 85. See also mechanical philosophy

correspondence. See lettersCosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany. See Medici,

Cosimo I de’cosmography: and emergence of geography,

494–6; new discoveries and reorganization of,469–72, 476–80; and science of descriptionand measurement, 491–3; status of before1490, 472–6; status of in early sixteenthcentury, 469, 480–91

cosmology: and Cartesianism, 564; andCopernicanism, 41–3, 375, 385–6, 567–9, 738,740–2, 747–8; and Descartes, 397, 586–7,590–1, 747–8, 753; and Galileo, 590–1, 743–7,753, 755; and homocentric theories, 566–7;and Kepler, 41–3, 580–1, 742–3; and music,600n7; and telescopes, 685–6. See alsoastronomy; heliocentrism

Cotes, Roger, 67n156, 671, 672Coto, Francisco, 484Cotton, Charles, 763Counter-Reformation: and astronomy, 582; and

natural philosophy, 395courts: and astrology, 549–50; and curiosity

cabinets, 263–7; and laboratories, 300; andpatronage of science, 253–63; and scientificacademies, 267–71; and sociopoliticalcharacter of early modern Europe, 251–3. Seealso patronage; state

Cowper, William, 430craft tradition, and practice of astronomy, 200.

See also artisans; guildsCraig, John, 163Cremonini, Cesare, 381, 424Croll (Crollius), Oswald, 32, 262, 299Cromberger, Juan, 822cross-staff, and navigation, 687Cruz, Juana Ines de la, 825Cruz, Martın de la, 826Cudworth, Ralph, 36, 60n134, 104, 374, 813culture: and art, 773–96; and European

colonialism and self-definition, 818–39; andgender, 797–817; and literature, 756–72; andman of science, 191n24; and religion, 727–55.See also etiquette; popular culture

Cunningham, William, 487curiosity cabinets: and anatomy theaters, 278;

and botanical gardens, 283, 285; and courts,263–7; emergence and development of, 273–4,286–9; and expansion of travel, 351; and globaltrade, 209

cycloid, and mechanics, 662–3, 671, 681Cyrano de Bergerac, Savinien, 762

Dalgarno, George, 761Daneau, Lambert, 382Danfrie, Philippe, 679Danti, Egnatio, 485, 683, 693Darwin, Charles, 760, 797Daston, Lorraine, 796Davis, John, 687Dawbarn, Frances, 260Dear, Peter, 209Dee, Jane, 235Dee, John, 121, 167, 226, 235, 248, 487, 518,

673–4, 688, 734DeFoe, Daniel, 206Delisle, Joseph, 672demonstration: and laboratory, 302–3; and

theories of proof and persuasion, 139–40,142, 155. See also experiment; observation

Derham, William, 610n39Desargues, Girard, 706, 707Descartes, Rene: and acoustics, 608; and

astrology, 555–6; and astronomy, 586–90,747–8; and body in literature, 769; anddebate on gender and intelligence, 809–10;education of, 243; and essay as genre, 167; andexperience, 123; and foundations of physics,23, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 52–3, 55, 59, 60–1, 63–4,65–6, 68; and magic, 532, 534–5; and man ofscience, 182, 194; and mathematics, 698, 715,716–18; and mechanics, 648, 650, 653–64,669; and medicine, 427–8; on method andproof, 142; and natural philosophy, 379, 395,396–9; and networks of correspondence, 349;and optics, 597, 617f, 618–21, 624; principlesof organization in works of, 25n11; andreligion, 79n25, 397, 730, 747–8; and scientificexplanation, 85, 88–9, 91; and theories ofproof and persuasion, 142, 151, 152. See alsoCartesianism

dialectics: and dialogue form, 166; and scientificdemonstration, 143–5

dialogue, as genre for transmitting naturalphilosophy, 166

Diamante di Bisa, 218–19Dias, Dinis, 477Diaz, Bartholomeo, 477, 483Dıez, Juan, 823diffraction, and optics, 618–23Digby, Kenelm, 46, 51Digges, Leonard, 318Digges, Thomas, 260, 691Dionysius Periegetes, 474






848 Index

Diophantus, 712–14Dioscorides, 283, 438, 440, 462n100, 773discovery, voyages of: and cosmography, 469–72,

476–80; overview of impact on Europeanculture, 818–20; and transformation of sciencein early modern era, 1–2. See also colonialism;New World; travel

distilleries and distillation: and medicine, 421;and role of trade, 210–11

Dodonaeus, Rembertus, 256domestic spaces, and home or household,

226–9Dondi, Giovanni de’, 680Donne, John, 764Dorn, Gerhard, 506dragons, in Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings,

528–9, 530fDrake, Stillman, 604n13Draper, J. W., 727, 747Du Bartas, Guillaume, 770Ducci, Lorenzo, 252–3Duchesne, Joseph (Quercetanus), 262, 263,

508Dudley, Robert, 260Du Hamel, Jean-Baptiste, 51Dunk, Eleazar, 212Duns Scotus, John, 83, 732Dunton, John, 335Duplex, Scipion, 370n21Durer, Albrecht, 296, 481f, 692, 776, 777, 778–9,

782, 793Du Roure, Jacques, 51Dutch East India Company, 357, 358–9, 453,

491–2

Eamon, William, 193ear, physiology and anatomy of, 598earth, and cosmography, 479–80, 481f, 493. See

also planetary motionEast Indies, and natural history, 450. See also

Dutch East India CompanyEbreo, Leo, 374ecofeminism, and critiques of science, 798Ecole Polytechnique, 315economics: and collections of natural objects,

287–8; courts and patronage system, 260;transformation of in early modern era, 7. Seealso trade

education: and astronomy in early sixteenthcentury, 564–5; and laboratories, 302n40; andman of science, 182–3; and mathematics,697–8; and medicine, 187n15, 442, 445–6; andmilitary class system, 319; religious identitiesand reforms in, 735–40, 750–1. See alsotextbooks; universities

Eisenmenger, Samuel, 738elasticity, and mechanics, 663–4elements: and alchemy, 501; Aristotelian doctrine

of, 28, 74; and innovations in naturalphilosophy, 390–1

Elias, Anton and Baltazar, 826elites, women and learned, 193–9. See also classElisabeth, Princess of Bohemia, 195Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 806, 807Ellul, Jacques, 798Emerald Tablet, and alchemy, 502, 503f, 514Elizabeth of Pfalz, Princess, 655empiricism, and methodology of natural

philosophy, 399–403. See also experience;experiment

Encyclopedia Britannica, and astrology, 559engineering: and courts, 260; and mechanical

arts, 677–8; and military science, 312, 314–15,317–19

England: Civil War and astrology, 560n82; CivilWar and influence of religion on science,750–1, 755; and cosmography, 487–8;ephemerides and astrology, 554; and man ofscience, 190; and mechanical philosophy, 46;and medical profession, 187n16; Restorationand new understanding of experience, 751–3,755. See also Royal Society of London

Epicureanism, 48, 78–9, 81, 150, 396Epicurus, 47, 48, 87n44, 373, 376. See also

Epicureanismepistemology: and Aristotelian natural

philosophy, 108, 110, 111, 112, 122; andinduction in Newton’s usage, 129–30; andlaboratory, 295–300; and scientificexplanation, 72. See also knowledge

Erasmus, Desiderius, of Rotterdam, 238, 239,469, 499, 807

Erastianism, 507Erastus, Thomas, 32, 507Espagner, Jean d’, 366n3essay, as genre of early printed book, 166–7essence, distinction between real and nominal,

24Este, Isabella d’, 254Estienne, Charles, 275–6Etaples, Jacques Lefevre d’, 487ethnography, and travel literature, 766–70etiquette, and scientific academies, 171,

268–9Euclid, 109, 142, 352, 611, 702, 705, 710–12Eudoxus of Cnidus, 711n25Euler, Leonhard, 593, 629, 672Eustachius a Sancto Paulo, 25n11, 27n17,

166n142Evelyn, John, 215, 222, 227, 257, 752






Index 849

experience: and anatomy, 111–15; experimentsand “physico-mathematics,” 124–6;importance of to conceptions of naturalknowledge, 106–8; and mathematics, 119–23;and natural philosophy of Aristotle in earlymodern era, 108–11; and Newtonianism,126–30; Restoration England and newunderstanding of, 751–3; species andtaxonomy in natural history and, 115–19; andtrade, 212–13. See also demonstration;empiricism; experiment; observation

experiment: and alchemy, 516; and chymistry,517; and coffeehouses, 320; and concepts ofproof and persuasion, 157–62; construal ofexperience as, 106; and Galileo, 647–8; andlaboratory, 302–4; and natural history,466n114; and Newtonianism, 127; and“physico-mathematics,” 124–6; and scientificsocieties, 130–1. See also demonstration;empiricism; experience; observation

extrinsic causes, and scientific explanation, 77–93Eyck, Jan van, 787, 788eye, physiology of, 612, 615–18, 685. See also

spectacles

Fabri, Honore, 650, 653Fabrici de Aquapendente, Girolamo, 112, 278,

425Fabricius, David, 591Fabritius, Paulus, 257fact: experiments and discourse of, 158–9, 303;

and natural philosophy, 160–2; and Pliny’sdefinition of factum, 437–8

Falloppia, Gabriele, 460n89family: forms of in early modern Europe, 234n31;

and natural inquiry, 225, 229–33. See alsohomes and households; marriage

Faulhaber, Johannes, 700feminism: and critiques of science, 797, 798–9;

and studies of science and imaginativeliterature, 758

Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria, 264Fermat, Pierre de, 162, 183, 349, 620–1, 698, 701,

707n21, 714, 716Fernel, Jean, 423, 424, 532–4Ferrari, Lodovico, 709Ficinio, Marsilio: and alchemy, 499–500, 514;

and Aristotelian natural philosophy, 733; andconcept of “spiritus,” 605n17; and cosmology,734n22; and libraries, 247; and magic, 412, 518,520, 521, 522–3; and Medici court, 35; Platoand Platonism, 33, 374

field trips, and natural history, 445–7Finaeus, Orontius, 487Findlen, Paula, 790

Fioravanti, Leonardo, 210, 211, 217Fior, Antonio Maria, 708–9Flamsteed, John, 235, 336–7, 339, 553–4, 590, 665Flamsteed, Margaret, 235Fludd, Robert, 32, 37, 328fluxions, Newton’s method of, 720–1Foigny, Gabriel de, 768folk medicine, 421Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, 16, 154, 172,

198, 399, 511force, and mechanics, 664, 670Forli, Jacopo da, 8fortifications, and military science, 313–17fossils, and natural history, 465Foucault, Michel, 459n85, 810, 811–12, 816Foxe, Bishop John, 328Fracastoro, Girolamo, 33, 34, 35, 567, 757, 760,

770Framboisier, Nicolas Abraham de la, 263Frampton, John, 826France: artisans and French Revolution, 222n78;

and Cartesianism, 398; and cosmography, 487;and influence of state on education, 389n108;salons and women in science, 196, 198–9.See also Academie Royale des Sciences

Francesco di Giorgio. See Martini, Francesco diGiorgio

Francis I, King of France, 252, 255Francois, Jean, 492Frankfurt School, of social criticism, 798Franklin, Benjamin, 405Frederick III, Prince of Brandenburg, 264Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, 271Frederick of Wurttemberg, Duke, 292Frederik III, King of Denmark, 264French, Roger, 783Fresnel, Augustin Jean, 631Frey, Jean-Cecile, 36, 388Friedrich-Wilhelm, Prince of Brandenburg, 264Fritz, Samuel, 359–60Froeschl, Daniel, 793Frytschius, Marcus, 144Fuchs, Leonhart, 443, 457, 780, 782Fugger commercial house, 208, 348, 351, 420Funkenstein, Amos, 728

Gabrieli, Gaspare, 442Galen: and anatomy, 111, 113, 114; and magic, 523,

531, 533; and medical botany, 413; and naturalhistory, 438–9; and Newton’s method ofanalysis and synthesis, 99n69; and scientificmethod, 141; and sex difference, 805; as sourceof authority, 802; and universal antidote, 207;on vision and the eye, 612

Galilei, Vincenzo, 596, 603–4






850 Index

Galileo Galilei: and acoustics, 605–6; and art,779, 787; and astrology, 541–2, 549, 550; andChurch, 589–90, 645, 727, 746–8; andCopernicanism, 223, 385; and dialogue in earlyprinted books, 166; early career and educationof, 6, 194; and experience, 123, 124, 125, 213;and geography, 491; and history of astronomy,563, 584–6, 587–90, 644, 743–8; and history ofearly modern science, 8; household of, 232n24;and literature, 760, 762; and magic, 532, 539;and man of science, 181, 183; andmathematical methods, 401–2, 706, 711; andmechanical arts, 680, 685; and mechanicalphilosophy, 45, 53; and mechanics, 633,640–64, 669; and model of new naturalphilosophy, 248; and patronage, 230, 231,259–60; and Platonism, 375; and religion, 730,753–5; and scale of practice, 345; and scientificacademies, 267; and scientific explanation, 71;and theories of proof and persuasion, 140,146, 156; and theory of matter, 49

Galle, Jan, 1–2, 5fGama, Vasco da, 478Gans, David, 383–4Gante, Pedro de, 821Garth, Samuel, 407–8gases, Boyle’s laws of, 667Gassendi, Pierre: and anti-Aristotelianism, 36;

and libraries, 248; and man of science, 181; andmaterialism, 59n130; and mechanicalphilosophy, 46, 47–8, 49, 53, 62, 395, 396, 653,655, 656; and proof in mathematics, 155; andrejection of metaphysics, 24; and scientificacademies, 267; and scientific explanation,79–80, 81; and syllogism, 152

Gauquelin, Michel, 561n85Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 710Gaza, Theodore, 373, 439–40Geber. See Jabir ibn H. ayyanGeertz, Clifford, 761Gemini, Thomas, 679Gemma Frisius, Reiner, 412, 486, 492, 679, 683,

693gender: and concept of man of science, 179; and

division of labor in scientific households, 235;of science and nature in early modern period,797–801, 810–17; and understanding of sexdifference in early modern period, 800–10. Seealso women

genre: and impact of science on imaginativeliterature, 760–1; and questions of proof andpersuasion, 165

Geoffrey, Etienne Francois, 511geography: and cosmography, 469, 470, 494–6;

and Relaciones geographicas project, 826–7;

and travel literature, 766–70. See also mapsand atlases

geometry: and algebra, 714–18; and experience,114; and mechanical arts, 675, 681; andmodernity, 722; and navigation, 687; andoptics, 623–4, 630–1; proof or persuasion in,156–7, 704–7. See also mathematics

George of Trebizond, 374Georgios Gemistos Pletho, 373Gerard of Cremona, 564, 565Gerbillion, Jean-Francois, 834Germany: educational reforms in Protestant,

736; as intellectual center of chymistry, 32;and mechanical philosophy, 46

Gerritsz, Hessel, 491–2Gessner, Conrad: and chymistry, 507; and

correspondence, 349; and development ofdiscipline-specific books, 353; on distilling ofdrugs, 211; and natural history, 187, 435, 446,447, 451, 455–6, 457, 458–9, 460

Ghetaldi, Marino, 712Gheyn, Jacob de, 313Ghiberti, Buonaccorso, 315Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 297, 775Ghini, Luca, 416, 444, 447Ghiselin de Busbecq, Ogier, 256Ghisilieri, Antonio, 554Gilbert, Adrian, 199Gilbert, William, 140, 183, 188, 210, 301, 388,

688Giorgi, Francesco, 378Giovane, Duchess Juliane, 198Giovanni di Bartolo, 212Girard, Albert, 710Glanvill, Joseph, 60, 189, 208, 302, 752Glauber, Johann Rudolf, 302Glisson, Francis, 430global economy. See tradeGoad, John, 558Goclenius, Rudolph, 138–9Godebert, Louis, 243Godwin, Francis, 762, 765Goedenhuize, Joseph, 794–5Goes, Bento de, 359Goltzius, Hendrick, 791Gombrich, E. H., 791Goncalves, Lope, 477Gonzaga Palace (Mantua), 264Goorle, David van, 47, 395Gottfried of Franconia, 218n55Gournay, Marie le Jars de, 196Graaf, Reinier de, 187, 213, 430Graff, Johann Andreas, 203Grant, Edward, 371Grassi, Horatio, 71






Index 851

gravity: and Descartes, 48; and Galileo, 662n84;and mechanics, 635, 643, 658; Newton’s lawof, 67n156, 101, 102–3, 666, 669

Greece, ancient. See Aristotle; Epicurus; Euclid;Hellenism; Plato; Pythagoras andPythagorean tradition

Greenwich Observatory. See Royal ObservatoryGregory, David, 593Gregory, James, 623Grew, Nehemiah, 187, 288Grimaldi, Francesco, 597, 621–3, 629Grimmelshausen, H. J. C. von, 418Grotius, Hugo, 151, 244Grove, Richard, 204Grynaeus, Simon, 486guaiacum, and trade in medicinal drugs, 208Guaineri, Antonio, 219Guericke, Otto von, 609Guibert, Nicolas, 508guilds: and laboratories, 295–6; and women in

sciences, 200–1Guldin, Paul, 739guns and gunpowder, 307–13, 314, 317, 505,

691–2Gunter, Edmund, 682, 689

Habermas, Jurgen, 339, 354Hainhofer, Philipp, 209Hakewill, George, 751Hakluyt, Richard, 488, 767, 768Haller, Albrecht von, 270Halley, Edmond, 10, 332, 493, 554, 590, 594, 665,

672, 712n27Halley’s Comet, 591Hanson, Norwood Russell, 108harmonics, and acoustics, 630Harrington, James, 320Harrington, Thomas, 427Harriot, Thomas, 318, 452, 757, 765, 768, 779Harris, John, 43n70, 406, 511Harth, Erica, 809–10Hartlib, Samuel, 218, 302, 353Hartmann, Georg, 679Hartmann, Johann, 261, 300, 510, 511Harvard University, and astrology, 555n60Harvey, William, 112–14, 186, 187, 277, 280, 328,

407, 425, 761Havers, Clopton, 430al-Haytham (Alhazen), 612, 614Heerbrand, Jacob, 738Heinsius, Daniel, 247Helden, Albert Van, 585n57heliocentrism: and Aristotelian natural

philosophy, 385, 386; and Brahe, 574; andDescartes, 397, 399; and geocentrism, 589–90;

and neo-Platonism, 374–5; support of Galileoand Kepler for, 402, 585

Hellenism, and medicine, 411–12Hellwig, Christoph, 140Helmholtz, Hermann von, 630Helmont, Johannes Baptista Van, 32, 47n88, 104,

423, 512–13, 518Hennepin, Louis, 768n37Henry III, King of France, 3Henry IV, King of France, 263Henry of Langenstein, 563Henry the Navigator, Prince of Portugal, 350n36,

477herbals and herbalists: and botanical gardens,

280; herbarium and natural history, 447–8;and illustrations, 773; and natural knowledgein countryside, 218. See also botany

Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, 151Herbert, Mary Sidney, Countess of Pembroke,

199Herbst, Johannes, 328Hermann, Paul, 202Hermes Trismegistus, 373, 497, 521–2, 571. See

also HermeticismHermetic Corpus, 295Hermeticism, and scientific developments of

Renaissance, 374Hernandez, Francisco, 452, 462, 826Hero of Alexandria, 635Herrera, Antonio de, 353Herschel, Caroline and William, 232n26Heseler, Baldasar, 276Hevelius, Johannes, 183, 200, 201, 227–8, 591Heydon, Christopher, 580Highmore, Nathaniel, 430Hill, Nicholas, 47, 395Hippocrates, 114, 434, 533Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Sciences

(journal), 331historiography: of Aristotelianism, 70n1;

classrooms and libraries in, 239; and conceptof Scientific Revolution, 12–17, 436n4,799–800; and concept of private versus publicspace, 224; and debate on nature of earlymodern Catholicism, 735n25; and feministcritiques of science, 798–9; and genderideologies, 799–800, 816n50; and literature oncoffeehouses, 322n3; and literature on growthof natural history, 436n2; and literature onscientific aspects of music, 600–1n7; andliterature on scientific societies, 185–6n13; andMilitary Revolution, 307n3; of relationshipbetween science and religion, 727–30; andstudy of impact, 659–60; and study of proofand persuasion, 133






852 Index

history: change in ideas on in late seventeenthcentury, 437n7; Ficino’s study of myth and,522–3; and naturalists, 465. See alsohistoriography

Hobbes, Thomas: and astronomy, 588; andexperience, 126, 400; on geometry, 156; andman of science, 181; and materialism, 59; andmechanical philosophy, 46, 48; and medicine,427; on proof and persuasion, 142, 152, 157;and rejection of metaphysics, 24; and religion,751–2; and Royal Society, 329

Hoefnagel, Joris, 793Hofmann, Hans, 793Holbein, Hans, 482Holwarda, Johannes Phocylides, 591Holy Roman Empire: and cosmography, 485;

and scientific societies, 394Homberg, Guillaume, 131homes and households: and activities of

scientific research in early modern period,224–5; and domestic spaces, 226–9; and laborin scientific, 233–7; and natural inquiry asfamily project, 229–33

homocentric theories, in astronomy, 566–7. Seealso heliocentrism

Hoogstraten, Samuel van, 775, 777Hooke, Robert: and acoustics, 609; and art, 779;

and astronomy, 588; and coffeehouses, 336–7,339, 340; and experience, 128, 400, 402; andjournals, 167; and laboratory, 303, 304; andliterature, 762–3; on logic and proof, 152, 153;and mechanical arts, 681, 694–5; andmechanics, 664; and medicine, 430; andnatural history, 465; and Royal Society, 223,289, 330; and scientific explanation, 90; ontelescope, 539–40; and theories of colors,626n69

Hooykaas, Reijer, 496, 728horology, and mechanics, 662–3, 681. See also

clockshoroscopes. See astrologyHorrox, Jeremiah, 588Houghton, John, 337, 339Houlieres, Madame de, 196humanism: and alchemy, 499; and astronomy,

565–9; and courts, 270; and medicine, 411, 413;and music, 600n7; and natural philosophy,368, 373–4, 380; and new perspectives on God,man, and nature, 729; and questions of proofand persuasion, 135; and Republic of Letters,349; and revival of Greek and Latin texts, 7–8,599n3; and travel accounts, 767

Hume, David, 68, 104humors, and medicine, 410Huser, Johann, 506

Hutten, Ulrich von, 253Huygens, Christiaan: and acoustics, 610; on art,

778; and astronomy, 588; and Cartesianism,397; and cosmography, 493; and empiricism,131; and foundations of physics, 53; and manof science, 183, 194; and mathematics, 162,401, 706, 707n21; and mechanical arts, 680–1;and mechanics, 659–64, 669, 672; and optics,625, 626f; and scientific debates, 330; andscientific explanation, 90, 91; and travel, 10

hydrography, and cosmography, 470hydrostatics, and mechanics, 635, 640–1, 644hylemorphism, and natural philosophy, 390,

398hypothesis, and Newton’s methods, 753–4

Iamblichus, 522Ignatius Loyola, 350illustration, scientific: and anatomy, 782–6; and

botany, 116–17, 235n39, 773, 780–2; andexperiments in laboratory, 303; and gendereddivisions of labor, 235; and magic, 527–9; andmicroscope, 539–40; misplaced, mislabeled, orplagiarized, 352n46; and representation ofnatural world, 779–82. See also art

images, theory of optical, 623–4impact, rules of, 657, 659–61, 670Imperato, Ferrante, 210, 460n90Index of Forbidden Books, and Inquisition, 531India: and Jesuit missionaries, 350; Portuguese

and sea route to, 478inertia: Galileo and law of, 45n75; Newton’s

definition of, 666Innocent VIII, Pope, 378innovation: attitudes toward in mid-seventeenth

century, 16; and natural philosophy inRenaissance, 372–9; natural philosophy andresistance to radical, 390–3; and women insciences, 205

Inquisition: and astrology, 550; and magic, 531;and medicine, 423; and natural knowledge incountryside, 218–19, 220; and trial of Galileo,746. See also Catholic Church

insects, and natural history, 466Instituto delle Scienze (Bologna), 289intellectual movements: and Luther’s break with

Catholicism, 734–5; and theological context ofbodies of knowledge, 730–5. See alsoAristotelianism; Cartesianism;Copernicanism; Epicureanism; humanism;materialism; neo-Platonism; Newtonianism;scholasticism; Stoicism

intrinsic causes, and scientific explanation,77–93

inventio, and concepts of rhetoric and logic, 149






Index 853

Ippolito of Montereale, 226–7, 231Islamic world: and mathematics, 708; and

mechanics, 637Isserles, Moses, 384Italy: astrology in universities of, 546; and

cosmography, 472, 484–5; and libraries, 246;and mathematics, 699; natural history anduniversities of, 444; Platonism in universitiesof, 374; Renaissance naturalists andanti-Aristotelianism, 33–6; women andscientific academies in, 198

Jabir ibn H. ayyan (Geber), 294, 512Jacobs, Margaret, 759Jacopo d’Angelo, 472Jansenism, and Cartesianism, 398Japan, and Jesuits, 827–35Jedin, Hubert, 735n25Jesuits: and Aristotelian natural philosophy,

387–8, 389n108; and astronomy, 577; andauthority of Thomist-Aristotelianism, 173;and Cartesianism, 399; colleges anduniversities of, 241, 367–8, 488–9, 736–7,738–40; and correspondence, 348, 353; anddistinction between natural philosophy andmathematics, 119n49; and geography, 488–9;and journals, 351, 353; and libraries, 352; andmathematics, 121–2, 698, 723, 739, 829–30;and mechanics, 653; missionaries andcontributions to scientific knowledge, 202,350–1, 352, 357, 358, 359–60, 827–35; and scaleof scientific practice, 346

Jews and Judaism: and natural philosophy,383–4; and women in medicine, 236n42

John of Gmunden, 563John of Lignieres, 565John of Rupescissa, 504Johnson, Samuel, 763Jonson, Ben, 794n67Jordanus of Nemore, 635Joubert, Laurent, 419n36Journal des savants (journal), 167, 331journals: increase in importance of, 167–8; and

Jesuits, 351, 353. See also Acta eruditorum;Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Sciences;Journal des savants; Nouvelles de la Republiquedes Lettres; Philosophical Transactions; printingand printing houses

kabbalah, and natural philosophy, 384Kant, Immanuel, 68Keckermann, Bartholomaeus, 381Keill, John, 406n182Kepler, Johannes: and astrology, 541–2, 548–9,

550, 579, 580–1; and courts, 257–8; and

distinction between natural philosophy andmathematics, 119n49; and heliocentrism, 375;and history of astronomy, 563, 574, 581–4,587–90, 742, 743; and impact of science onliterature, 757, 760, 764, 765, 766; andlibraries, 248; and man of science, 183; andmathematics, 401–2, 699, 714; and mechanics,656, 665; and optics, 597, 613–18, 624, 630–1;and patronage, 194; printing of works of, 328;Pythagoreans and foundations of physics,41–3; and religion, 748; and travel, 10

Khayyam, ‘Omar, 708Khunrath, Heinrich, 290, 299al-Khwarizmı, 708al-Kındı, 614Kino, Eusebius Francisco, 359, 360n77, 825Kirch, Gottfried, 200, 232Kircher, Athanasius, 37, 248, 266, 344n14, 349,

353, 360n77, 388, 587n65, 609knowledge: Aristotelianism and sensory origin

of, 107; basis of division in premodernEurope, 6; natural philosophy and distinctionbetween divine and natural, 750; scientia andclassification of in early modern era, 3–4, 9, 11;Spanish response to indigenous Mexican, 825;theological and intellectual contexts of, 730–5.See also culture; natural knowledge

Kolb, Peter, 203Koopman, Elisabetha, 201Koyre, Alexandre, 13Kris, Ernst, 793Kuhn, Thomas, 154n89, 630, 631Kuo Tsing-lien, 832Kusukawa, Sachiko, 737Kyeser, Conrad, 317

labor, division of: in artists’ studios, 790; andlaboratories, 292, 294; in scientific household,233–7

laboratories: artist’s studio as, 789–91;description of in early modern period, 290–3;and epistemology, 295–300; evolution of,300–2; experiment in, 302–4; theory andpractice in, 293–5; and universities, 304–5. Seealso workshops

Lactantius, 148–9Lafitau, Joseph-Francois, 767La Forge, Louis de, 61Laguna, Andres, 281Lambert, Madame, 198Landucca, Luca, 527language: books in Chinese, 831; and Galileo,

763n18; Latin as scientific, 366n3; and studiesof science and imaginative literature, 759–62.See also dialogue; narrative; rhetoric






854 Index

Laqueur, Thomas, 815n48Lateran Council, 380latitude, and mechanical arts, 682Latour, Bruno, 792Lavanha, Joao Baptista, 483Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 510law and legal studies: and concepts of proof and

persuasion, 137–8; and naturalists, 461; andpractice of medicine, 419–20

laws, of nature: and changes in scientificexplanation, 70–105; and Descartes, 45n75;and mechanical philosophy, 44–5, 656; andNewton’s theory of planetary motion, 666;origins of term, 13n19

Le Bossu, Rene, 51Leclerc, Georges, 465Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, 182, 213, 430, 465,

763L’Ecluse, Charles de. See Clusius, CarolusLe Fevre, Nicaise, 29–30Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: and

Aristotelianism, 52; on art of invention, 149,153; and China, 834–5; on connection betweenscience and the state, 270–1; ondemonstration of proof, 164, 168; andfoundations of physics, 23, 49–51, 55–6, 60–3,64–5, 67, 68–9; and libraries, 248; and man ofscience, 185, 194; and mathematics, 702, 720,721; and mechanics, 650, 670–1, 672; andnetworks of correspondence, 349; andscientific societies, 394

Leigh, Richard, 335Lemery, Nicolas, 303–4, 497n1, 511, 515n74Le Monnier, Pierre Charles, 672Leonardo da Vinci: and anatomy, 414, 777; and

artist as scientist, 786–7; and artisticnaturalism, 776, 777, 782; diversity of careerof, 5–6; magic and drawings of dragons by,528–9, 530f; and mechanical arts, 677; andmilitary science, 315, 317, 318, 692; and naturalhistory, 462; and natural philosophy, 296

Leoniceno, Niccolo, 141, 412, 440–2Leosel, Johann, 237Le Roy, Louis, 495Lery, Jean de, 768L’Estrange, Sir Roger, 321–2Lestringant, Frank, 764letters: and concept of Republic of Letters,

348–51, 354, 360–1; and correspondenceamong universities, 342; and mathematics,699; and natural history, 454–6; and printingpress, 353–4

lever, doctrine of, 634, 654Libavius, Andreas, 263, 299, 507, 508

libraries: and classification systems of earlymodern period, 3; images of in early modernperiod, 238–40, 244–50; and Jesuits, 352

light: Italian naturalists and concept of, 35; andmechanical philosophy, 658; optics andtheories of, 611, 614–15, 618–23, 624–9

Ligorio, Pirro, 485Ligozzi, Jacopo, 777–8, 791n55Lilly, William, 560n82Linieres, Jean de, 343n8Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linne), 204, 232,

362, 458n83, 467–8, 767Lipsius, Justus, 80–1, 104, 376Lipstorp, Daniel, 587n65literature: and antagonisms between categories

of text and intellectual practice, 770–2; andcosmography, 473–4; and language, 759–62;overview of science and imaginative, 756–9;and plurality of worlds, 764–6; telescope,microscope, and realism in, 762–4; and travelaccounts, 766–70; and writers on militarytopics, 317–19. See also books; genre; journals;language; printing and printing houses;textbooks

Locke, John, 24, 53–4, 88, 175, 181, 188, 669logarithms, 707logic, and theories of proof and persuasion, 135,

136, 139–46, 151, 152. See also methodsLohr, Charles, 371–2longitude: and astronomy, 593; and

cosmography, 492Lopez de Velasco, Juan, 208Lorenzo, Giovanni, 226, 231Louis XIII, King of France, 264Lower, Richard, 187Lucretius, 47Luizzi, Mondino d’, 275Lull, Ramon, 702Lusitano, Amato, 218Luther, Martin, 240, 297–8, 382, 573, 729, 732–5Lux, David, 355

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 317–18Maestlin, Michael, 574, 581Magalotti, Count Lorenzo, 170Magellan, Ferdinand, 482magic: and Agrippa von Nettelsheim, 519–26;

and astrology, 544; credibility of, 526–9; andmedicine, 423, 532–8; in Middle Ages, 518; andnatural knowledge in countryside, 220; andnew science of early modern period, 538–40;and Pico’s beliefs, 579n44; and religion,529–32. See also witchcraft

Magini, Giovanni Antonio, 553, 585n57






Index 855

Magirus, Johannes, 555Maharal (Judah Loew ben Bezalel), 384Maine, Duchess of, 196maize, and natural history, 450Malebranche, Nicolas, 61, 62n139, 398Malpighi, Marcello, 186, 187, 430, 465Mander, Karel van, 787–8Manfredi, Girolamo, 542–3, 554manners, and scientific academies, 171. See also

etiquetteman of science: and medicine, 186–8; and

modern concept of scientist, 179–81; anduniversities, 182–6, 194

Manuel, Frank, 755Manutius, Aldus, 411, 440n16maps and atlases: and expansion of scientific

communication in early modern period, 361;of magnetic declination, 344n14; andmechanical arts, 692–3; and scientific practicesin medieval period, 342–3; traditional Chineseprinted, 831. See also cartography;cosmography; geography; navigation

Marchetti, Alessandro, 650Marcuse, Herbert, 798Marino di Iacopo (Taccola), 317, 678market. See piazza; tradeMarkgraf, Georg, 453Marlowe, Christopher, 531, 771Marquette, Jacques, 359marriage: sex differences and discussions of, 807;

and women in sciences, 200–1, 234–6. See alsofamily; homes and households

Marriotte, Edme, 131, 650Marsi, Paolo, 242–3Martin, Henri-Jean, 323Martini, Francesco di Giorgio, 315, 317, 678, 692Marx, Karl, 346mass, Newton’s definition of, 666materialism: and mechanical philosophy, 59; and

medicine, 424–31mathematics: Apollonian, Archimedan, and

Diophantine tradition, 712–14; and astrology,553, 554; and classification of knowledge, 4;definition of, 696; and Euclid’s elements,710–12; and experience, 119–26; and Galileo,640, 642–3; and Jesuits, 121–2, 698, 723, 739,829–30; and mechanical arts, 674–5, 678,683–6; and mechanics, 637–8; andmethodology of natural philosophy, 399–403;methods and problems in, 702–7; andmodernity, 722–3; and Newton, 667;probability and certainty in, 162–4; proof andpersuasion in traditions of, 154–7; socialcontext for, 697–702; and use of terms,

696–7; and women in sciences, 668–70. Seealso algebra; calculus; geometry; mixedmathematics

matter, theory of: and chymistry, 510–13; andmagic, 523–4; and mechanical philosophy,47–52, 655

Mattioli, Pier Andrea, 207, 218, 256, 450, 460–1,462n100

Maurice of Nassau, Prince, 700Mauro, Fra, 472, 473, 476Maurolico, Francesco, 484, 612–13, 738Maximillian II, Holy Roman Emperor, 256, 257,

264, 453, 461Mayer, Tobias, 593, 672Mayerne, Theodore de, 263Mayow, John, 187Mazzoni, Jacopo, 375n46Mead, Richard, 557–8measurement, and cosmography, 493mechanical arts: art and nature in, 693–5; and

classification of knowledge, 4; clocks andcelestial instruments, 679–83; definitions of,673; disciplinary relationships and boundariesof, 673–6; mathematical and opticalinstruments, 683–6; and military science, 319;status of in 1500, 677–9; surveying, warfare,and cartography, 686–93

mechanical philosophy: and foundations ofphysics, 43–66; natural philosophy andorigins of, 395–9; and rational mechanics,653–9. See also Boyle, Robert; Cartesianism;Descartes, Rene

mechanics: definition of, 632; as distinguishedfrom physics, 24. See also mechanical arts;mechanical philosophy; rational mechanics

Medici, Catherine de’, Queen of France, 806Medici, Cosimo I de’, Grand Duke of Tuscany,

281, 692Medici, Ferdinando I de’, Cardinal Grand Duke

of Tuscany, 265Medici, Francesco I de’, Grand Duke of

Tuscany, 265Medici, Leopoldo de’, Grand Duke of Tuscany,

170, 172, 268Medici family, 246, 255, 264medicine: and alchemy, 421, 423, 498; and

astrology, 579; and botanical gardens, 281–2;changes in early modern period, 432–4; andcompetition among providers, 211; and courts,262–3; debate on status of as science, 137–8;global trade and new medicinal drugs, 208;and harmonic balance, 600n7; home andpractice of, 226–7; and magic, 423, 532–8; andman of science, 186–8; and materialism,






856 Index

medicine (cont.)424–31; and military surgeons, 316–17; andnatural history, 4, 463n105; New World andexpansion of, 416–23; in rural areas, 218–21;Spanish response to indigenous Mexicanknowledge of, 825; status of at end ofseventeenth century, 407–8; and use of bodyparts as medications, 216–17; and women,236n42. See also anatomy; apothecaries; physic

Mei Wen-ting, 834Melanchthon, Philip, 107, 149, 241, 369, 382,

548, 573, 578, 580, 737–8Melichio, Giorgio, 210Mendoza, Antonio de, 823Mentzel, Christian, 231Mercator, Gerardus, 343, 486, 489–91, 683,

688–9, 693, 764Mercator, Nicolaus, 589Merchant, Carolyn, 798, 810–11, 812mercury, and chymistry, 513–14Merian, Maria Sybilla, 10, 199, 202–4, 459, 466–7Mersenne, Marin: and acoustics, 596, 598,

606–8; and astrology, 555; and foundations ofphysics, 36, 45; and letters, 349; and libraries,248; and man of science, 181; andmathematics, 699; and mechanics, 648, 649,651, 662; and natural philosophy, 379, 392;and optics, 597; and “physico-mathematics,”125; and scientific academies, 267; and theoriesof proof and persuasion, 151

Merton, Robert, 346, 728Mesmer, Franz Anton, 558Mesopotamia, and algebra, 708metallurgy, and military science, 309, 312metaphysics, and foundations of physics, 22–5,

68meteorology, and alchemy, 498methods: and doctrines of scientific proof,

140–2; and mathematics, 702–7, 713. See alsodemonstration; empiricism; experience;observation; scientific explanation

Metzger, Helene, 511Meursius, Ioannes, 238–9Mexico: and natural history, 452;

and universities, 821–7Meziriac, Claude-Gaspar Bachet de, 714Michelangelo Buonarotti, 787, 791microscope: and mechanical arts, 684; and

medicine, 429–30; and natural history, 465–6;and scientific illustration, 539–40

Mildmay, Grace, 227Milemete, Walter de, 308military science: defensive technologies, armor

and fortification, 313–17; and engineering,

317–19; offensive technologies anddevelopment of guns and gunpowder, 307–13;and state of continuous warfare in earlymodern period, 306–7. See also war andwarfare

Milton, John, 73n7, 764minima, scientific explanation and concepts of,

86Miscellanea Curiosa (journal), 167missionaries: and collections of naturalia, 266;

and expansion of scientific knowledge, 357,358, 359. See also Jesuits

mixed mathematics: and acoustics, 596;compared to natural philosophy, 4; anddebate on scientific knowledge, 120–1;definition of, 696; and natural philosophy,156, 744–5. See also mathematics

mixture, and scientific explanation, 82–6modernity: and Aristotelianism, 28; and

historiography of Scientific Revolution, 13–17;and mathematics, 722–3

Moffet, Thomas, 453Moletti, Giuseppe, 638n20Moliere (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), 536, 771Monardes, Nicolas, 453, 823, 826monasteries. See Catholic Churchmonochord, and cosmology, 37, 38f, 599, 600f,

601fMontaigne, Michel de, 150, 265, 379, 447, 526,

804–6, 815Montalboddo, Fracanzano da, 484Monte, Giambattista da, 416Monte, Guidobaldo dal, 633–4, 635, 639, 643,

692, 707moon, and lunar theories, 592–3Morandi, Orazio, 560n82More, Henry, 36, 54, 59, 104, 374, 397n138, 518,

587n65, 813More, Thomas, 480, 482, 839Morin, Jean-Baptiste, 391n117Moritz of Hesse, 261, 271, 300, 506Morland, Samuel, 609motion: Galileo and law of, 45n75; and

mechanical philosophy, 52–8; Newton’s firstlaw of, 100–1; rational mechanics and studiesof, 636–53, 659–68

Moxon, Joseph, 553Munster, Sebastian, 486, 489, 682,

693museums: and natural history, 287, 448; and

scientific academies, 288–9music: and acoustics, 596, 597–604; and

foundations of physics, 36–43; andmathematics, 120






Index 857

myth and mythology: alchemical interpretationof ancient, 501n14; Ficino’s study of historyand, 522–3; Scientific Revolution as, 15–16

al-Nafis, 425Napier, John, 699–700, 707narrative: and historiography of relationship

between science and religion, 727–30; andimpact of science on imaginative literature,760

Nash, Thomas, 761Native Americans, and indigenous scientific

knowledge, 825–6natural history: as distinct from natural

philosophy, 4; and education of physicians,187n15; and experience, 115–19; and naturalist,459–68; and revival of ancient tradition,437–42; and sharing of information, 454–9;significance of in early modern period, 435–7;travel and expansion of, 361–2; words andthings in, 442–8

naturalism, in art, 775–9, 785, 791–6natural knowledge: in countryside and villages,

217–21; in piazza, 213–17natural philosophy: and Aristotelianism, 370–95;

and astrology, 555; and classification ofknowledge, 4; coffeehouses and printingshops, 320–40; and cosmography, 473, 474–6;and distinction between divine and naturalknowledge, 750; and education of physicians,187n15; empirical and mathematical methodsin, 399–403; encyclopedic reference works andevolution of, 405–6; and experience, 108–11;and experiment, 157; and forces for change inearly modern period, 393–5; and Galileo,744–5; and magic, 519, 523–4, 540; andmathematics, 706, 723; and “matters of fact,”160–2; and mechanical arts, 675–6; andmechanical philosophy, 395–9; andmechanics, 632–3, 650; and mixedmathematics, 4, 156, 744–5; and physics, 26;Reformation and religious influences on,379–84; Renaissance Italy andanti-Aristotelianism, 33–6; and resistance toradical innovation, 390–3; and socialconventions, 403–5; university context of,4–5, 366–72; use of term, 365

naturals and nonnaturals, in medicine,410

nature: changes in concept of, 133–4; clock asmetaphor of, 748–9; gendering of as female,797–801, 810–17; and mechanical arts, 693–5;and natural philosophy, 380n65; Pliny’sdefinition of, 437

Naude, Gabriel, 249Navarro, Juan Huarte, 808Nave, Annibale dalla, 708navigation: and cosmography, 491–3; and

mathematics, 707; and mechanical arts, 682,684, 685, 686–9; and portolan charts, 342n5.See also maps and atlases

neo-Platonism: and acoustics, 605n17; andnatural philosophy, 374–5; and newperspectives on God, man, and nature, 729.See also Platonism

Netherlands: colonialism and distribution ofscientific knowledge, 352; and tulip mania,209

Neville, Henry, 766Newton, Isaac: and acoustics, 597, 610–11; and

astrology, 555–6, 557; and astronomy, 592–4;and chymistry, 514; and foundations ofphysics, 32, 54–5, 64, 66–8; and literature,772; and man of science, 183; andmathematics, 700, 720–1; and mechanicalarts, 693–4; and mechanics, 650, 664–70,671–2; on method and proof, 142; and naturalphilosophy, 365; and optics, 611, 623, 626–9;publication of works of, 331–2; and religion,753–5; and Royal Society, 329, 330, 331–2, 402;and scientific explanation, 94–5, 99–105. Seealso Newtonianism

Newtonianism: concepts of space and debatebetween Leibniz and, 56–7; and experience,126–30; and physics in eighteenth century,68–9

New World: and medicine, 416–23; and myth ofmodernity in early modern period, 16–17; andnatural history, 448–54. See also Brazil;colonialism; discovery, voyages of; Spain;Surinam; Virginia

Niccoli, Niccolo, 246Nicholas of Cusa, 374, 569–70Nicholas of Lyra, 476Nicholas V, Pope, 439Nicole, Pierre, 163Nicolson, Marjorie Hope, 756–7Nifo, Agostino, 82, 83–4, 85, 142Noble, William, 609Noel, Etienne, 58Norman, Robert, 688Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres (journal),

331nova (supernova), and stellar astronomy, 591Nova reperta (New Discoveries), 1–2, 5f, 7, 8–9,

10, 16–17, 788–9Nuck, Anton, 430Nunez, Pedro, 483






858 Index

objectivity, and discussions of gender, 810observable effects, and scientific explanation, 103observation: and astronomy, 585; and experience,

108; and medicine, 432–4; and natural history,442, 444, 446–7, 466. See also demonstration;experience; experiment

Observatoire Royale de Paris, 493, 593occasionalism, and foundations of physics, 61oikumene, and cosmography, 470, 473, 474, 476Oldenburg, Henry, 189, 331, 353–4, 752Omicron Ceti (star), 591–2ontology, and transformations in early modern

era, 11optics: and Descartes, 659n74; discipline of

acoustics compared to, 597; image locationand geometrical, 623–4, 630–1; Kepler’scontributions to, 613–18; mechanical arts andinstruments for, 683–6; nature and speed oflight, 624–6; and Newtonian experience,127–30; and Newton’s theory of light andcolors, 626–9; overview of in early modernperiod, 611–12; painting and NorthernEuropean developments in, 763n20; refractionand diffraction in, 618–23; status of insixteenth century, 612–13. See also microscope;spectacles; telescopes

Oresme, Nicole, 637Orta, Garcia de, 204, 450, 453Orta, Thomas d’, 483Ortelius, Abraham, 343, 487, 764, 793Osborne, Francis, 327Osiander, Andreas, 328Osser, Josephus, 393n120Other, representation of in travel literature, 769Oughtred, William, 683Ovid, 242–3Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernandez de, 450, 451n51, 461,

462Oxford University: and astrology, 553; and

natural philosophy, 389

Paaw, Pieter, 278, 283Pacchioni, Antonio, 430Pacioli, Luca, 700Pacius, Julius, 75n14Padua, and botanical garden, 282–3. See also

University of PaduaPaez, Pedro, 359Palissy, Bernard, 6, 182, 213, 296, 370, 385,

462Paludanus, Bernard, 454Panofsky, Erwin, 791–2Papin, Denis, 184Pappus of Alexandria, 99n69, 635, 639, 712

Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus vonHohenheim): and alchemy, 299n28, 502–10;and astronomy, 570, 571; and chymistry, 30–2,514; education of, 6; and experience, 110; andlaboratory, 298–9; and magic, 518; andmedicine, 421–2; and natural philosophy, 391;publication of works of, 328; and religion, 734;and scientific explanation, 104; and universityclassroom, 240

Pardies, Ignace Gaston, 628–9Pare, Ambroise, 226, 316, 418, 456–7, 805Paris Observatory. See Observatoire Royale de

ParisParker, George, 554Parker, Samuel, 164Parrhasius, 775Pascal, Blaise, 57–8, 124, 156, 182, 349, 701, 706,

707n21passive principles, and scientific explanation,

93–105Patrizi, Francesco, 33, 34, 35, 376–7, 570, 571–2patronage: and learned elites, 194–5; and man of

science, 181, 189; and mathematical andobservational work of Galileo and Kepler,401–2; and military science, 317, 318; andnatural history, 453. See also courts

Paul de Santa Maria, Bishop (Paul of Burgos),476

Paul of Venice, 8Pecham, John, 612Pecquer, Jean, 429Pedro, Prince (Portugal), 472Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude Fabri De, 267Penny, Thomas, 452Pepys, Samuel, 698Pereira, Benito, 155Perier, Florin, 57, 124periodicity, of stars, 591–2Perrault, Charles, 496, 775Perrault, Claude, 404Perro, Girolamo, 283, 285persuasion. See proofPerugino (Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci), 254Peschel, Oscar, 472n4, 493n73Peter Martyr of Anghiera, 478, 767, 768, 818–19Petrarca, Francesco, 379, 499Petrarch. See Petrarca, FrancescoPetreius, Johannes, 328Pett, Peter, 752Petty, William, 164Peucer, Caspar, 573Peurbach, Georg, 485, 545, 563, 565–6Peyer, Johann Conrad, 430Philip II, King of Spain, 207, 259, 451–2, 806–7






Index 859

Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 308Philoponus, 636–7Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of

London, 12, 167, 330–1, 332, 354, 404philosophers’ stone: and alchemy, 501–2, 510–11,

513–14; and medicine, 421philosophy, and theology in Christian tradition,

731. See also corpuscular philosophy;mechanical philosophy; natural philosophy

physic: and medicine, 408–16; use of term, 407physicians, and social class, 416–17. See also

medicine; surgeons and barber-surgeonsphysico-mathematics, and experiments, 124–6,

401–2, 654n62physics: and Aristotelianism, 21–8; and

astronomy, 582–3; and chymistry, 29–33;experiments and “physico-mathematics,”124–6, 401–2, 654n62; and Italian naturalists,33–6; mathematical order and harmony in,36–43; modern physics compared to, 21; andmechanical philosophy, 43–66; Newton andfoundations of, 32, 54–5, 64, 66–8, 94n60; andNewtonian system in eighteenth century,68–9

piazza, and natural knowledge, 213–17Piccolomini, Aeneas Sylvius, 474, 476Piccolomini, Alessandro, 154–5Piccolpasso, Cipriano, 296Pico della Mirandola, Gianfrancesco, 378–9Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, 247, 378, 518,

541, 547–8, 579–80Picot, Claude, 655Pigot, Thomas, 609Plancius, Petrus, 491plane table, and surveying, 690–1planetary motion: Kepler’s theory of, 42, 742;

and music, 600n7; Newton’s theory of, 664–5,667–8. See also earth

Plantijn, Christoffel, 639Plato, 33, 293, 602. See also PlatonismPlatonism: and natural philosophy in

Renaissance, 373–7; and scientific explanation,72n6. See also neo-Platonism

Platter, Felix, 233n28, 276–7, 447, 459Platter, Thomas, Jr., 233n28, 447Platter, Thomas, Sr., 233n28Platter family, 233, 237Plattes, Gabriel, 218Pliny the Elder, 8, 242, 437–8, 439, 440–2, 462,

478, 526, 773, 775, 779–80Plot, Robert, 465n111Plotinus, 374, 522poetry, and scientific thought, 760, 770Poisson, Simeon-Denis, 630

politics: courts and patronage system, 260; andinfluence of religion on science in seventeenthcentury, 748–53; transformation of in earlymodern era, 7. See also state

Polo, Marco, 342Pompanius Mela, 474Pomponazzi, Pietro, 380–1, 416, 424, 518, 520popular culture: and astrology, 560; coffeehouses

and public reason, 339, 340; naturalknowledge and intellectuals’ contempt for,221–3. See also culture

pornography, and impact of science onimaginative literature, 762, 763, 770, 772

Porphyry, 522Porta, Giambattista della, 149, 169–70, 220, 269,

393, 518, 539, 605n17, 612, 613Portugal, and cosmography, 350n36, 472, 477,

483Possevino, Antonio, 489postal services, transnational, 341–2postcolonialism, and study of science and

imaginative literature, 758Poullain de la Barre, Francois, 192, 808n30, 809Power, Henry, 188practice (praxis): and growth in scale of science,

344–7; and laboratory, 293–5; and medicine,408–9

Praetorius, Michael, 573Presocraticism, and Platonism, 376primary quality, and scientific explanation,

88–90primary substances, and Aristotelianism, 74, 76printing and printing houses: and Aristotle’s

works, 73n9, 372n31; and coffeehouses, 336,339; and Cyrano’s Histoire comiques de les estatset empires de la lune, 762n17; and discussion ofscience in pamphlets and journals, 321–32; ofEuclid’s elements, 711n24; and Galileo’s works,762–3n18; and growth in communication inearly modern period, 351–5; in Mexico, 822–3;and military arts and sciences, 318n41; andPeter Martyr’s accounts of New World, 818n2;and traditions in mathematics, 712n27. Seealso books

private/public space, and science in home orhousehold, 224, 229, 237

probability: mathematical concepts of, 707n21;and theories of proof and persuasion, 139–40,162–4

Proclus, 374, 522professionalization model, of man of science, 190projection, and mechanical arts, 684–5proof: and Archimedean mathematics, 713; and

disciplinary structure in universities, 134–8,






860 Index

proof (cont.)150–4; and experiment, 157–62; importance ofin early modern period, 132–4, 174–5; andmathematical traditions, 154–7; and methodof analysis in mathematics, 704, 705, 706; inprinted books, 164–8; probability andcertainty in mathematics, 162–4; and socialinstitutions, 168–74; theories of, 138–49

proper causes, and scientific explanation, 92–3Protestantism: and educational reforms, 736,

737–8. See also Reformation; religionPsalmanazar, George, 768n37Ptolemy: and astrology, 543, 546; and astronomy,

564, 566; and cosmography, 469, 470, 473,474, 488, 693; and experience, 119n49, 120–1,123n67; and mechanical arts, 678; and optics,611

public/private space, and science in home orhousehold, 224, 229, 237

Pumphrey, Stephen, 260Purchas, Samuel, 488, 767pure mathematics: and astronomy, 707;

definition of and use of term, 696–7; andmodernity, 722–3. See also mathematics

Puritanism, and educational reforms, 750–1Pythagoras and Pythagorean tradition: in

acoustics, 598–604; and foundations ofphysics, 36–43; and natural philosophy, 376

quadrant, and mechanical arts, 686quadratic equations, theory of, 708quadratures, and mathematics, 713quadrivium, and mathematical sciences, 119–20Quintilian, 146, 243

Rabelais, Francois, 206–7, 317, 447, 531, 769radiation, theory of, 614Raey, Johannes de, 51Raleigh, Walter, 452, 757, 768, 811Ramelli, Agostino, 317Ramus, Petrus (Pierre de la Ramee), 156, 243,

369, 711, 738Ramusio, Giambattista, 485Rand, William, 328–9Randell, John Herman, Jr., 97n64Ratdolt, Erhard, 545Rathborne, Aaron, 690rational mechanics: and Galileo, 640–53,

659–64; and mechanical philosophy, 653–9;and Newton, 664–70; overview of in earlymodern period, 632–4; and scientificacademies, 659–64; and studies of motion,636–53, 659–68; texts and traditions of, 634–6.See also mechanical philosophy; mechanics

Ratio studiorum (Plan of Studies), 26Ray, John, 117–19, 344, 458n83, 463, 464, 767al-Razı (Rhazes), 294realism, and scientific literature, 760–4Real y Pontificia Universidad de Mexico, 821–7Rebeschke, Catherina, 201Rechenmeister, and mathematics, 697, 700Recorde, Robert, 688Redi, Francesco, 187, 266, 466Reede tot Drakenstein, Hendrick van, 204Reeds, Karen Meier, 783Rees, Abraham, 559Reformation: and astronomy, 573–7; and

interpretations of Bible, 802; and naturalphilosophy, 379–84. See alsoCounter-Reformation; Protestantism

refraction, and optics, 618–23Regiomontanus, Johannes, 324, 545, 563, 566,

682Regis, Henri, 659register system, of Royal Society, 330, 331Regius, Henricus, 397Reinhold, Erasmus, 568Reisch, Gregor, 74n10, 77–8, 93–4, 405–6, 570Relaciones geographicas project, and geography,

826–7religion: and astronomy, 740–8; and concept of

boundaries between domains of discursivecommunities, 729–30; and Descartes, 79n25,397, 730, 747–8; and educational reforms,735–40; and Epicurus, 48n89; Galileo andNewton compared, 753–5; and God as finalcause, 77–81; and influence of politics onscience in seventeenth century, 748–53; andmissionaries in China, 835; narratives andhistoriography of, 727–30; and naturalphilosophy, 379–84; and Newton on nature ofGod, 99–100; and objects of discourse, 729; inParacelsus’s work, 298–9; and practice ofauthorization, 730; sex and gender differencein, 801; transformation of in early modernperiod, 7. See also Bible; Calvinism; CatholicChurch; Church of England; Inquisition;Islamic world; Jesuits; Jews and Judaism;Protestantism; Reformation; theology

Rembrandt (van Rijn), 784–6, 790–1Renaudot, Theophraste, 170, 195–6, 302, 325,

395, 430Republic of Letters, 348–51, 354, 360–1Reuchlin, Johann, 518Rhazes. See al-RazıRheticus, Joachim, 328rhetoric, and issues of proof and persuasion,

135–6, 137, 145–9, 151, 153–4






Index 861

Ribit, Jean, 263Ricci, Matteo, 485, 830–2Riccio, Bartholomeo, 220–1Riccioli, Giambattista, 124, 492–3, 652Richelet, Pierre, 196Richelieu, Cardinal, 395Richer, Jean, 344, 493, 590Ringmann, Mathias, 479Riolan, Jean, the Elder, 263, 426, 508Riolan, Jean, the Younger, 508Roberval, Gilles Personne de, 46, 349, 588, 652Rochefoucauld, Madame, 198Rodrıguez, Fray Diego, 824–5Rohault, Jacques, 172, 196, 398, 556–7, 659Rolfinck, Werner, 510, 511Romer, Ole, 184, 590, 624Rondelet, Guillaume, 276, 416, 443, 445, 447,

457n79Rossiter, Margaret, 201Rothmann, Christoph, 261Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 814–15Royal College of Physicians (London), 186Royal Observatory (Greenwich), 492, 593, 594Royal Society of London: and acoustics, 609;

and agriculture, 218; and coffeehouses, 336;and experimental investigations, 130–1, 172,217, 516; and journals, 167; and laboratories,301; and man of science, 185, 189–90, 190–1;and mechanical philosophy, 46, 660–1; andmuseum, 288; and natural history, 116, 394,467; and natural philosophy, 365, 402, 403–5;and Newtonian experience, 126–30; andpatronage, 270; publications of, 170–1, 325–6,329–31; and religion, 751–3; and selection ofmembers, 405n178; Swift’s satire of, 118; andtravel, 356n62; and women, 197, 255

Royer, Clemence, 797Rubins, Peter Paul, 790–1Rudbeck, Olof, 187, 280, 429Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 255, 257,

259, 264, 287, 300, 453, 506, 782Ruffini, Paolo, 709n23Ruge, Sophus, 472n4, 493n73rural life: and medicine, 417; and natural

knowledge, 217–21Ruscelli, Girolamo, 301Rushd, Ibn. See AverroesRuysch, Frederik, 429

Sabius, Johannes, 481fSacrobosco, Johannes de, 474, 564Sadeler, Aegidius, 255–6Sahagun, Bernardino de, 822, 825St. Pierre, Sieur de, 492

St. Serfe, Thomas, 336sal nitrum theory, in chymistry, 514–15, 516Salomon’s House (Bacon), 272–3, 289, 345, 750salons, and women in sciences, 196, 198–9, 235saltpeter, and early gunpowder, 308, 311, 505salts, and alchemy, 505, 514Salviati, Filipo, 654Sanchez, Francisco, 150–1, 379Sangallo, Antonio da, 315Santorio, Santorio, 187, 424–5Saumaise, Claude de, 246–7Sauver, Joseph, 609n29Savery, Roelant, 793Savile, Henry, 244, 248Savonarola, Girolamo, 580Scaliger, Joseph, 244Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 47n88, 82, 83, 85, 166,

376Schall von Bell, Adam, 832–3Schedel, Hartmann, 473–4Scheiner, Christoph, 115n32, 155, 589, 616, 739Scherer, Heinrich, 360n77Scheuchzer, Johann Jakob, 236Schiebinger, Londa, 799, 800, 816Schissler, Christoph, 679Schmitt, Charles, 372–3scholasticism: and Aristotelian natural

philosophy, 106–7, 109, 111, 118, 365, 392; andchymistry, 30; and history of early modernscience, 8; and mechanical philosophy, 52,63–4, 67; and metaphysics as foundation ofphysics, 22–3, 26; and mixed mathematics,120; and Newtonian experience, 130;Protestants and medieval legacy of, 382; andseparation of philosophy and theology, 380–1;use of term, 368n15. See also Aristotelianism;universities

Schooten, Frans van, 701–2scientia, and classification of knowledge in early

modern era, 3–4scientia de ponderibus (Science of Weights), 635–6scientific explanation: active and passive

principles as model for causation, 93–105;Aristotelianism and intrinsic versus extrinsiccauses, 82–6; and causality in Aristoteliantradition, 73–7; corpuscular physicists andintrinsic versus extrinsic causes, 87–93;notable changes in early modern era, 70–3;religion and emergence of laws of nature,77–81

scientific method. See analysis and synthesis;demonstration; experience; experiment;hypothesis; logic; methods; observation;practice; theory






862 Index

Scientific Revolution, and historiography, 12–17,436n4, 799–800

scientific societies. See academies, scientificscientist: as artist, 786–91; and man of science in

early modern period, 179, 180Scipione del Ferro, 708Scribonius, Wilhelm, 369Scudery, Madeleine de, 198Scultetus, Bartholomaeus, 574secondary qualities, and scientific explanation,

88–90Sendivogius, Michael, 511, 514Seneca, 13n19, 80–1Sennert, Daniel, 32, 84, 85, 395, 507, 512Sequeira, Rui de, 477Severinus, Peter (Petrus), 31, 32, 217, 262, 422Servetus, Michael, 425Sevigne, Marquise de, 196sex difference, understanding of in early modern

period, 800–10. See also genderSextus Empiricus, 150, 373Sforza, Galeazzo Maria, 542–3Shadwell, Thomas, 771Shakespeare, William, 253, 771, 794n67, 807Shapin, Steven, 132n1, 346, 790, 796Shapiro, Alan E., 623Shapiro, Steven, 194Sidney, Sir Phillip, 757, 766Siguenza y Gongora, Carlos de, 824–5, 827Simplicius, 368, 636, 637, 641Sına, Ibn. See AvicennaSina, Pedro de, 477slide rules, 685Sloane, Hans, 203, 335, 338f, 433Smith, Samuel, 332Snel, Willebrod, 712–13Societas Ereunetica, 394societies, scientific. See Academie Royale des

Sciences; academies, scientific; Royal Societyof London

society: and context for mathematics, 697–702;and natural philosophy, 403–5; proof andpersuasion in institutions of, 168–74; and roleof medical man, 187; transformation of inearly modern period, 7. See also class;family

Solis, Diaz de, 484Sophie Charlotte, Queen of Prussia, 194–5Sorbiere, Samuel, 173, 808sound. See acousticsSozietat der Wissenschaften (Akademie der

Wissenschaften, Berlin), 394space: and Aristotelian philosophy, 27; and

mechanical philosophy, 52–8

Spain: and colonialism in New World, 351, 358,452; and cosmography, 483–4

species, and natural history, 115–19, 465spectacles, and mechanical arts, 685speed: of falling bodies, 641–2, 643, 651–2; of

light, 624–6; of sound, 610n39Speroni, Sperone, 166Spinola, Carlo, 830Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) de, 59n130, 64, 157,

158n102, 702–3Sprat, Bishop Thomas, 153, 171–2, 173, 189, 303,

331, 354, 752, 759–60Staden of Hesse, Hans, 768Staehl, Peter, 320Stahl, Georg, 513, 514Starkey, George, 32, 511n57, 513stars, and development of stellar astronomy,

569n16, 590–2, 594–5state: educational institutions and growth of

bureaucracies, 367–8; Leibniz on connectionbetween science and, 270–1; view of ashousehold, 230. See also courts; patronage;politics

Stationers’ Company (London), 322–3, 329Steno, Nicolaus, 188, 430, 465Steuco, Agostino, 378Stevin, Simon, 241, 634, 639–40, 692, 700, 707,

712Stillingfleet, Edward, 752Stoffler, Johann, 548n27, 679Stoicism: and natural philosophy, 376; and

scientific explanation, 78, 79, 80–1Stoughton, John, 751Strabo, 474Stradanus, Johannes, 1, 2f, 5f, 8–9, 17f, 788, 790,

788, 790. See also Nova repertaStrato of Lampsacus, 66n153Streater, Joseph, 332Strozzi, Palla, 472Strozzi, Tito Vespasiano, 499Strutt, John William, 630Suarez, Francisco, 74n10, 77n17, 92sundials, and mechanical arts, 681–3, 684sunspots, and Galileo, 744surgeons and barber-surgeons, 419Surinam, and Merian as naturalist, 203–4, 466–7surveying: and cosmography, 491–3; and

mechanical arts, 684, 685, 689–91Swammerdam, Jan, 187, 430, 465, 466Swift, Jonathan, 118, 336, 560, 761, 763, 771Swineshead, Richard, 637Sydenham, Thomas, 188syllogisms, and analysis of propositions, 151–2Sylvius, Francois de le Boe, 428, 792n61






Index 863

Sylvius, Jacobus, 783–4synthesis. See analysis and synthesissyphilis, and medicine, 420, 760, 770

Taccola. See Marino di IacopoTalavera, Fernando di, 477Tannstetter, Georg, 485Tartaglia, Niccolo, 212, 384–5, 633, 634, 638, 692,

708–9, 712n27, 738Tasso, Torquato, 807taxonomy, and concept of experience in natural

history, 115–19. See also classification; speciestelescopes: and astronomy, 539–40, 584; and

mechanical arts, 685; and optics, 611Telesio, Bernardino, 33, 34–5, 377, 570, 605n17Tellier, Charles Maurice le, 3Tempier, Etienne, 27, 379n63Tencin, Madame, 198Terrentius, Johannes, 832textbooks: and astrology, 555; and astronomy,

577; development of, 165–6; and naturalphilosophy, 369–71, 383, 387. See also books

theaters. See anatomyThemistius, 368, 636, 637theology: and alchemy, 504–5; and astrology,

578n40; and intellectual context of bodies ofknowledge, 730–5; and Luther, 732–5. See alsoreligion

Theon, 711Theophrastus, 438, 439–40, 773Theorica planetarum (Theories of the Planets),

564, 565, 566theory: and laboratory, 293–5; and medicine,

408–9Thevet, Andre, 451, 487, 768–9Thomism: and Jesuits, 173; Luther’s theological

challenge to, 733. See also AristotelianismThorndike, Lynn, 499Tillyard, Arthur, 320Titelmans, Frans, 382–3Toletus, Franciscus, 136Tolosani, Giovanni Maria, 741Tompion, Thomas, 681Torricelli, Evangelista, 57, 648, 651, 660, 713Toscanelli, Paolo del Pozzo, 472, 683Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 117, 203Toxites, Michael, 506trade: and chartered corporations, 356–61; and

collections of natural objects, 266, 287–8;expansion of in early modern period, 206–7;in mathematical and optical instruments, 684;role of markets and shops in interest innatural history, 207–13

Tradescant, John, 287

transmutation, and chymistry, 510–13travel: and expansion of scientific knowledge,

341–4, 350–1, 354–62; and innovations inmedicine, 416–23; and innovations in naturalphilosophy, 387–8; and mobility ofpractitioners of early modern knowledge,10–11; and natural history, 446, 448–54, 467.See also colonialism; discovery, voyages of;New World

Traversari, Ambroglio, 376Trew, Abdias, 164triangulation, and surveying, 690, 691Tristao, Nuno, 477Trithemius, Johannes, 248, 501, 502trivium, and mathematical sciences, 119–20Tudor, Mary, 806–7tulip mania of 1636–7, 209Tulp, Nicolaas, 784, 785Twisse, William, 751

universities: and anatomy theaters, 277; andAristotelian worldview, 107; and astrology,541, 542, 545–6, 553; and astronomy, 563; andbotanical gardens, 281; and chymistry, 498,508–9, 510; correspondence among, 342; andcosmography, 471; and family, 230–1, 233; andgeography, 488–9; and images of classroom,238–44; and laboratories, 302n40, 304–5; andman of science, 181, 182–6; and mathematics,119–20, 698–9; and mechanics, 633; inMexico, 821–7; and natural history, 444–8;and natural philosophy, 4–5, 366–72, 389–90;proof and persuasion in disciplinarystructures of, 134–8, 150–4; and women,193–4, 195. See also Cambridge University;education; libraries; Oxford University

University of Basel, 277University of Bologna, 444, 545–6University of Coimbra, 387University of Leiden, 238–9, 241, 247, 278, 279,

283, 284f, 304–5, 416University of Marburg, 261University of Mexico, 823University of Montpellier, 416University of Padua, 280, 416, 444, 640University of Paris, 367, 385, 386, 399, 563, 642–3University of Pisa, 285University of Santo Domingo, 821n10University of Uppsala, 467–8University of Utrecht, 429University of Vienna, 485University of Wittenberg, 385, 573, 578, 736Uraniborg (Denmark), 229. See also Brahe,

Tycho






864 Index

Urban VIII, Pope, 377, 746Ursus, Sabbatino de, 832

vacuum, and foundations of physics,57–8

Valerio, Luca, 713, 714Valignano, Alessandro, 829, 830Valla, Lorenzo, 135Valturio, Roberto, 317van den Zype (Zypaeus), Francois, 433–4van der Straet, Jan. See Stradanus, Johannesvan der Waerden, Bartel Leendert, 722Varenius, Bernhardus, 492Varignon, Pierre, 670–1, 672Vasari, Giorgio, 528, 787–8, 788–9Vauban, Sebastien Le Prestre de, 315–16Vaughan, Thomas, 514Vazquez, Pedro, 826Vega, Lope de, 206Vegio, Maffeo, 499Veracruz, Alonso de, 823Verbiest, Ferdinand, 832, 833–4Vesalius, Andreas: and anatomy, 112, 116–17, 240,

276, 285, 345, 414–16, 782–3; and dedication ofbooks to courtly patrons, 258; on illustrationsand experience, 116–17, 240; medicine andman of science, 183–4, 186; printing of worksof, 328, 353; and scientific household, 226

Vespucci, Amerigo, 16, 472, 479, 483Vespuzio, Alberico, 484Viete, Francois, 701, 710, 714, 714–16, 722Vieussens, Raymond, 430Vigo, Giovanni da, 316villages, and natural knowledge in countryside,

217–21. See also rural lifeVio, Thomas de (Cardinal Cajetan), 381–2Virginia, Raleigh expedition to, 452virtual space, and networks of communication,

355–60Vitruvius, 678Vives, Juan Luis, 296Viviani, Vincenzo, 650, 651, 680Volckamer family, 232Volder, Burchardus de, 305Volpaia, Lorenzo della, 679, 681, 693vortices, and Newton’s theory of planetary

motion, 667–8

Waldseemuller, Martin, 479, 693, 764Wallis, John, 155, 597, 609, 660–1, 701, 752war and warfare: constant state of in early

modern period, 306–7, 319; and mechanicalarts, 679, 684, 691–2. See also military science

Ward, Seth, 152, 183Warren, George, 769

Watt, Joachim von, 494–5Webster, John, 302Weiditz, Hans, 526Weierstrass, Karl, 720n43weights, and mechanics, 635–6. See also scientia

de ponderibusWestfall, Richard S., 728West Indies, and natural history, 450Westman, Robert, 738Weyer, Johann, 417n30Wharton, Thomas, 430White, Andrew Dickson, 727, 747White, John, 452White, Thomas, 152Whitehorne, Peter, 318Wieland, Melchior, 442Wiles, Andrew J., 701n11Wilhelm IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, 255,

260–1, 264, 577Wilkins, John, 118, 752William of Ockham, 732William of Rubruck, 342Willis, Thomas, 183, 187, 430, 431Willughby, Francis, 331–2, 767Windsor, Ann, 228Winkelmann, Maria, 200, 232Winkelmann family, 232Wirsung, Georg, 430witchcraft: and charges against Kepler’s mother,

765; and magic, 520; and medicine, 417.See also magic

Witelo, 612, 616Wittenberg interpretation, of Copernicanism,

738Wolff, Christian, 696Wolff, Jacob, 219Wolfgang II von Hohenlohe, Count, 290, 506women: as artisans, 199–201; colonies and

colonialism, 201–5; and labor in scientifichouseholds, 234–6; and learned elites, 193–9;and mathematics, 668–70; new attitudestoward in early modern period, 192; andscience at courts, 254–5; and system ofexclusion, 179. See also gender; sex difference

Woodward, John, 467workshops: Bacon on empiricism of, 212–13, 221;

and curiosity cabinets, 265; and home orhousehold, 227. See also laboratories

Worm, Olaus, 264Worsley, Benjamin, 552Wren, Christopher, 330, 660, 661, 665Wurstisen, Christian, 385–6

Xavier, Francis, 828–9Xu Guangqi, 834






Index 865

Yang Kuang-hsien, 833Yates, Frances, 374, 521, 757Young, Thomas, 631

Zabarella, Jacopo, 75n14, 82, 85, 94–100, 102,104, 141–2, 159, 381, 382n76

Zamorano, Rodrigo, 484Zara, Bishop Antonio, 491

Zarlino, Gioseffo, 596, 602–3Zeuxis, 775Zilsel, Edgar, 199zoology: and Aldrovandi’s studies of fish, 193,

210; and difficulty of collecting specimens,456–7

Zumarraga, Bishop Juan de, 822,823–7






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