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5. legislation, PoliCies, institutions and Coastal resourCe ManageMent

leGISlaTIon and InSTITuTIonS.. The.basic.framework. for. coastal. management. can. be.found. in. already. existing. national. laws. and.regulations.. The. 1987. Constitution. provides.for. the. right. to.a.balanced.and.healthy.ecology.and. specifically. mandates. the. Philippine.government. to. conserve. the. nation’s. marine.wealth.. Statutes. and. regulations. concerning.coastal. management. have. existed. for. decades..They. clearly. demonstrate,. however,. the. lack. of.a. single. law. or. administrative. decree. directly.related. to. integrated. coastal. management..Under.current. legislation,. sectors.and.activities.affecting. the. coastal. environment.are. regulated.through. fragmented. legislative. mandates..Box. 5.1. describes. this. current. framework. for.coastal. management.. In. total,. more. than. 20.government.units.exercise.separate.management.powers. and. mandates. over. coastal. uses. and.sectors.. Other. government. bodies. also. serve. as.advisory.and.recommendatory.councils..

The Department of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR) protects the environmentalintegrity. of. Philippine. territorial. waters,. which.comprise. 220. million. hectares. and. include. the.Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The DENR.has. the.specific.mandate. to.manage.mangroves.and.associated. terrestrial. and.aquatic. flora.and.fauna.within.the.marine.zone..

The. 1991. Local. Government. Code. provided.local. government. units. (LGUs). with. broad.governmental. powers. to. manage. fisheries.and. aquatic. resources. within. municipal.waters.. Municipal. waters. . were. defined. as. the.15-kilometer. area. of. marine. water. stretching.out. from. the. general. coastline.. The. term. also.includes. streams,. lakes,. inland. bodies. of.water.and.tidal.waters.within.the.municipality,.public. forest,. timber. lands,. forest. reserves,.and.fishery.reserves..Municipalities.and.cities. serve.as. the. primary. unit. of. governance. for. coastal.management. in. the. Philippines.. Through. the.devolution. of. powers,. LGUs. possess. broad.

governmental. powers,. especially. in. the.delivery.of.basic.services—including.the.duty.to.protect. and. manage. the. coastal. and. marine.environments,. to. impose. local. fishery. revenues.and. taxes,. to. delineate. their. municipal. waters,.and. to. allocate. the. use. of. resources. within.municipal. waters. (Box. 5.2).. The. national.government. is. mandated. to. consult. with. the.local. government. units. in. their. responsibility.to. manage. and. maintain. ecological. balance.within.their.territorial.jurisdiction..

The.Bureau.of.Fisheries.and.Aquatic.Resources.(BFAR), an attached agency of theDepartment.of Agriculture (DA), under the Fisheries Codeexercises. general. jurisdiction. over. all. waters.outside.of. the.municipal.waters,.all.commercial.

Box 5.1 Legislative Framework.

The 1991 Local Government Code (RA 7160) provides local government units (LGUs) with broad governmental powers to manage fisheries and aquatic resources within municipal waters.

The 1998 Fisheries Code (RA 8550) is the primary legislation for fisheries management.

The 2004 Clean Water Act (RA 9275) aims to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution.

The 2001 Wildlife Conservation Act (RA 9147) governs the conservation and protection of wildlife species and critical habitats.

The 1997 Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (RA 7942) recognizes the concept of ancestral waters.

Other legislation: Public Land Act, Coast Guard Law, Marine Pollution Decree, Philippine Mining Act, Philippine Environment Code, and Forestry Reform Code.

International Treaties: Convention on Biological Diversity, Agenda 21, RAMSAR, UNCLOS, CITES, FAO Code of Conduct for Fisheries, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, and The Bonn Convention.

Source: Authors.

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fishing. boats. greater. than. 3. gross. tons. and.shoreland.aquaculture.areas.covered.by.fishpond.lease.agreements.(FLAs)..

Several. key. issues. regarding. institutional.arrangements. and. responsibilities. for. the.implementation. of. coastal. and. fisheries.legislation.are.described.below.

Weak institutional integration.. There. is. a. need.for. an. integrated. approach. that. considers. both.land-based. activities—such. as. deforestation,.industrialization,. and. urbanization—as. well. as.direct. impacts. of. coastal. resource. uses,. such. as.fishing,.aquaculture,.and.ecotourism..There. is.a.

Box 5.2 The fight of San Fernando City La Union to eliminate illegal fishing.

The City of San Fernando promulgated a Fishing Ordinance in support of the Fisheries Code (R.A. 8550) by creating several Barangay Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (FARMC).

They conduct seminars on relevant rules and regulations, organize a Bantay Dagat (Sea Watch) and deputize fish wardens to assist the Philippine National Police Maritime on the enforcement of laws on illegal fishing. Coastal governments adopted a color-number coding scheme for the fishing equipment of their residents which facilitated identification of non-resident fishermen in coastal barangay waters. Non-resident fishermen are to have a fishing permit, license, and a fishing gear permit before they could fish in specific barangay waters.

The barangay units provide support by patrolling, apprehending, filing and prosecuting violators. Barangays Lingsat, Carlatan, Dalumpinas Oeste, and Pagdaraoan have made enormous strides in enforcing the Fisheries Code and the City Fishing Ordinance and apprehend violators in cooperation with the Philippine Coast Guard and Philippine Marines.Source: Authors.

lack.of.collaboration.between.institutions.with.a.mandate.for.management.of.marine.and.coastal.resources.. Furthermore,. planning. units. and.management. boundaries. tend. to. follow.territorial. jurisdictions. instead.of.ecological.and.natural.limits.

lack of viable fisheries management mechanisms. At. present,. no. clear. fisheries. management.processes.are.implemented.in.coordination.with.national.government.agencies,. local.government.units,. the. municipal. and. commercial. fisheries.sector,.and.other.key.stakeholders..There.is.also.a.need.for.reorientation.among.all.stakeholders.from.the. traditional. “open. access”. approach. toward.more.regulated.access,.considering.the.dwindling.resources. that. may. collapse. very. soon. without.appropriate. intervention. from. the. government..Issues.concerning.licensing.are.described.in.Boxes.5.3.and.5.4.

lack of institutional and local capacities for coastal management.. Capacity. of. national. agencies. and.LGUs. to. manage. coastal. environments. and.resources. is. limited.. They. require. technical.guidance,. budgets,. personnel,. training,.monitoring,. and. other. technical. support. in.order.to.attain.coastal.management.objectives.

Local government officials determining their municipal boundary to formalize their municipal water jurisdictional area. Photo: Alan White.

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A market operation to confiscate protected species at a Cebu City market. Photo: Alan White.

Box 5.3 Licensing in the Commercial Fishing Sector.

High biodiversity presents a challenge in managing the fisheries sector: the more species, the more complicated the management and research requirements. With the exception of tuna, for which a Management Council has been formed and a Tuna Management Plan has been drafted, the current licensing scheme in the Philippines does not distinguish among species and therefore does not target optimal levels of harvest in both economic and biophysical aspects. On the short term, however, a non species-based license scheme may be a more practical way of dealing with Philippine fisheries considering the current state of enforcement agencies in the country. The current licensing system presents the following issues:

• Under-registration: Interviews with government officials suggest that only about 25 to 30 percent of operating fishing vessels are registered.

• Maximum of vessels: No limitations exist on the total number of commercial vessels that can register.

• Maximum of licenses: Currently no limit exists on the total number of licenses as long as all requirements are met.

• Classification: The current classification scheme of commercial vs. municipal fishing vessels does not seem to reflect actual capacity, creating gaps in equity among fishers. There is a large variation among fishing vessels in the one tonnage category.

• License fees: A common concern expressed by various players is the low level of license fees for commercial fishing charged by BFAR. Studies showed that all sampled vessels were operating profitably (with respect to both financial and economic criteria) and had a direct proportion to tonnage.

Sources: Luna, C. 2004, Mendoza 2004, REECS-Tetra Tech, Inc. 2004.

lack of institutional awareness and informed stakeholders in coastal management. Education.is.necessary. to. broaden. support. for. coastal.management. initiatives.. Increasing. the.

knowledge. and. information. of. communities.using. all. channels. and. methods. could. improve.local. participation. in. the. management. of.marine. and. coastal. resources.. Increased.awareness.would.encourage. local. communities,.barangay. groups,. and. local. managers. to.become.effective.coastal.managers.

Ineffective enforcement of marine and coastal laws.. Philippine. fisheries. are. now. being. fished.to. their. limit.. Municipal. fisheries. production.is. in.steady.decline.due.largely.to.illegal.fishing.practices.such.as.the.use.of.fine.mesh.nets,.dynamite.and. cyanide. fishing,. and. other. destructive.methods,. as. well. as. waste. pollution,. illegal.conversion. of. mangrove. forests,. and. improper.shoreline.settlement..There.are.sufficient.laws.that.provide. a. policy. and. regulatory. framework. for.use,.access,.and.allocation.of. resources,.but. law.enforcement.has.been.ineffective.

Some. of. the. major. obstacles. to. effective. law.enforcement. include.conflicting.and.ambiguous.policies. caused. by. differing. interpretations.of. the. law;. confusion. of. jurisdictional. roles.among.authorized.agencies.and.deputized.local.enforcers;. selective. enforcement. stemming.from. political. interference. and. discretionary.prosecution;. minimal. punishment. of. offenders;.

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Small fishing vessel in Luzon.Photo: Finn Danielsen.

lack. of. capacity. for. enforcement;. and. lack. of.public.awareness.(Christie.et.al..2005).

Unclear. regulatory. policies. are. often.counterproductive. to. full. law. enforcement..Conflicting. provisions. are. readily. apparent. in.Philippine. fisheries. laws.. For. example,. Section.90. of. the. Fisheries. Code. bans. the. use. of. active.gear. (gear. that. is. moved. through. water,. such.as.trawl.nets).within.the.0-15.kilometer-zone.of.municipal.waters..Section.16.of. the.same.Code,.however,. provides. that. municipalities. may,.through. local. ordinances,. allow. commercial.fishing.using.only.passive.gear.(stationary.gear,.such.as.gill.nets.and.fish.traps).within.a.10.1-to-15-kilometer.area.of.the.municipal.waters.(subject.to.specific.conditions).

Sector policies and plans.. There.are.a.number.of.policies.and.plans.for.specific.uses.of.marine.and.coastal. areas. from. both. LGUs. and. national.government agencies, including DENR, BFAR,DOT, andDOE.At the local government level,there. are. possibly. seven. or. more. categories. of.sectoral.plans..The.result.has.been.uncoordinated.sector-level. management,. even. within. one.local.government.unit.

One. such. plan. at. the. local. government. level. is.the Local Development Plan, which containsprovisions. on. population,. basic. services,.

education,. health,. labor,. the. economy,. social.services,. and. housing.. This. is. distinct. from.the. Municipal/City. or. Integrated. Fishery.DevelopmentPlan.Alsoatthelocalgovernment

Box 5.4 Licensing in the Municipal Fishing Sector.

With respect to the municipal fisheries sector, current national policies and legislation appear sufficient to institute a fisheries licensing system at the municipal level. Few coastal municipalities and cities, however, have established a fisheries licensing system. This is mainly due to a lack of appreciation of coastal resources management, lack of understanding of the urgency to regulate fisheries, and the fear of antagonizing political constituents in the coastal area.

Many local chief executives primarily consider fisheries licensing as a revenue generating instrument. Although this is a legitimate objective, fisheries licensing should be linked to the overall idea of fisheries management. A licensing system should be able to generate information about fishing effort and resource capacity, and regulate access along with generating revenue.

Furthermore, many municipal fisheries are already so depleted that any proposed fisheries licensing system will start on the wrong track and will put the long-term sustainability of fisheries resources at risk if it is primarily established on the basis of revenue generation. The existing municipal license fees do not seem to be based on sound estimates. A number of fisherfolk interviewed commented that some fees are set too high.

Given the present open access status of most municipal fisheries—where resource rents have practically been totally dissipated—and the variability of income, fisherfolk said they could hardly pay the required fees. Some fisherfolk even refuse to register and obtain a license because of the perceived prohibitive fees.

The FISH Project has elaborated proposals and models for licensing schemes in both commercial and municipal sectors. Implementation of these proposals could help solve many of these problems.Source: Authors.

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Bangus are often raised in floating fish cages in protected bays. Photo: Alan White.

level.are.Land.Use.Plans,.which.control. the.use.of.all. forms.of.property,.as.well.as.all.business.activities. and. establishments. within. a. given.local.government.territory..Comprehensive.land.use. plans. (CLUPs). or. zoning. ordinances. are.prepared. by. LGUs. as. part. of. their. land. use.planning. and. classification. powers. under. the.Local.Government.Code..

Table 5.1 Major Sectoral Plans of Relevance to Coastal and Marine Resources.

Sector Related Plans Agency Local Government

Local Development Plan LGULand Use Plan LGUCoastal Resource Management Plan

LGU

Marine Sanctuary Management Plan (Locally managed areas)

LGU

Agriculture and Fisheries

Integrated Development Plans for SAFDZs

LGU

Comprehensive Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Plan

DA

Regional Fisheries Management Plan

DA-BFAR Regional Offices

Tourism National Tourism Master Plan DOTLocal Tourism Plan LGU

Energy Integrated Energy Plan DOEForestry Master Plan for Forestry

DevelopmentDENR-FMB

Mining Mineral National Action Plan DENR-MGB

Water resources

Clean Water Act DENR-EMB NWRB

Climate Change

Comprehensive Air Pollution Management and Control Program

DENR-EMB

Air Quality Management Plan LGUIntegrated Air Quality Improvement Framework-Air Quality Control Action Plan

DENR

Source: Authors.

Coastal. Resource. Management. Plans. are.developed. by. some. LGUs. with. the. aim. of.incorporating. CRM. strategies. into. local.development.activities..Such.efforts.will.remain.marginal. if. they. are. not. integrated. into. the.development. framework—local. development.plans. and. land. use. plans—of. all. coastal. LGUs..These. and. other. major. plans. of. relevance. to.coastal. and. marine. resources. are. listed. in.Table.5.1.

Coastal resource management.. The. Philippines.has.a.relatively.long.history.of.marine.protected.areas. and. other. management. instruments.. The.first. MPA. was. created. more. than. 30. years. ago..Today. there. are. many. experiences. and. lessons.learned. about. the. management. of. marine. and.coastal.resources..

The. years. have. shown. that. the. use. of. an.integrated. management. approach. is. often.fraught.with.challenges..The.diversity.of. issues.in. coastal. areas. requires. multi-sectoral.collaboration,. government. commitment,. and.endless. resources,. requirements. that. are. often.lacking. in. the.Philippines..Even. in.areas.where.external. funding. or. projects. are. available,.coastal. resource. management. initiatives. have.failed.

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Gilutongan Island—Toti, the sanctuary manager signs the management plan. Photo: Alan White.

nonetheless,. some. successful. experiences,.including. those. at. Bohol. and. the. Gilutongan.Island. and. Apo. Island. Marine. Sanctuaries,.have. continued. even. after. donor. support. came.to.an.end:

Bohol..The.Bohol.experience.demonstrates.how.local. governments,. led. by. the. provincial.government,. have. been. able. to. unite. against.illegal. fishing. and. how. leadership. can. truly.make.CRM.happen.

Gilutongan Island Marine Sanctuary.. This.sanctuary.in.the.Municipality.of.Cordova,.Cebu.shows.how.a.local.government.unit.emphasized.marine. sanctuary. management. and. allocated.a. budget. for. the. regular. operations. and.management. of. the. sanctuary,. reaping.considerable.benefits. from. tourism..The. results.were. positive:. not. only. did. the. biophysical.conditions. of. the. sanctuary. improve,. but.substantial. revenues. were. generated. by.collecting.a.user’s.fee..The.annual.fees.currently.amount. to. almost. PhP. 2. million. ($40,000). with.70. percent. going. to. the. municipality. and. 30.percent.to.the.barangay.

ApoIslandMarineSanctuary.. This.sanctuary.in.negros.Oriental.underscores.the.vital.role.of.the.community. in. promoting. sustainable. resource.

use.. Established. in. the. early. 1980s. with. the.guidance. of. Silliman. University,. the. strong.participation. of. the. community. stakeholders.is.evident.in.all.aspects.of.management..Because.of. its. biological. diversity,. it. was. proclaimed. as.a. Protected. Seascape. and. Landscape. under.the. national. Integrated. Protected. Areas.System. (nIPAS). law.. A. Protected. Area.Management.Board. (PAMB),. comprised.mostly.of. local. representatives,. currently. oversees. the.implementation. of. policies. for. the. sanctuary,.including.a.user’s.fee.program.

The. importance. of. well-managed. MPAs.cannot. be. overemphasized. in. the. conservation.and. sustainable. management. of. marine.biodiversity. in. the. Philippines.. The. first. MPA.in. the. country. established. as. a. fish. sanctuary.was. in. 1974. on. Sumilon. Island,. Cebu. under.the.guidance.of. the.Silliman.University.Marine.Laboratory.. Figure. 5.1. provides. a. map. of. the.Sumilon.Island.marine.reserve.

The. Sumilon. Island. fish. sanctuary. is. often.mentioned. as. the. reason. why. coral. reef. fish.sanctuaries. contribute. to. improved. reef.fisheries. management.. The. experiment. in. reef.management,. which. stopped. all. fishing. on.

Figure 5.1 Sumilon Island Marine Reserve with Sanctuary and Traditional Use Area.

Source: Authors.

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one. part. of. the. Sumilon. Island. reef. for. about.10. years,. allowed. researchers. to. collect.substantial. data. on. the. effects. of. this. kind. of.management. of. the. coral. reef. and. its. related.fisheries.. The. benefits. provided. compelling.evidence. for. fish. biomass. spillover. from. the.sanctuary. zone. where. no. fishing. is. allowed.(the. “no-take”. areas).. Such. evidence. has.been. important. in. convincing. scientists,. reef.managers,. and. fisherfolk. that. fish. sanctuaries.improve. reef. fisheries. while. benefiting.fisherfolk.in.the.area.(Box.5.5).

Since.1974,.many.similar.municipal.marine.fish.sanctuaries. or. MPAs. have. been. established,.following.the.lead.of.Sumilon.and.the.associated.Apo.Island.(Pajaro.et.al..1999,.White.et.al..2002)..Other. well-managed. and. documented. MPAs.in. terms. of. their. benefits. for. fisheries. and.

tourism. include. Balicasag. and. Pamilacan.Islands,. Bohol;. Mabini,. Batangas;. and. San.Salvador. Island,. Zambales. (Christie. et. al.. 1999,.Green.et.al..2002,.Kuperan.et.al..1999,.White.et.al..1994,.White.1988a,b,.White.1989,.White.1996).

These. examples. of. MPAs. have. followed. a.general. model. in. which. an. area. of. a. fringing.coral. reef. adjacent. to. an. island. or. mainland. is.set.aside.as.a.“no-take”.or.“sanctuary”.zone..

The. area. outside. of. this. no-take. zone. is. called.a. traditional. fishing. zone. or,. in. international.terms,. a. buffer. zone.. Activities. that. do. not.damage. the. coral. reef. in. any. way,. such. as.traditional.fishing.methods,.are.usually.allowed.within. the. buffer. zone.. Within. the. no-take.sanctuary. zone,. entry. is. normally. permitted.for. swimming. and. diving. although. some.

Box 5.5 Supporting Fisheries at Sumilon and Apo Islands.

Research carried out over the past 28 years at Sumilon Island, and the past 22 years at Apo Island in the Central Visayas, has provided some of the most compelling evidence available worldwide for the usefulness of no-take marine reserves as fisheries management tools:

Effects on fish biomass: Biomass of target fish (five fish families accounting for 92.3 percent of the fisheries yield at Sumilon; four fish families accounting for 75.6 percent of the fisheries yield at Apo) increased threefold inside the no-take reserves over nine years of no-take protection at Sumilon and by 4.6 times over 18 years of no-take protection at Apo. Biomass of these fish did not increase outside each reserve.

Spillover of fish: Both large predatory fish and surgeonfish and jacks (accounting for 40-75 percent of the yield at Apo) increased substantially (by factors of 17 and 3 respectively) inside the Apo reserve over 18 years of protection. Outside the reserve, the biomass of these fish over time increased significantly at locations closer to the reserve boundary (200-250m) compared to those further away (250-500m).

Effects on fisheries yields: At Sumilon, positive correlations were found between the number of years of reserve protection and both targeted fish biomass in the reserve and catch outside the reserve, although the latter relationship was not statistically significant. At Apo there was a strong positive relationship between number of years of reserve protection and targeted fish biomass in the reserve, but not between number of years of reserve protection and catch outside the reserve.

These results, plus spillover evidence, suggest that marine reserves may help maintain, or even enhance, local fishery yields in the long term.

Sources: Alcala 1981 and 1988, Alcala and Russ 1990, 2000 and 2002, Alcala et al. 2005, Maypa et al. 2002, Russ and Alcala 1996 and 2003, Russ et al. 2003 and 2004, White et al. 2002.

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managers. prohibit. any. form. of. entry. (White.1988a,.b,.White.1989,.White.and.vogt.2000).

Recent. studies. have. not. only. indicated. the.beneficial. effects. of. fish. sanctuaries. on. fishery.yields. and. coral. reef. protection,. but. also. that.people. participating. in. such. management.efforts. gain. in. a. variety. of. ways,. including.through. food. security,. cash. income. from.tourism,. and. pride. in. their. protection. role.(White.et.al..1994,.Katon.et.al..1999,.vogt.1997)..

A. salient. characteristic. of. all. successful. MPA.projects.in.the.country.is.the.strong.involvement.of. communities. and. the. local. government. in.planning. and. enforcement. (White. and. vogt.2000, DENR et al. 2001). This involvement.builds.the.confidence.of.people.to.manage.their.own. resources. and. encourages. long-lasting.outcomes.. The. success. of. the. Philippine.MPAs. thus. hinges. on. two. crucial. players:. the.(local. and. national). government. and. strong.stakeholder.community.involvement..

In.spite.of.all.the.efforts.to.establish.MPAs,.only.few.are.sustainable.without.outside.support.. In.addition,. the. benefits. from. successful. and.well-managed. MPAs. are. often. lost. due. to.overfishing,. pollution. and. other. human.pressures. in. surrounding. areas,. outside. of. the.controlled.MPA.or.sanctuary..The.total.number,.relative. size,. and. management. status. of. some.MPAs. in. the. country. (those. included. in. the.CCEF Database), is summarized in Tables 5.2,.5.3,.and.5.4.

The. management. rating. system. of. MPAs,.developed. by. the. Coastal. Conservation. and.Education.Foundation.(CCEF).and.its.partners,.is.applied. through. the. participation. of. local.stakeholders.together.with.outside.observers..The.rating. system. following. strict. criteria. and.guidelines. on. what. constitutes. achieving. a.particular.level.of.management.(White.et.al..2004)..

A.pilot.of. the.system.was,.among.others,. tested.in.former.Coastal.Resource.Management.Project.learning.sites.

Table 5.2 Number of MPAs in the Philippines by Location and Legal Basis.

Area Local ordinance

NIPAS Act

Total %

Luzon 33 9 42 11.6Visayas 257 8 265 73.2Mindanao 45 10 55 15.2Total 335 27 362 100

Source: Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation.

Table 5.3 Size Distribution of MPAs.General

sizeSize range

(ha)No. of MPAs

Area (hectares)

Small <15 201 1,541Medium 15-30 81 1,715Large >30 40 2,079Very large >100 40 1,537,267Total 335 362 1,542, 602

Source: Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation.

Table 5.4 Management Rating of MPAs.

Rating level Luzo

n

Visa

yas

Min

dana

o

Tota

l %

0-pre-rating 0 7 0 7 1.91-initiated 8 35 7 50 13.82-established 10 82 12 104 28.73-enforced 3 57 13 73 20.24-sustained 0 13 3 16 4.45-institutionalized 0 4 1 5 1.4No data 21 67 19 107 29.6Total 42 265 55 362 100

Note: Management ratings as evaluated by the MPA rating system of CCEF and Partners (2004).

Source: Authors.

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A. recent. review. of. integrated. coastal. resource.management. experiences. in. the. Philippines.identified.several.key.elements.for.the.long-term.sustainability.of.this.approach.(Box.5.6)..

The. importance. of. broad. stakeholder.participation. in. integrated. coastal. resources.management.is.illustrated.in.Box.5.7.

Fisheries. management. is. not. a. separate.strategy. but. an. essential. component. of. any.coastal.resource.management.(CRM).program..

It. does,. however,. offer. the. opportunity. to.broaden. the. scope. of. CRM. interventions,.which. have. historically. focused. on. the. village.

Box 5.6 Key Elements for the Sustainability of Integrated Coastal Resource Management.

A recent review of integrated coastal resource management experiences in the Philippines identified the following key elements for the long-term sustainability of this approach:

✓ Stakeholder participation in ICRM decision making processes

✓ Improved economic returns and income generation

✓ Equitable sharing of economic benefits

✓ Supporting legal and policy framework

✓ Intergovernmental coordination mechanisms

✓ Capacity for law enforcement

✓ Institutional continuity beyond leadership change

✓ Conflict resolution mechanisms

✓ Education and awareness-level raising

✓ Long-term monitoring information systems

✓ Stable financial supportSource: Adapted from Christie, et. al. 2005; Milne, et al. 2003.

Box 5.7 The Importance of Including All Stakeholders.

Despite catching some 60 percent of total fish (by volume) in the country, the commercial fishing sector has seldom been included in coastal and fisheries management.

In the Camotes Sea, the commercial fishing industry was invited to take part in a regional fisheries management planning process. As a spin-off from that process, commercial fishing operators have now initiated their own research into the life cycles of main commercial species, looking for key seasons in which they will initiate an industry-led and -enforced closed season.Source: Green et al. 2003.

and,. more. recently,. on. municipal. and.provincial. levels,. and. implement. these. from. a.wider.“fisheries.ecosystem.perspective.”.

Fishing. grounds. are. contiguous. areas. with.mobile. fish. and. fishers.. To. ensure. sustainable.fish. stocks,. management. must. be. applied.equally.across.and.beyond.political.boundaries..Clustering. of. LGUs. and. interprovincial. and.interregional. management. clusters. can. set. the.

Participatory Coastal Resource Assessment in a mangrove forest helps engage the community in assessing and appreciating their coastal resources. Source: Authors.

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Figure 5.2 The CRM Planning Process for Local Governments in the Philippines.

Source: CRMP.

foundation. for. the. integration. of. management.between.the.municipal.and.commercial.sectors,.who. ultimately. fish. the. same. resource. in. the.same.fishing.grounds.

A. good. way. to. achieve. local. support. to. CRM.is. through. the. implementation. of. Participatory.Coastal. Resource. Assessments. (PCRA). at. the.community.level..not.only.are.PCRAs.a.research.tool.for.informed.decision.making,.but.they.also.serve. as. a. high-impact. educational. vehicle. for.both.resource.users.and.decision.makers..Efforts.to. generate. LGU. and. community. support. for.CRM. are. generally. more. successful. when.backed.up.by.information.about.local.conditions..Through. the. presentation. of. locally. derived.research.results.and.other.relevant. information,.LGUs. and. community. resource. users. are. able.to. better. appreciate. the. issues. and. problems.and. accept. the. need. for. unified. rather. than.fragmented.solutions.

Experience. has. also. demonstrated. that.ownership. of. a. CRM. initiative. must. be. shared.and. spread. as. widely. as. possible.. Ownership.must.be.spread.both.across.the.community.and.among. as. many. sectors. as. possible.. To. foster.such.ownership,.the.process.must.be.transparent,.giving. all. partners. a. complete. say. in. what.happens.in.the.project.(Figure.5.2)..

CRM. is. a. collaborative. undertaking.. Clearly,.no. matter. how. dedicated. and. determined,. no.LGU.acting.alone.can.be.effective.in.addressing.the. multidimensional. and. multisectoral. issues.that.characterize.CRM..An.LGU.initiating.CRM.would. benefit. from. seeking. support. both. from.the. inside. and. the. outside. by. sectors. whose.activities. affect. the. coastal. environment.. It. is.also. important. to. recognize. that. collaborationbegins. with. and. is. strengthened. by. a. policy. of.inclusion.. To. encourage. collaboration,. it. is.important. not. to. preclude. anybody. from.participating. in. CRM,. whether. in. advocacy. or.

actual.management.activities..Such.an.approach.will.ensure.that.issues.are.addressed.across.a.wide.range.of.sectors.and.foster.a.broad.mechanism.of.support.while.promoting.sustainability..

While.monitoring.and.evaluation.of.progress. in.CRM.helps.to.keep.everyone.on.track,.it.is.not.a.practice.that.many.LGUs.are.likely.to.practice.on.a.regular.basis.

Compliance,. however,. might. be. improved.with. incentives.. As. a. non-monetary. incentive,.certification. has. proved. to. provide. the.“prestige”. factor,. which. can. encourage. LGUs.to. regularly. benchmark,. monitor,. and. evaluate.their.progress.in.CRM..A.three-step.certification.system has been developed by DENR and.the.CRMP..

By.2005,.113.coastal.municipalities.had.achieved.the. basic. certification. benchmarks. of. coastal.resource. management:. Allocation. of. budget,.CRM. plan,. functional. Fisheries. and. Aquatic.Resource. Management. Council. (FARMC),. one.or. more. MPAs,. coastal. law. enforcement,. or.other.CRM.best.practice.in.place.

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