(485802537) CATENA Volume 106 issue 2013 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.catena.2012.08.008] Kasanin-Grubin, Milica -- Clay mineralogy as a crucial factor in badland hillslope processes.docx

8/16/2019 (485802537) CATENA Volume 106 issue 2013 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.catena.2012.08.008] Kasanin-Grubin, Milica -- Cla…

1/17

Catena 106 (2013) 54–67

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceD irect

Catena

j ou rna l home a ! e" # # # $ e l sev i e r $ c o m % l ocate % cate na

Cla& mineralo!& as a crucial 'actor in balan hillsloe rocesses

ilica *asanin+,rubin ⁎

Soil -rosion .aborator&/ ilitar& rail 1265/ niversit& o' oronto at Scarborou!h/ / Canaa 1C 14

a r t i c l e i n ' o

*eors"

alans

eatherin!

.itholo!ical roerties

Cla& mineralo!&Smectite

illsloe rocesses

a b s t r a c t

Comrehensive an imortant #or8 has been one in unerstanin! balan rocesses on both the bi!

scale/ an more recentl& on smaller scale in orer to unerstan the subtle i''erences bet#een sites$

o#ever/ most stuies lac8 imortant in'ormation re!arin! cla& mineralo!& an their imortance 'or

#eatherin! ro+ cesses$ &e an rate o' #eatherin! een on material h&sico+chemical roerties/

climatic re!imes an sloe characteristics$ s #eatherin! ro!resses/ the sur'ace conitions chan!e/

in9uencin! erosion rocesses$ suall& balan litholo!ies are reorte as soium+rich/ hi!hl& isersive

materials but that is not invariabl& true$ he rimar& objective o' this stu& is to sho# that cla& minerals

have an imortant role in e:nin! sur+ 'ace an subsur'ace rocesses on balan hillsloes$

;iel stuies conucte in Dinosaur


2/17

$ *asanin+,rubin % Catena 106 (2013) 54 J 67$ *asanin+,rubin % Catena 106 (2013) 54 J 67

it is o'ten har to etermine the e@act #eatherin! rocess that

resulte in a certain #eatherin! rouct (obinson an illiams/

2000)$

5alans/ as ieal “:el laborator&” are intri!uin!

!eomorholo!ists 'or ecaes$ Comrehensive an imortant #or8

has been one in un+ erstanin! rocesses on the bi! scale (e$!$

r&an an Kair/ 1F2G Cambell/ 1FF7G o#ar/ 1FF7)$ ecentl&

more etail #or8 has been one on smaller scale in orer to

unerstan the subtle i''erences be+ t#een sites (e$!$ ;aul8ner et

al$/ 2000/ 2003/ 2004G *uhn et al$/ 2004)$ o#ever / most stuies

oversimli'& imortant in'ormation re!arin! mineralo!&/ eseciall&

content an t&e o' cla& minerals in balan ma+ terials$ suall&/ cla&

minerals are reorte as a !rain siLes 'actor or !en+ erall& balan

materials are characteriLe as “smectite” shales$

alan sloes have comle@ sloe 'orms mostl& because o'con+

trastin! litholo!& (o#ar / 1FF7)$ e!olith r o erties/ to!ether

#ith the ominant rocess #ill etermine the sloe shae an sloe

an!le$ Savat an De


3/17

$ *asanin+,rubin % Catena 106 (2013) 54 J 67$ *asanin+,rubin % Catena 106 (2013) 54 J 67

rocess$ Chi!ira an &ama (1FFF) escribe the i''erent in9uence o'

&rite in the muroc8 an sanstone #eatherin! rocesses$


4/17

an their imortance has been consiere #ith more attention b&'or

(e$!$ Canton et al$/ 2001G ;aul8 ner et al$/ 2000/2003)$

;aul8ner et al$ (2000) sho#e that chan!es that occur in site !eo+

chemical characteristics over time in lmeria balans/ Sain/ #ere

involve in balan stabilisation$ he authors roose the

'unctional relationshi bet#een -C an S4 as a use'ul tool

characterisin! i+ in! rone sites$ =n the #eatherin! ro:le in this

area cla& content is 'oun to increase #ith eth (.oeL+

ermueL an omero+DiaL/

1FF) #hich coincies #ith the :nin! that the subsur'ace material

is more isersive than the sur'ace (,erits et al$/ 1F7)$


5/17

laborator& conitions$ =t is essential to achieve conitions in the labo+

rator& #hich rerouce :el conitions as closel& as ossible$ So 'ar

onl& a 'e# #eatherin! e@eriments have been conucte usin! ba+

lan materials$ o#ever/ the& have not 'ull& reresente natural con+

itions/ an i not observe chan!es in etail$ =n aition/ cla&

minerals have not been ienti:e in etail/ an lin8 to rocesses

has not been establishe$

;urthermore/ material resonse to seasonal chan!es is reorte to

be an imortant 'actor in erosion rocesses over time$ here'ore it is

essential to stu& in etail ho# materials behave in i''erent climatic

conitions$ atural s&stems have man& variables actin! at the same

time/ mainl& ue to climate (amount an t&e o' reciitation/ re+

vailin! #ins/ etc$) an sloe characteristics$ =n orer to minimiLe

the number o' variables it is essential to stu& ro!ressive

#eatherin! o' 'resh material in controlle laborator& conitions$

here'ore/ the rimar& objective o' this aer is to sho# the

imortant role o' cla& minerals/ both their content an mineralo!ical

comosition/ in e:n+ in! sur'ace an subsur'ace rocesses on

balan hillsloes$

2$ aterials an methos

2$1$ ;iel sites

hree balan sites #ere selecte in orer to assure variet& o' muroc8 #ith i''erent content an t&e o' cla& minerals" Dinosaur


6/17

;i!$ 1$ a) lberta balans/ Canaa/ b) Sestino balans/ =tal&/ c) Chin!uacous& balans/ Canaa$


7/17


8/17

Smectite+rich

litholo!ies

uroc8 (&ello#/

bro#n/ !re&)

Varicolour shales

(re/ ar8+!re&/

li!ht+!re&)

Sestino

balans

72 Smectite/ illite/

8aolinite

63 Smectite/ illite/

8aolinite

eveloe on all muroc8 sur'aces$ he “ ocorn” sur'ace #as

aroun

2–3 cm thic8/ an the sur'ace “ ocorn” a!!re!ates containe

a bunant vois (;i!$ 3)$ he subsur'ace la&er #as bet#een 10 an 15

cm thic8 $ 5e+ neath #as a la&er o' smaller shars/ 'ollo#e b& the

un#eathere mate+

Smectite+oor arl& shale 65 =llite/ chlorite rial$ similar #eatherin! ro:le #as escribe b& r&an et al$ (1F4)litholo!ies Dar8 re shale Chin!uacous& 6 =llite/ chlorite an o#&er+o#er an r&an (1F6)$ he “ ocorn” sur'ace can also

.i!ht re shale balans 5 =llite/ chlorite'orm #ith reeate 'reeLin!+tha#in! c&cles an e@ansion that occur s


9/17


10/17

;i!$ 3$ (a) Di''erence in the rill net#or8 an sur'ace characteristics on the same site in 2001 (le't) an 2003 (ri!ht)$ (b)


11/17

'rom i''erent litholo!ical units #ere e@ose to same conitions$

he aim o' these e@eriments #as to unerstan ho# the rocesses

active reson to i''erent material characteristics$ Sur'ace crust evo+

lution an leachate characteristics #ere closel& monitore$

3$1$1$ Smectite+rich litholo!ies

he Dinosaur


12/17

;i!$ 5$ =ncremental #eatherin! e@eriment 'or the smectite+rich litholo!ies$ Samles subjecte to c&cles 1/ 5 an 10 o' 60 min lon! rain'all (intensit& 45 mm hT 1

)$

an chemical comositions o' the seiment$ he !re& muroc8s ha

the hi!hest leachate volume rate o' smectite+rich litholo!ies #ith t#o

su+ en ea8s in volume rates once in the 30 min samle an t#ice

in the

60 min samle (c&cles 3 an ) (;i!$ b)$ & contrast/ the leachate

vol+ ume increase rail& 'rom the :rst to the thir c&cle an

then remaine almost constant in other smectite+rich muroc8s

(;i!$ b)$ he ee sur'ace crac8s that eveloe in the earl&

#eatherin! sta!es in !re& muroc8 'acilitate 'aster throu!h9o# an

conseAuentl& a lot less #ater #as available 'or r etention$ =n other

smectite+rich seiments

the h&raulic conuctivit& #as limite b& s#ellin! #hich

occurr e mostl& urin! the :rst three c&cles$

elease o' seiments sho#e more variations bet#een i''erent

smectite+rich t&es$ ,enerall&/ the !re& muroc8 release more sei+

ment than other smectite+rich materials$ he cla& structure in the

!re& muroc8 #as easil& estro&e #hen it receive lon!er rain'alls

(50 an 60 min) an articles #ere iserse an transorte$ his

is evient as the 60 min samle release substantiall& more seiment

than the 10 min samles$

;i!$ 6$ =ncremental #eatherin! e@eriment 'or the smectite+oor litholo!ies$ Samles subjecte to c&cles 1/ 5 an 10 o' 10 min lon! rain'all (intensit& 45 mm hT 1

)$


13/17

;i!$ 7$ =ncremental #eatherin! e@eriment 'or the smectite+oor litholo!ies$ Samles subjecte to c&cles 1/ 5 an 10 o' 60 min lon! rain'all (intensit& 45 mm hT 1

)$

=n smectite+rich materials subjecte to 60 min rain'all the sei+

ment concentration #as hi!hest at the be!innin! o' c&cles in all

samles an slo#l& ecrease to#ars the tenth c&cle (;i!$ F b)$

here #as no si!ni:cant i''erence bet#een the samle intervals

because o' the s#i't chan!e 'rom s#ellin! to isersion an the

clo!!in! o' ores$ i!her smectite content revente rai sei+

ment release$ ,re& muroc8 sho#e suen ecrease in the 30

an the 60 min samles in seiment concentration in same c&cles

urin! #hich a suen increase in the volume occurre (c&cles 3

an ) (;i!s$ b/ F b)$ his con:rms that hi!her volumes o' #ater asse throu!h subsur'ace crac8s/ but that the& #ere :lle #ith se+

iment in the 'ollo#in! c&cle an crac8s close a!ain$ o#ever/ it

must be e@ecte 'or this to haen a!ain/ once the seiment is

#ashe out$

.eachate seci:c conuctance #as hi!her in samles subjecte to

10 min samles than 'or 60 min samles$ Seci:c conuctance also

sho#e istinct trens bet#een 10 an 60 min samles (;i!$ 10a

an b)$ =n all 10 min smectite+rich litholo!ies/ the seci:c conuc+

tance increase urin! :rst three to 'our rain'alls an then remaine

at an almost constant (;i!$ 10a)$ his con:rms that most solutes are

release #hen the 'resh material is e@ose to rain'all$ ith time/

sur'ace an subsur'ace crac8s 'orm an act as imortant #ater an

seiment conuits$ =n 60 min samles initiall& hi!h conuctance e+

crease an remaine almost constant in all smectite+rich samles$=n smectite+oor litholo!ies/ leachate characteristics #ere sub+

stantiall& i''erent 'rom the smectite+rich litholo!ies$ =n the marl&

shale an the ar8 re shale/ volume rates increase 'rom the 10 to

the 60 min samles (;i!$ a an b)$ he li!ht re shale #as istinct

'rom other smectite+oor samles because the 10 an 20 min sam+

les ha hi!her volume rates than the other samles (;i!$ a)$

Seiment concentration an seci:c conuctance #ere

e@tr emel& lo# in all smectite+oor samles (;i!s$ Fa an b/ 10a an

b)$ o#ever / in marl& shale volume an seiment concentration

suenl& ecr ease in certain c&cles (c&cles 5 an )/ then increase

a!ain urin! the ' ol+ lo#in! c&cles (c&cles 7 an F)/ #hile the

seci:c conuctance ha the oosite attern$ his haene

urin! shar brea8o#n an #hen #ater use ne# ath9o#s$

Seiment concentrations #ere also hi!hest

in these t#o c&cles$ hese chan!es are ue to comaction #hich is

least evient in the 10 an 20 min samles$ he sur'ace #as

comacte a'ter the :rst c&cle in samles that #ere uner rain'all

'or lon!er increments$ his #as mar8e #ith hi!hest seiment con+

centr ation$ he sur'ace crac8s serve as the stea& ath#a&s 'or

seiment an #ater movement$

4$ Discussion

=n each litholo!&/ eenin! on its r oer ties/ a certain thr eshol

level o' #eatherin! is necessar& to ma8e the material vulnerable to

erosion r ocesses$ he t&e an rate o' #eatherin! een on mate+

rial h&sico+chemical r oer ties/ climatic re!imes an sloe char ac+

ter istics$ s #eatherin! r o!r esses/ the sur'ace conitions chan!e/

in9uencin! erosional r ocesses$ he amount an t&e o' cla& min+

erals are critical 'or #eatherin! rocesses in balan materials an

#ill etermine #hether chemical or h&sical #eatherin! r ocesses

are ominant$

4$1$ lberta balans sanstone

he lberta “sanstone” is e@tremel& suscetible to rill erosion'or t#o main reasons/ both relate to cla& mineralo!&$ he :rst is

the resence o' both smectites an 8aolinites #hich have ver&

i''erent roerties$ aterials containin! both smectite an

8aolinite have about the same shear stren!th at lo# #ater contents

( b 20P)$ s the #ater content increases smectites lose their stren!th

more rail& than the 8aolinite because o' the hi!h cation

e@chan!e caacit& (a&lor an -!!leton/ 2001)$

he secon reason ma8in! lberta sanstone articularl& susce+

tible to erosion is the critical amount o' cla& 'raction resent in these

materials (> 20P)$ Dalr&mle an im (1F4) inicate that #hen the

cla& content in sanstone is 10–20P/ cla& articles coat silt an san

articles an are lin8e b& the bri!in! cla& articles that can easil&

be bro8en$


14/17

a) Leachate v olu m e - 10 m in rainfall30

25

20 SR-yellowSR-brown

SR-greySR- da rk grey

15 SR-redSR-light grey S- ma rly ! h a le S-dark red

10S-light red

5

0

"1 "2 "3 "# "5 "$ "% "& "' "10

cycle number

b) Leachate v olu m e - $0 m in rainfall30

25SR- y e llow

SR-brownSR-grey

20 SR- da rk greySR-red

SR-light grey

S- ma rly ! h a le15 S- da rk red

S-light red

10

5

01 2 3 # 5 $ % & ' 10

c ycl e m uber

;i!$ $ .eachate volume urin! incremental #eatherin! e@eriment$ a) 10 min samles/ b) 60 min samles (S — smectite+richG S< — smectite+oor)$

4$2$ Smectite+rich materials

Si@ materials are istin!uishe as smectite+rich" &ello#/ bro#n

an !re& muroc8 'rom Dinosaur


15/17

a) Sediment concentration - 10 min rainfall#0

35

30

SR-yellow25 SR-brown

SR-grey

SR-dark grey20 SR-redSR-light grey

S-marly !hale15 S-dark red

S-light red

10

5

01 2 3 # 5 $ % & ' 10

cycle muber

b) Sediment concentration - $0 min rainfall#0

35

30

25SR-yellowSR-brown

SR-grey

20SR-dark greySR-red

SR-light grey

15S-marly !hale

S-dark red

S-light red

10

5

01 2 3 # 5 $ % & ' 10

cycle muber

;i!$ F$ .eachate seiment concentration urin! incremental #eatherin! e@eriment$ a) 10 min samles/ b) 60 min samles (S — smectite+richG S< — smectite+oor)$

liAui rich in a an Ca sulhates (.aronne/ 1F1)$ =' salt leachin!

oes not occur/ shar isinte!ration #ill not occur (o#ar/ 1FF7)$

Smectite+r ich seiments are most common in balan areas/

ho#+ ever/ litholo!ies o' similar comosition to Chin!uacous& shales

can be 'oun in other balans$ =llite/ 8aolinite an illite+smectite

mi@e la&ers comrise 26P o' the cla& 'raction in ancos shale/ tah

(;orsans an Schmitt/ 1FF4)$ ;am an Dusseault (1FF) sho#e

that Oueenston shale an ancos shale are similar materials #ith

hi!h ensit&/ lo# cat+ ion e@chan!e caacities an lo# volumetric

#ater content$ Due to the absence o' s#ellin! cla&s these materials

are not as reactive as the ma+ terials in the revious !rou/ ho#ever /

the resence o' t#o cla& min+ erals #ith i''erent roerties ma8es

these materials suscetible to erosion$ Due to i''erent cla& minerals

r esent/ #ater is nonuni'orml& istribute on the sur'ace o' the

shars in9uencin! the 9o# o' #ater throu!h shales (;am an

Dusseault/ 1FF)$ Di''erential s#ellin!/ hi!her isersion rates o'

illite/ an e@losion o' air trae in micr o or es cause

isinte!ration o' shars urin! #ettin!$ Shar s bra8e o#n 'rom

> 5 cm to > 0$5 cm in iameter a'ter onl& a 'e# rain'alls in the con+

trolle laborator& conitions$ he continuous isinte!ration o' shar s

rouces small amounts o' seiment 'or transort urin! rain'all$

he

:ne material that is release usuall& becomes the cementin! a!ent

' or remainin! shars$

.o# seiment &iel 'rom these materials is in accorance #ith the

etachment+limite moel that o#ar (1FF4b) eveloe 'or the

ancos shale$ Conve@ sloes in Chin!uacous& can be attribute to

the ominance o' cree an shallo# slumin!/ as o#ar (1FF4a)

also escribe 'or the orrison ;ormation in tah an the Charon

;ormation in South Da8ota$

5$ Conclusions

eatherin! oes not have the same e''ect on all balan mate+

rials$ n the lberta sanstone onl& a thin #eatherin! rin evelos$

=t can evelo a'ter one rain'all on the un#eathere sanstone an

oes not chan!e its roerties #ith rain'all intensit& an uration$

eatherin! is an imortant rocess on smectite+rich muroc8s$

he #eatherin! rate eens on intensit& an uration o'

reciitation an len!th o' r&in! erios$ Shar s#ellin! an

sur'ace sealin! occurs a'ter onl& 10–20 min o' rain'all$ Dr&in! o'ten

rouces a characteristic “ ocorn” sur'ace$ Durin! subseAuent

rain'alls an r&in! erios

g m l - 1

g m l - 1


16/17

a) S(ecific conductance - 10 min rainfall2500

2000

1500

1000

SR-yellow

SR-brown

SR-grey

SR-dark grey

SR-redSR-light grey

S-marly !hale

S-dark red S-light red

500

01 2 3 # 5 $ % & ' 10

cycle muber

b) S(ecific conductance - $0 min rainfall2500

2000

1500

1000

SR-yellow

SR-brown

SR-grey

SR-dark grey

SR-red

SR-light grey

S-marly !hale

S-dark red S-light red

500

01 2 3 # 5 $ % & ' 10

cycle muber

;i!$ 10$ .eachate seci:c conuctance urin! incremental #eatherin! e@eriment$ a) 10 min samles/ b) 60 min samles (S — smectite+richG S< — smectite+oor)$

esiccation crac8s 'orm on the sur'ace$ ver time crac8s become

#ier an eeer an crac8 re+aearance can rouce 9o#aths

that can evolve into r ills$

hen un#eathere smectite+rich material is e@ose to

sur 'ace conitions seiments an solutes are mostl& release urin!

the :rst one or t#o rain'alls an usuall& reach a constant value

a'ter thr ee more rain'alls$ he ea8 o' seiment &iel usuall&

sho#s a ela& o' one to t#o c&cles comare to the solute

concentr ation$ his is in accor+ ance #ith the crac8 a ear ance$

ost solutes are #ashe thr ou!h crac8s that 'orme initiall&/ causin!

hi!h seci:c conuctance an se+ iment concentration in the

leachate$ 'ter that/ the sur 'ace/ an es e+ ciall& the subsur'ace crac8s

serve as the re'erential 9o# conuits/ so that seci:c conuctance

an seiment concentration ecrease an the leachate volume

increases urin! subseAuent #eatherin! c&cles$

Cla&+rich materials that contain illite an chlorite as ominant

minerals have i''erent #eatherin! rocesses$ Durin! reeate #et+

tin! an r&in! shars brea8 o#n into smaller shars ue to i''er+

ential s#ellin! o' illite an chlorite$ nce the& are reuce to tin&/

9a8& shars (0$5 cm ? 0$2 cm) the sur'ace becomes comacte$

Durin! #ettin! these shales release a constant small amount o' sei+

ments/ #ith re!ular ecrease in seci:c conuctance an leachate

volume over rain'alls$

his stu& has sho#n that cla& mineralo!& is e@tremel&

imor tant 'or the behaviour o' i''erent materials$ ccorin! to their

resonse to reciitation/ t&e o' #eatherin!/ erosional rocess an

rill net#or 8 characteristics/ balan litholo!ies can be !roue b&

cla& mineralo!&" sanstones an siltstone that t&icall& have > 20P

o' cla& miner als/ smectite+rich muroc8s an shales/ an shales thato not have smec+ tite as the ominant cla& miner al$ =n revious

balan stuies cla& min+ eralo!& #as ver& rarel& teste in etail an

it is crucial in'ormation ' or unerstanin! the rocesses active an

reiction o' sloe evolution$ btaine results inicate that

eterminin! the etail miner alo!ical comosition o' materials is

essential 'or unerstanin! !eomor hic rocesses an shoul not be

ne!lecte in 'uture stuies$

So 'ar h&sicall&+base moels o' soil erosion an rill

evelo ment have not incororate litholo!ical characteristics in

an ar o r iate #a&$ his stu& has rove that litholo!ical

roerties/ ar ticular l& cla& miner alo!&/ are o' !reat imortance 'or

hillsloe rocesses$ =n this

u S

c m - 1

u S c m - 1


17/17

stu& it has been sho#n that smectite+rich an smectite+oor

litholo+ !ies behave istinctivel& an this classi:cation shoul be

use as a basis 'or the moel im r ovement$

c8no#le!ments

= #oul li8e to e@ress ee !ratitue to Dr$ or8e r&an 'or his

suort an !uiance throu!hout the research$ = #oul also li8e to

!rate'ull& ac8no#le!e suort 'or research on #hich this aer is

base 'rom atural Science an -n!ineerin! esearch Council/

Canaa$

e'erences

4le@aner / D$/ 1F2$ Di''erence bet#een calanchi an biancane balans in =tal&$ =n"

5r &an/ $$/ Kair/ $ (-s$)/ 5alan ,eomorholo!& an

Documents

(485802537) CATENA Volume 106 issue 2013 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.catena.2012.08.008] Kasanin-Grubin, Milica -- Clay mineralogy as a crucial factor in badland hillslope processes.docx