4 Folk Arts and Social Communication

social change in rural India. Folk arts being functional, interpersonal and having a contextual base would be able to carry the message of change, development and environmental awareness as Rabindranath Tagore put it aptly: "All traditional structures of art must have sufficient degree of elasticity to allow it to respond to varied impulsesof life, delicate or virile, to grow with its growth, to dance with its rhythm."

77. Folk Culture: An Anthropological and Socio-Cultural Perspective

Terms and Concepts:

THE TERM

"TRADITION" is derived from the Latin word "traditio" meaning handing down, delivery, etc. It includes both the process and the product. According to Robert Redfield, "The word tradition connotes the act of handing down and what is handed down from one generation to another." Tradition is the cumulative heritage of society which permeates through all levels of social organization e.g. the value system, social structure and the structure of personality. The tradition which is the cumulative social heritage in the form of habits, customs, attitudes and ways of life, is transmitted from generation to generation, either through written words or words of mouth. The tradition transmitted through the word of mouth is called oral tradition. According to Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, tradition and its transmission implies-value judgement, about the desirability or superiority of some transmitted element.

Change is characteristic of all cultures but the pace and direction of the change vary considerably. In traditional society, art is an integral part of living. Folk arts reflect the constancy of belongingness and affinity in a cultural context. In primitive societies, there is no real distinction between art and life or between a fine art and an applied art.

Folk

The term folk includes all those persons, living within a given area, who are conscious of a common cultural heritage, and have some constant traits e.g. occupation, language and religion. The behavioural knowledge

Folk Arts end Social Communication

is based on oral tradition and not on written scriptures. The group should have a sense of identity and belongingness regardless of its numerical strength. The way of life of the group of people is more traditional, more natural; less systematic and less specialised in com parison to the so called civilized people.

According to William Bascom, folk-lore means folk learning which comprehends all meaning that is transmitted by word of mouth and all crafts and techniques that are leamt by imitation or example as well as the products of these crafts. According to him, folk-lore includes folk-art, folk-crafts, folk-costumes, folk-customs, folk-belief, folk-medicine, folk-music, folk-dance, folk-games, folk-gestures. It also includes folk-literature with such forms as Folk-Tales,.Legends, Ballads, Myths, Epic Lays, Proverbs, and Riddles.

Folk.Songs .........................

A folk song is a lyrical, short, rhythmic song of a folk community. It is created and composed by the folk for their own entertainment, education, or emotional outlet. It is sung on occasions like, birth, marriage and death ceremonies or during agricultural work or other activities. There is scope for improvisation and there is very little distinction between the performer andvthe audience. It is transmitted and perpetuated spontaneously through oral tradition from person to person or from generation to generation. Ballad is a long, impersonal narrative song which depicts a single incident through the content and style of the folk. It is learnt and transmitted through word of mouth from singer to singer. Epic-Lays are long narrative ponms which describe extensively, and in grand style the lives of mythical and legendary heroes, through the content, style and designation of tfe folk. Myths are orally transmitted, sacred, prose narratives, related to theology and rituals, cosmic events, and activities of Gods and deities. The folk people believe them to be true. Legends are orally transmitted secular prose narratives based on historical facts, related to persons, events and localities. Folk-tales are prose narratives which are simple, entertaining and amendable to improvisation. Folk tal-o are mostly of fictitious nature and have predominance of fanciful ideas. Narrating folk tales include not only the theoretic text, but also the expression, gesture, acting movements, etc. Proverbs are terse, didactic

Folk Culture: An Anthropological and Sock --■ ultural Perspecti se 7

statements, containing concise knowledge and iniormation relating to various aspects of life. Proverbs are also transmitted through the oral tradition. A riddle is an ambiguous, and concisely formed metaphorical question, which is difficult to answer. It has a hidden meaning.

Folk Culture and Elite Tradition

Folk culture indicates a common pattern of life characteristic of the people of villages, towns and cities. Elite tradition on the other hand represents the culture of the higher sections of society. According to Robert Redfield, "In a civilization there is a great tradition of the reflective few and there is a little tradition of the largely unreflective many." They are two dimensions of a civilization and are complementary to each other. They are constantly interacting with each other.

Oral tradition is important because of the social function it fulfils. There are many diverse functions of oral tradition in folk societies. They may be broadly grouped into recreation, education, socialisation, social control, social protest, propaganda media, communication of knowledge and ritual functions.

Recreation

The various aspects of oral tradition such as folk song, Ballad, Epic-lays, Folk-tale, Myths, Legends, Proverbs, Riddles provide recreation or amusement for instance women sing songs while weeding the field. Similarly men sing songs while drawing water for irrigation. Folk tales, myths and legends also provide amusement. Mythical stories felating to Rama, Krishna, Hanuman and other mythological heroes are highly popular.

Education

Oral tradition plays a vital role in educating the people, especially the younger generation. The simple tunes of the folk songs are appealing to children while at the same time imparling useful knowledge of history, geography, arithmetic and so on. Proverbs, Riddles and Folk-tales also help educate people in an interesting and informal manner. Proverbs often impart technical knowledge regarding ploughing, sowing, irrigation and harvesting etc. to the farmers. Riddles help sharpen wits. They also make children grasp mathematical problems easily.

6

Folk Arts and Social Communication

Socialization

Oral tradition helps in the process of socialization. Grand mothers tell stories of the ideal type of hero to the grand children and in the process impart some knowledge, value system and belongingness to the society. Folk-songs help to inculcate good behaviour and adjustment to the social structure. Narrative and elegies relate people with their ancestors. Their lives and philosophies and their achievements which generate pride among members of society, help in the process of socialization. Thus oral tradition helps in generating a value system and modifying the behaviour pattern according to the need for equilibrium and coherence in a society.

Social Control

Oral tradition is highly effective in exercising social control. Moral songs help to control the behaviour of the people so that they do not neglect the norms and value systems of their community. These songs describe good and evil, righteous acts and scenes, merit of good work and punishment for sin. These help to control the behaviour of the people so that they do not become a social nuisance.

Myths, Epic-lays and Ballads are devices of social control. Myths and Epic-lays describe mythical persons and em phasize the fact that good always wins. Even wise and powerful characters like Ravana had to die because 01 his evil deeds. These instances inculcate righteousness among the people. Similarly, legends and Ballads mould the behaviour of the people. Proverbs are effective and induce a particular type of action through subtk irony. Their sarcastic remarks through proverbs help modify behaviour of arrogant persons in the village. A simple proverb warns.a person to be away from evil deeds : "When death approaches the ants, they get wings."

Social Protest

Folk arts serve as a form of social protest against injustice, exploitation r.nd oppression. When the opponent is strong, the anger and repression get expression through songs, proverbs and plays. It helps to release the inner tension caused by injustice and inspires people to unify and fight '-elentlessly against the injustice and exploitation. The village Patwari, the Landlord, the Police Officers, the Officers, etc. could be the target of these presentations of folk art forms. In the agrarian peasant revolts of

Folk Culture: An Anthropological and S -cio-c dtural Fersp> ctivc 9

Tebhaga Telangana and NaxalbarL Foik-sonr.s and Folk-plays were effectively utilized for creating public opinion and to inspire people to fight against the oppression. During the nationalist movement, folk songs and theatre forms were used in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab to inspire the people to fight the British.

Propaganda Media

Folk songs, plays, puppet theatres are extensively used to direct the attention of the general people towards a particular programme. During general elections, various political parties use Folk songs, street theatre and puppet plays to popularize their manifestoes. Vendors use lilting tunes of folk songs to sell their products. The Government Departments have started using folk media extensively to popularize improved varieties of seeds, agricultural implements, fertilizers, etc. among cultivators. Folk songs and puppet plays havebeen used to popularize family planning measures by the Government departments. Nationalised banks have used folk media to popularize different credit schemes and development activities.

Transmission of knowledge

Folk arts serve as a communication channel for transmission of knowledge and beliefs. The Folk songs depicting new rules regarding land revenue and other social legislations provide some knowledge to the people. Folk arts provide moral, philosophical and historical knowledge to the people. They help to increase the knowledge about culture and civilization, values and beliefs, norms and behaviour, prevalent in a social structure in the past. The stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata, related through countless number of folk art forms is a complete source of social, moral and historical knowledge with maximum information, proper education and excellent entertainment. The stories about historical heroes emphasise the qualities of a good person and outline the behaviour pattern which can be imitated a'nd thus incorporate a value system which helps to improve coherence and equilibrium in society. Finally, folk songs and plays about recent political and social happenings provide a perspective and this helps to guide the behavioural pattern of the people. Proverbs are concise and precise depositories of knowledge. In crisp, they advise people about the right conduct, proper behaviour

Folk Arts and Social Communic>.il-yn

through wit, satire and irony. The following proverb encapsulates social observation and knowledge and .educates the people:

""Even if they swear hundred times, don't believe a thief, a gambler, a pick pocket, a philanderer, and a prostitute."

Ritual Function

Folk art forms are used in ritual functions and in various rites of rural society. No social ritual relating to birth, marriage and death is complete without folk performing art. Songs arc sung when a child is born. In the marriage ceremony, women sing songs. The girls ask the bridegroom some riddles which he is expected to answer. When the daughter leaves her home after marriage, there are songs of farewell. In Madhubani district, women paint the walls with beautiful designs, and sing songs relating to these paintings and enact sequences which help to bring good fortune to the married couple. Folk songs in praise of the river Ganges are sung while fulfilling the funeral rites. In fact almost all the folk art forms have ritual or religious connections. These folk art forms are performed either to appease the ancestors or to control some malevolent spirit or other supernatural deities.

The folk and elite traditions are sub-structures which are comple-mentary to each other. The elite tradition is more systematic, more specialised, well structured and self conscious as compared to the folk tradition. In India, since time immemorial, there has been an interaction between the folk and elite tradition and this process is still going on. Robert Redfield pointed out, "It is in India, that the great tradition is in constant, various and conspicuous interaction with the life of local communities." The folk tradition borrows some elements from the elite tradition and imbibes them through the process of assim ilation. The elite tradition might borrow some elements from the folk and integrate them in their own system, after necessary refinement. Milton Singer says, "Fragments of little tradition have been absorbed into the great tradition of the culture of the villages and tribes and in the long run also have been responsive to the authoritative teachings of the literate." Since the interchange of cultural elements between the elite and folk tradition have been going on for a very long time in India, it is difficult to demarcate folk and classical forms in watertight compartments.

Folk Culture: An Arthropo logical and Socio-cultural Perspective 11

Folk traditions are fluid and responsive and they continually incorporate elements from sophisticated and intellectual traditions, modifying these borrowed elements to suit their own structure. The folk traditions have adopted the characteristics of technological advanced cultures of the elite tradition like the improved plough, bicycles, radios, torches, television, etc., which are extensively used in folk societies. The food habits, dress and architecture are also influenced to some extent by the elite tradition. The political and social innovations are incorporated in the structure of the folk tradition. Stories and the presentation technique of the episodes from Ramayana and Mahabharata get influenced by the elite tradition. In aRamlila presentation, Sita might sing a song in Hindi film tune and the disc of Krishna might operate through electric motor. Distortions might appear in the presentation of folk plays. In the presentation of folk theatre, completely unrelated episodes of current local political milieu may be interpolated. In this process, the folk art forms in India are dynamic, responsive, potent, and always contemporaneous and an integral part of the process of living of the people.

Folk Theatre forms in India

Andhra Pradesh : Veethi Natakam (Veedhi Bhagwatam) Kuchipudi (Kuchipudi Bhagwat Mela), Burrakatha. Assam : Ankiya Nat (Bhawanas), Kirtania Natak, Ojapali. Bihar : Bidesia, Seraikela Chhau, Jat-Jatni Bidapad (North-East), Ramkhelia (Ram Leela in crude style—North Bihar). Gujarat : BhavaiHaryana : Swang (Sangeetaka), Naqqal (Mono-performance). Ilimachal Pradesh : Kariyala, Bhagat, Ras, Jhanki, Harnatra Haran or Harm (Mask Dance)Jammu & Kashmir : Bhand Pathar or Bhand Jashna (Festival of Bhandas), Vetal Dhamali (Sword play).Karnataka : Yakshagan (North Karnatak), Sannata (Belgam and Dhar-war Districts), Doddata-Bayalata, Tala Saddle or Prasang (Indoor form, does not use costume), Dasarata, Radhna (Closely resembks the Tarn asha of Maharashtra).Kerala : Koodiyattam, Mudiattam or Mudiyettu Tiyattu, Therayattam, Chavittu Natakam (Christian rural drama) Chakiyar K-.-oth (Thullal), Kathakali. Madhya Pradesh : Maanch, Nacha.

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XIX Tribal Performing Arts in Bengal,Bihar and Orissa

SEN GE SUEUN, Kaji ge Durang (To walk is to dance, to speak is to sing)—goes a Munda tribal proverb. The existence of the tribals is interwoven with music and dance, rituals and ceremonies. Leisure is a treasure for them and they know how to use it meaningfully. They love relaxing and sing and dance throughout the night in groups with the accompaniment of the flute, dhak, dholak (drums), madala, nagara, manjira (cymbals) Kartal and kanshi. The unfettered freedom they enjoy finds expression in their rich folklore, ceremonial poetry and love poetry-simple sensuous and passionate. There are dances and songs for every occasion—religious dances, agricultural dances, hunting dances, marriage dances, festival dances, etc. There are ceremonies from birth to death and no ceremony is complete without dance, music and hadia or rice beer.

There are festivals like Hariar Simko in July, Iri gundli Nunwani in August, Karam in August,Janthor in November, Sohrae in December, Makar in January, Daha in March and Pata in April and so on.

The songs arc of several kinds. There are life-cycle songs sung at different occasions like birth, marriage and death; moral songs, teaching morals; thoughtful sogns, teaching the philosophy of human life; simple songs, dealing with different seasons like the spring, the rams, etc.; occasional songs, associated with the festivals and religious songs sung at the time of offerings to deities. Again there are working songs which help in synchronizing the working, e.g., Jhumur of the Oraons and Mundas which are sung at the time of planting paddy and many craft

Tribal Performin ?, Arts in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa 111

songs dealing wiifo the actual technique of the craft. For instance mat-making, ploughing, basket-making, etc. are described in simple folksongs.

In the folk-dance the tribal people spontaneously participate. The basic quality of the tribal dance is its vigorous rhythm and abandon, the expression of joy, and the zest for life. Dancing in a circle is the basic formation of most tribal dances. In the evening in tribal villages, one may come across groups of young tribal men and women dancing to the accompaniment of the drum at a high pitch. The only reason why some indulge in dance is that the moon is high, a girl in the neighbourhood is getting married, the harvest has been good or there is sometimes no reason at all. Their dances—vigorous, colourful and stim ulating—present amazing melody of music rhythm and folklore. They are not mere entertainment for the tribal folk; they are part of their way of life, as important as food or work. In them are reflected their struggle for existence, their attitude to nature.

The belief of the tribal people that their sacred dances were taught by their gods shows a sacred origin of the dance. Living close to nature and entirely dependent on her for sustenance made them believe in the worship of evil spirits and supernatural powers.

Tribal dances in this area may be divided into three classes (1) War and Hunt Dance (2) Sacred Dance and (3) Social Dances connected with seasonal festivals, marriage, funeral, etc.

War and Hunt Dance

Dances belonging to this type are performed only by a few tribes. Survivals of war dances are found among the Garo,I3hils, and Oraons and other tribes of Chota Nagpur.

Sacred Dance

The sacred encircling dance is perhaps the most common among the tribals. The object around which it is performed is a sacred one, an idol, an altar, a sacrificial victim, a holy tree, or a well. But the:.; ore usual ritual for making the crops grow is the sacred dance round a tree. The propitiation of

thesacrcd tree is believed to be a potent m cans foi securing this end.

Folk Arts and Social Communication

Social Dances

The joyous spirit of the spring finds a ready echo in the Oraons whose occupation is agriculture. They have a special dance, called Jadur, to mark the advent of the season. The people gather in an open space in the village, and while the elders look on, the young men and women dance the whole night. The drums produce sounds suggestive of the crashing waves, and the row of girl dancers sways to the rising and falling rhythms. With hands locked in each other's, they move forward and backward all the time giving the impression of waves rolling up and receding. The dance culminates in a vigorous flourish.

Marriage Dance

Interesting marriage dances are found among the Santhal, Ho, Bhuiya, and numerous other tribes. The sword dance during wedding may be a relic of the very ancient custom of marriage by capture.

Karama Dance

Karama is the most colourful dance among the Binjihal, Kharia, Oraon, Kisan and Kol tribes. It is a ritual dance. It is performed in honour of "Karamasani" or "karamarani", the deity for granting children and who is also believed to be the cause of good and bad fortune. On the eleventh day of the full-moon of Bhadra, the boys and girls go to the jungle singing and beating drums and cut a branch of the 'Karma' or 'Sal' tree, which is brought to a decorated circular place of the village where the dance takes place. The branch of the tree is ceremonially placed 2! the centre, where it is worshipped. The circular place is marked by the decoration of a long garland of mango leaves and water-lilies. After the installation of the branch, the village priest (locally known as Jhankar) performs the rite by pouring liquor over it and making offerings of rice and sweet-meats. A fowl is also killed and the blood is offered to the branch. After the ritual is over the priest narrates the story of 'Karamasani', who is believed to haveappeared to a man and promised that she wou-dbe presc- ;t, whenever a branch of the 'Karam' or 'Sal' tree was broken. All the villagers give a patient hearing to the story and pay their obeissance to the deity, who is believed to be present there. Then they take country liquor. The songs are sung, drums are beaten and the young people dance vigorously.

In the beginning of ths performance the dancers enter the dancing

Tribal Performing Arts in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa 113

arena in two rows. The drummers (who play earthen drums, popularly known as Mandal), cymbal-players and singers accompany them with rhythmic steps. In first few rhythms they dance in different steps individually but maintain their symmetry. They then combine in two's and dance in sitting pose. The tempo slowly rises and all of them sit face to face and stretch their legs. Then they bend towards the front and the sides keeping rhythm in ankle-bells. Lastly, they get up and dance in pairs in a quicker tempo by placing each other's left hands on the shoulders. The dance has a rich repertory. Every change is m arked by a cut in m usic with movements of the wriggling of the body. This dance of Binijhal dancers is one of the light-hearted freshness combined with a youthful energy which makes it the most charming and enjoyable spectacle.

During the performance, the dancers do not sing, but shout Hai, Hai according to the rhythm of the drums. The costume of the dance is extremely beautiful and rich in colour, the dancers, drummers and singers wear a turban of red cloth and beautifully designed peacock feathers as head dress; a red shirt of local design and a little coloured cloth (which hangs up to the knees) as garment, skilfully designed armlets, bangles and girdles made out of small conch-shells and a long garland of ankle bells to mark the time beats. Peculiarly, each of the dancers hold a mirror in the right or left hand while they dance. It is perhaps to sec and appreciate their colourful costume, which is mainly to attract the young girls, who watch patiently and talk to each other about the dancers, particularly those whom they appreciate. This is because special facilities are given to younggirls on festival days to mix with the other sex and they are allowed to make their own selection for marriage. But they are extremely strict regarding any liaison between them and men of higher castes.

After the dance of the males, the young girls enter the arena. The former group disperses and watches the performance of the girls. The dance of the girls is different from the former. They hold hands in different ways in different dances, sometimes, they simply hold hands, sometimes hands are placed on the neighbours' waistband or are crossed, sometimes they are brought in front or back; sometimes they are placed on the ncighbours's shoulders and sometimes they dance arm in arm. When hands are simply held, they are swung backward and forward, energetically, in rhythm with the fast or slow tempo of the dance. When they get very close together, arms are raised up from elbow. Bending the body

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114 Foik A rts and Social Common i cat ion

forward and backward, right and left, bending ihc knees, dancing in half sitting position, crossing the hands oi" each other and clapping, are some of the peculiar characteristics of this dance. The girls always move in lines in a semi-circular pattern and complete circles while dancing in the wide circular place. While dancing they sing different tunes—a long song praying for rain is a special feature of the festival. This indicates the tradition of nature-worship of the primitive people. Peculiarly the girls do not wear any special costume for the occasion as the boys.

Towards the end of the dance, the boys join the girls and they dance in separate lines. At this moment the dance reaches a faster tempo. The dance continues till morning, after which the branch is taken away in procession and thrown into a village tank or the nearest stream. This practice is prevalent among all the tribes. This is the style of the dance of Binijhals, who are the Kshatriyas or the ruling class among the tribes.

After the Karama dance is over, the Binijhals have a festival called the 'Sua' dance. Young girls go about from village to village singing and dancing accompanied by drummers and Gond musicians. They are entertained in each village they visit and are lodged comfortably for the night. Next morning they dance for five or six hours and then proceed to another village, dancing, singing and beating drums. Love is the main theme of the songs- Due to the influence of modern civilisation, this practice is slowly dying out.

The technique of the Karama dance varies a little from tribe to tribe. The Kbariyas, Kisans and Oraons dance in a circular pattern, where men and women dance together. It is always headed by a leader, generally a man at the head of the line. Only the best of dancers becomes his neighbour. Very young girls and children join the tail-end to learn the steps. When the dancing grows fast, the dancers at the tail-end drop out to let the experienced dancers show their skill. The dancers hold hands in different ways in different dances, sometimes they simply hold hands and sometimes hands are placed on the neighbours' waisVband or are crossed. It is the legs and the feet which play the principal part in the dance. The dance begins lightly with simple steps forward and backward, left and right then gradually the steps grow smaller and faster, growing more and more complicated, until the dance reaches its height. Then it goes gradually back to the first steps as the music leads to give the dancers rest. The dancers have no special costume for the occasion.

Tribal Performing Arts in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa 115

Karama is also known as' Keli Kadam' festival am ong som e tribes. This particular dance-form is also performed during Dussehra, Phagun-puni, Bhai Jauntia and some other festive occasions. This dance is also prevalent in Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh, Bolangir and Dhenkanal districts of Orissa. Rituals being the same, the technique of the dance and music differs from the above mentioned tribes.

Dalkhai Dance

This form of dance is performed by the young girls of Binijhal. Saura, Kuda-Nirdha and some other tribes. Sometimes young girls of scheduled castes also take part. Dusshera, Bhai Jauntia, Phagunpuni and other festive days are the occasions for this dance.

In the beginning of the performance the young girls stand in a line or in a semi-circular pattern and sing songs, which are commonly known as Dalkhai songs. They sing for a while and then dance by bending forward to a half-sitting position. While singing they do not dance and the Dhol remains the only accompanying drum. During the dance different varieties of drums and wind-instruments are played. There arcDhol, a big drum which is played with one stick in the left hand and the right side is played by the bare hand; Nisan, a one-sided drum usually two feet in diameter and madeof iron case, is played by twosticks in both the hands; Tamki, a tiny one-sided drum of six inches diameter, is played with two sticks, Tasa, (a kind of drum) and Mahuri (wind-instrument). All these instruments form a rich orchestra of folk-music, which is inspiring and vigorous in rhythm and varies according to the movements of the dance. The D/zoZ-player dances with toe girls and other musicians sitting by the side of the dancing place and play.

Jhoomar Songs

Usually as an accompaniment to Jhoomar and Nachni Nat, this melodious variety of songs are most popular among the Kurmis and the other Hinduised tribes of Mayurbhanj and Sundergarh districts of Orissa. Linguistically the songs are of a peculiar variety being an admixture of Oriya, Bengali, Maithili and the local dialects because of the contiguity of this area with Midnapore and Purulia districts of West-Bengal and the Singhbhum district of Bihar where the songs are equally popular, Besides expressions of love, incidents from Ramayana and the Radna-Krishna

116 Folk Arts and Social Communication

episode form the basic theme of the songs. The songs are essentially melodious in character having different patterns of composition, accord-ing to which their tunes vary. They are known as Bhaduria Jhoomar, Panta Jhoomar, Rang Jhoomar.

In Jhoomer dance and song madal, the earthen drum remains the sole accompanying instrument. The first two lines of each song are fully melodious, rhythm coming only at the end which the madal catches immediately. During the dance the men beat drums and sing the refrain being repeated by the dancing women.

Lagren Dance

This is the most common of Santhal dances and may be held at any time, but a full moon day is the favourite occasion for it. When the moon glimmers, men beat the drums and madals

to attract the youths and maids of the tribe by the music. Soon a sufficient number of youths assemble at the spot; they then make a complete circle with a radius of seven to ten feet. The steps of the "Lagren" dance arc regular all through. They wave the feet forward making an angle of 45° (degrees) and swing to the right, while the circle appears to move in an anti-clock-wise direction.

Dabar Dance

This dance takes place sometimes between the first day after the new moon of "Magh" (Jan.-Feb.) and the full moon of Falgun (Feb.-Mar.), beginning in the evenings and ending at mid-nights.

Men and women form a c: :cle with their hands entwined, the musicians standing in the centre. One sees the circle taking two steps forward, and then changing the

direction to the left with one step, and next to the right again with a single step. The circle thus moves on and on in the dreamland of a moon-lit night. Men sing and women reply jointly. And so it goes on for about ten minutes. After a short rest, the circles are formed again automatically and the dance proceeds afresh, while the musicians display their-.'.kill.

This is a relig-.ous dance and a prelude to the forth-coming Flower Festival (Baba). The songs are also devotional and refer to thc-deities of the Holy Grove.'

XX. Chavittunatakam of Kerala

CHAVITTUNATAKAM IS A beautiful musical dance-drama akin to Kathakali of Kerala but also very similar to the opera of the West. It is considered as the Christian counterpart of Kathakali by some and by others as an Indian edition of European opera.

Chavittunatakam shows a happy blending of music, dance, action and kalarippayattu (gymnastics) of ancient Kerala. It is a gana-nrithanatakam in which, gana (music), nritha (dance) and

nataka (drama) elements are harmoniously blended together. The actors sing while they act the drama and take steps (dance) according to the time measure of the chenda (drum) and elathalam (cymbal) and other musical instruments. Acrobatics is another special feature of Chavittunatakam. Drawing its roots from the earlier folk arts of Kerala, Kooth and Koodiyattam, Chavittunatakam closely follows the rules laid down by Natyasastra, the basic text of all Indian dramatic arts.

Chavittunatakam is popular among the Christian community of Kerala, living in and around the old ports and coastal centres where Portuguese influence prevailed between 1493-1963. A.D. It forms an integral part of the religious and cultural life of the people of the area. They cherish it as a rich heritage of their old martial prowess and have it performed regularly twice a year in the village church,

maidans, or sandy open coasts during Christmas and Easter.

This narrow strip of coastal land lying on the South-West corner of India, has been the meeting place of East and West for long. The Greek, the Rom an, the Jew, the Syrian, the Arab, the Chinese, the 1 ortuguese, the Dutch, the French, the English came to this land from time immemorial,

TRIBAL AND HUMAN RIGHTS

The projects have also seriously wounded them socially and spiritually. People who are forced to relocate have to begin life anew in places that may be totally unfamiliar, if not altogether hostile. They have often lost their community, because the group they have been part pf for generations is split up. With long-established social networks gone, economic recovery becomes doubly difficult, and people are left to face an uncertain future in straitened circumstances. The trauma of resettlement is exacerbated for tribal people because of their close spiritual ties to their homeland and their apprehension that once they move, their way of life will be lost forever (Padei and Das 2008).

As the World Commission on Dams (2000) pointed out, "Due to neglect and lack of capacity to secure justice because of structural inequities, cultural dissonance, discrimination and economic and political marginalization, indigenous and tribal peoples have suffered disproportionately from the negative impacts of large dams, while often being excluded from sharing in the benefits." They face relatively more risks of impoverishment because they rarely go to courts to vindicate their rights or get the wrongs redressed. The legal system is cumbersome, dilatory, expensive, and often weighted against them because of their poverty, illiteracy, and low social status. Officials tend to deny them even what they are due by law. It is common for the officials to keep the project cost low by calculating cash compensation for land that is below the real value of the property.

Displacement is rarely achieved without the use or threat of force. In projects where tribal people are involved, displacement is sometimes carried out in a mthless manner. Any sign of resistance invites police intervention.

In Kacheipadar and Sunger, two villages of Orissa. a study team found overwhelming evidence of excessive use of coercive methods by district authorities against the tribal population who refused to move. Hundreds of people, including young bo./s and girls, were arrested. Tear-gas shells were fired in Kacheipadar to disperse crowds. In the Sungerarea, Utkal Alumina International Ltd. let loose security guards to harass the villagers. An elderly woman in Sunger village informed the observers that she had never in her life seen police until this incident and that now, policemen were frequently knocking on her door.

LAND AND CULTURAL SURVIVAL:THE COMMUNAL LAND RIGHTS OF ... 183

Compensation, a critical issue in resettlement planning, is seldom addressed satisfactorily (Cernea and Mathur 2008). Impoverishment that tribal-people encounter soon after displacement mainly arises from delayed payment of compensation and the exclusion from compen-sation calculations of the common property resources on which they largely subsist (Mahapatra 1991).

In addition, tribal people have little or no experience in handling large amount of cash. As a result, compensation paid in cash rarely helps them regain their previous standard of living. It quickly slips through their fingers for weddings and other festivities or ill-planned business enterprises.

Yet there continues to be heavy emphasis on issuing compensation in cash. Perera (2000) found even NGOs in the Singrauli region supporting cash compensation rather than other options that would generate livelihoods. Not only is cash compensation culturally inappropriate, but it leads to underpayment because of flawed valuation methods. For tribal people, the best settlement strategy would be to receive land to replace the land lost. This alternative, however, often is rejected because land is scarce.

CULTURAL IGNORANCE IN RESETTLEMENT PLANNING

Many sites developed to resettle tribal people fail to attract them, as the communal character of their culture has not been taken fully into account.

People are moved to an environment completely different from what they know. On arrival, they discover to their dismay that forests, pastures, and other common property resources that sustained them in their original environment do not exist. Additionally, resettlement disrupts their communal life when they are moved not as an integrated social unit but broken randomly into groups because there is no area large enough for the original community.

Tribal people leave the relocation site when they find that there is no forest land for collecting timber, firewood, and other forest products and no grazing land for their cattle. For example, the people of Karna-ka Bas from the Sariska Project Tiger Reserve who first moved to Sirsawas and Bandipal found that the resettlement site lacked any communal resources. When they tried to return to their original village,

182

TRIBAL AND HUMAN RIGHTS

the Forest Department would not let them in. They had to manage their own resettlement on the fringes of Kiraska and Kundelka, the two . adjoining villages (Mathur 1997).

What makes resettlement sites particularly unattractive, often resulting in their complete abandonment, is the neglect of sociocultural aspects of tribal life in the planning process. Mathur found this to be the case in colonies built for the Bhil tribals displaced by the Kadana Dam on the Mahi River: "The colonies that the government agencies especially built for rehabilitation did not attract the Bhil oustees. The prospect of living in new settlements, with civic amenities not in accord with their lifestyle, was not very attractive.

Like tribals elsewhere, the Bhils are deeply attached to their soil and their hamlets on forested hilltops, which are dispersed and separated from one another by long distances. Living in clustered colony conflicts with their traditional dispersed pattern of living on top of their own forested hills... .No wonder, then, that the number of oustees actually relocated to colonies is small, except in the colony at Dungarsaran.

The popularity of Dungarsaran as a resettlement sites lies in the fact that it comes closest to the hilly forest setting of a tribal village" (1997). Similarly, a lack of attention to the sociocultural concerns of the tribal people backfired in a resettlement colony set up in Andhra Pradesh. The Gond tribals from two regions found their customs and manners so Incompatible thai they could not live together at the same place. One group then left the colony. People brought together from antagonistic segments are bound to carry with them the traditions of their past antagonism, making living together an impossible arrangement. Roy-Burman (1968) reported that such ignorance of tribal histories is a frequent reason that resettlement sites fail.

TRIBAL PEOPLE IN A GLOBALIZING WORLD

In tribal areas, the communal management of land and other resources is facing a major challenge from markets and globalization. Communal systems are being rapidly transformed, with far-reaching consequences that Nathan and Kelkar (2004) have aptly described as "civilizatiohal change.*' Globalization, although seen as a threat to the survival of tribal people, could work to their advantage (Nairn 2003).

LAND AND CULTURAL SURVIVAL ITK;-: COMMUNAL AND RIGHTS OF ... 185

It has indeed made it possible for them to organize, raise funds, and network with other groups around the world, with greater political reach and impact than before (UNDP 2004).

Without networking globally, the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada Campaign) against dams on the Narmada River could not have become a rallying point for attack against projects that displace people not only in India but all over the world.

Addressing the concerns of indigenous peoples will require global, national, and corporate policies that advance human development goals (UNDP 2004). International institutions are already looking for ways to mitigate some of the problems, including acknowledging the right of indigenous peoples to land in their territories and respecting their traditions and cultures.

For example, the World Bank in 2001 commissioned a review of extractive industries to determine how such projects can assist in poverty reduction and sustainable development. Based on extensive discussions, the review recommended public and corporate governance that works on behalf of the poor, effective social and environmental policies, and respect for human rights as key pillars of poverty reduction and development in areas where such industries are concentrated (World Bank 2004).

In today's globalizing world, the concerns of indigenous peoples can no longer be ignored or suppressed. They have become better organized and capable of demanding equality in sharing benefits from development projects in both national and international forums, and they are searching for ways to overcome obstacles to the eradication of their poverty and underdevelopment (Gonzalez-Parra 2001). "Indigenous peoples have dynamic living cultures and seek their place in the modern world. They are not against development, but for too long they have been victims of development and now demand to be participants in— and to benefit from—a development that is sustainable" (Magga 2004).

1_ l

TRIBAL COMMUNITIES: SOCIAL LIFE AND CUSTOMS

Andhra I^radesh how the largest concentration of tribals in southern India. The forest-clad hill ranges and the chequered valleys traversed by hill streams of the Eastern Ghats and the forests flanking the mightly Godavari and Krishna rivers constitute the traditional habitat of as many as 30 forest tribes. It is in this isolated habitat that each tribe has fashioned its artifacts, mentifacts and socifacts in consonance with their environs and according to its genius. However, the identical environment and long interaction among the tribes who shared the same habitat in harmony for several centuries resulted in certain degree of unity within diversity in the ways of life of the co-existing tribes of a cultural region. On the basis of geographical propenquity and cultural affinity the tribal areas of the State are therefore divided into seven cultural zones viz., (1) Vamsadhara — Vegavathi basin; (2) Machkund-Gosthani basin; (3) Godavari basin; (4) Penganga-Pranahita basin; (5) Naliamalai region; (6) Rayalaseema; and (7) Guntur-Nellore Seema.

A kaleidoscopic picture of various tribal groups and their cultural legacy in each of these cultural zones is portrayed in the following pages.

The religious texts in Sanskrit and Telugu are replete with references to various forest-living tribes. The earliest reference dates back to Rigveda, where the tribes are referred to as Kiratas and Nishadas. In fact, Andhra is referred to as a tribe inhabiting the peninsular India in Aitareya Brahmana. All the Telugu population is believed to be

2 Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes : Andhra Pradesh

the progen of the ancient tribe, Andhra. Even to this day there is an aboriginal group by name 'Anth' in the Adilabad district, which is believed to be an off shoot of the ancient tribe Andlira; Further, the various tribes described in the epic Ramayana are identified as the original pre-Dravidian inhabitants of the region now known as Andhra Pradesh. Janasthana Kishkinda and Dandakaranya described in Ramayana are believed to be synonymous with the present day Andhra Pradesh. Both Pamasnala, the sacred cottage where Rama lived with his consort Sita and Brother-Lakshmana during his exile and Jatayuvu Konda where Jatayuvu was killed by Ravana when the former prevented the latter while kidnapping Sita, are situated near Bhadrachalam where.an ancient temple dedicated to Lord Rama stands magnificently on a hillock overlooking the mightly Godavari river. The location of these three places linked with Ramayana lend support to the belief that Andhra Pradesh state formed part of Dandakaranya during the time of Ramayana.

Savaras of Srikakulam district are believed to be descendants of the Sabaras referred to in the Aitareya Brahmana and Ramayana. The ancient association of Savaras with Hindu religion is evident from Sabari, the aged Savara woman, who offered fruits with devotion yo Rama and Lakshmana during their search for Sita. The Mahabharata has copious references to Sabaras who formed one of the tribes in the Pandava Kingdom. A passage in Shantiparvam even reveals that the 1- ings were concerned with bringing the tribes into the fold of Vedic Dharma. Mandhata asks Indra to tell him what kind of religious or moral conduct (Dharma) should be observed by the following people inhabiting his kingdom: Yavana, Kirata, Gandharva, Savara, Andhra etc. There appear to be deliberate attempts by the rulers at various times to bring the tribals into the fold of main stream of the civilisation.

There are instances where th savage tribals attained great stature by talcing to the Vedic Dharma, Valmiki, once a savage, became 'Adi Kavi' in Sanskrit by writing the epic Ramayana and a great sage. Even to day there is a tribe with the name Valmiki in Eastern Ghats who ciaim descent from the sage Valmiki. Bedar Kannappa (Tinnadu), a youth from the Boya Tribe, became a great devote of

Tribal Communities : So< led Life and Customs 3

Shiva and attained such an eminence as to join the galaxy of Nayanars. There stands a shrine for this great Shiva Bhakta in the magnificent temple at Sri Kalahasti on the banks of Suvamamukhi river.

The monks and hermits in particular who went into retreat in the forest must have also succeeded in influencing the life of the forest living tribes. This contact is reflected in the famous frescoes in Ajanta caves, where leaf-clad primitive people carrying bow and arrow are depicted among the elegant persons of Buddhist Jatakas. All Ellora, the frescoes in the Viswa Karma Charitra are representations of forest tribes who lies in the vicinity.

It is significant that some of the most important temples are situated in the heart of tribal areas. Two of the Thri-Lingas, from which the word Teiugu derives its name, are situated in the heart of tribal areas. The sacred Shiva temple at Srisailam, perching on a peak on the Nailamalai hills over-looking the Krishna river in Kumool district and the Kaleswaram temple on the bank of Godavari at the holy confluence of Pranahita with Godavari in the Kareemnagar district, along with Bhimeswara temple at Draksharama in east Godavari district formed the three border posts for this triangle-shaped Tri-ling Desa, which was gradually changed into Teiugu, Desa. Even to this day, the Chenchus enjoy special privileges at Srisailam temple. At Srisailam, the Chenchus are entitled to free and direct access to the sanctum sanctorium. The Mallikarjunaswamy is in fact popularly known as 'Chhenchu Mailiah'. Shaivite literature is replete with references to Chenchus. In Kavi Sarvabhowma Srinadha's Haravilasam, Lord Shiva is described to have taken the appearance of a Chenchu. In the Kasikhandam of the Skanda Purana, there is a description of Chenchu women. There are references to tribals in Manu-Charitra and even in Amukta Malyada which provides guidelines for administration of tribal areas. Obviously both Allasani Peddanna, and Srikrishna Devaraya must have had Chenchus in their mind while writing about tribes as the Chenchu was the nearest tribe to the imperial capital of Vijrynagar empire.

It appears as though the Chenchus are pure Shaivites from their special association with the Srisailam temple and their occurance in

4 Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes : Andhra Pradesh

Shaivite literature. But it is only a half truth. Vaishnavites also vied wiui Shaivites to who this primitive group to their sect. Consequently the Chenchu maid 'Chenchu Lakshmi' is wedded to none other than Lord Vishnu himself in his Narasimha Avatara. There appeared a Narasimha temple at Ahobilam in the heart of Chenchu habitat in another direction to testify the holy wedlock between the God and the Chenchu belle. The Chenchus as at Srisailam temple, have special privileges at Ahobilam temple too. In the country side, the young still sing folk-songs relating 'Chenchu Lakshmi Katha'. Infact a section of Chenchus descended hills to roam about the rural areas singing the story of their celebrated Chenchu Lakshmi and collect doles from the peasants. It is widely believed that Lord Jaganadh of Puri is originally a tribal diety called Nil Madhav.

As a result of these continuous efforts, through several centuries, the elements of the great tradition gradually made inroads into the tribal areas and got merged in their culture. The acculturation did not confineto religious sphere alone. The traits of Hindu social structure were also adopted by these primitive groups. Some of the powerful tribes assumed Kshatriya titles to establish hegemony over other groups. Gonds became Raj Gonds and Konda Reddis became Racha Reddis. Bhagathas, Mukha Doras and even Konda Doras suffixed their names with the title 'Raju', Raj Gonds ruled for a fairly long period in Gondwana now consisting of Chanda, Mandla and Chindwada in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Adilabad and Warangal districts of Andhra Pradesh. They enjoyed independent ruling status during the Moghul regime until they were overthrown by the rise of Maratha power. The Gond kings are reported to have constructed a large number of tanks for irrigation purposes. The rulers allowed the builders of these tanks freedom from land revenue for the lands to be irrigated, to encourage them to build more. Savaras are also known to have ruled large territories. 'Katha Saritsagara' a originally written in Paisachika language by Telugu poet Gunadhya, and translated into Sanskrit by Somdeva, a Kashmiri poet in 16th Century A.D., refers to Savara kings who were intelligent and merciful. According to Komi copper plate grant, Sabaraditya, a savara king of Srikakulam was defeated and killed at Danturava by Kamarnava, the founder of

Tribal Comnunities : Social Lif and Customs 5

Kalinga-Gang* dyn< sty. It is p obably during this period that the Savaras patronised the Srikurmani temple at Srikurmam in Srikakulam district. In commemoration of this there is a figure of Savara on the Srikurmam temple. This point out not only to the past glory of the Savaras but to their close interaction with non-tribal populations who formed their subjects.

The princely tribes like Mukha Dora, Konda Dora and Konda Reddi also ruled sizable areas in Srikakulam and Godavari districts until recently. The tribal estates of Kurupam, Chinamerangi and Andhra and Pachipenta in Srikakulam district patronised Telugu and Oriya scholars. According to the local legends in West Godavari district, the Konda Reddis who styled themselves as he Racha Reddis, reigned over the territory covering the present taluks of Kowur, Polavaram and Chintalapudi in West Godavari district. The area in fact is called Reddi Seema after the Konda Reddi rulers. Kota Ramachandrapuram and Kamavarapu Kota were the seats of Konda Reddi fortresses. These areas included non-tribal population. The patronage of non-tribal scholars and existence of non-tribal population in this kingdom promoted interaction among the tribal, rural and great traditions. Thus, the hilly and wooded habitat of the tribals did not completely wall off the tribals from the influence of great and rural traditions.

Savaras of SrikakulamSrikakulam presents a picturesque but varied landscape. The sun-

drenched sea-coast is followed by a vast expanse of land interspersed with densely populated river-valleys. The lush plains abruptly end with the commencement of the confused hill ranges of the eastern ghats running from Mandasa in the North-east through Pathapatnam, Palakonda and Parvathipuram to Salur in the south-west. The verdant hill ranges of the Eastern Ghats from the sources of numerous perennial and seasonal streams. The chief rivers that rise in the eastern ghats are Vamsadhara, Nagavalli, Mahendratanaya, Champavathi, Vegavathi Gomukhi and Gosthani. It is this hilly and wooded tract traversed by these perennial and seasonal streams that constitutes the habitat of about 2 lakh aboriginals who sought refuge in this hitherto inaccessible tract from time immemorial. The major

28 Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes : Ar.tihra Pradesh

nomadic groups pour from various regions and converge at the time of harvest at an appointed place in a prosperous area.

-The traditional council of each nomadic community determines the territorial jurisdiction of each household of its community. The violation of the territorial jurisdiction constitutes a professional offence and is summarily tried and punished by the traditional council.

Custodians of Folk CultureIt is these groups whiph provides ageless entertainment through their

myriad forms of folk music and lively dances with colourful dresses and fantastic paraphernalia to the countless populace in the thousands of villages of the State from time immemorial. It is these groups in the country which contributed in no small measure to the enrichment of the folk culture which constituted the colourful component of the rich Telugu culture. It is these groups which have jealously guarded the veritable treasures of folk lore, folk music, folk dance, folk drama, folk medicine, folk religion, folk arts and crafts, generation after generation, by oral transmission. It is these groups which relieved the sufferings of the ailing populace in the villages by their herbal and indigenous medicines and magico-religious powers from times immemorial. It is these groups which carried their merchandise on the pack animals-to the thousands of villages and supplied country cosmetics to the rural women folk.

The itinerant communities play a variety of roles handed down to them by their fore-fathers. They occupy an important place in economic,social and cultural life of the Telugu people. A study of these nomadic groups affords an insight into the whole gamut of the complex Telugu culture. Contrary to the popular notion that the nomadic communities are none other fh?n wandering groups of beggars and have no place in the social, cultural and economic structure of Telugu people, these groups occupy an important place in by performing two important roles. One is that these nomadic groups communicate the culture of the great tradition in the style, dialect and medium which easily catch the imagination of the illiterate masses. The second is that there are some peripatetic communities who carry and propagate only the items of folk traditions. In the

TribG I Communities : Social Life and Customs 29

process, these nomadic tribes in conjunction with the Denotified tribes (Vimukta Jathis), have contributed to the enrichment of Telugu literature particularly Desi literature, music, dance drama and other forms of entertainment the most important of which is Tolubommalata.

The entire corpus of ballads in Desi Telugu literature is being transmitted from generation to generation by the nomadic story letters like Balasanthu, Jangam, Saradagallu, Pichukaguntla and Parigamuggula. There is hardly any villager who has not heard the immortal ballads of Bobbili Yudham, Pclanati Veeracharitra, Kamamma Katha, Balasanyasamma Katha, Balanagamma Katha, etc. These ageless entertainers, which occupy a place of pride in folk literature and songs, are the peerless creations of these great folk entertainers.

No account of Telugu drama, music and art will be complete without the study of Chaya Nataka or Tolu Bommalata (Leather Puppet shows), a unique creation of a nomadic community in Andhra Pradesh.

The puppets are of two types—Leather and Wooden. The wooden puppets are made of jointed soft wood. They are flaged by the puppet displayers. The movements of the puppets are so perfectly synchronised with the dialogues deftly delivered by the displayers with a touch of humour. The leather puppets are mad*"- of fine calf-leather of cow or goat or deer. The Bondili or Tolu Bommalta Vallu prepare them sillfully and artistically. The leather puppets are transparent and are played by the displayers from behind the cotton curtains without being seen by onlookers. This is one of the ancient but most effective media to communicate the sublime message of the Hindu epics to the rural masses from times immemorial. It is believed that Tolu Bommalata dates back to 3rd century B.C. This great art had admirers across the seas. Ttth ancient art travelled first to South-East Asia from the old ports of Kalingapatnam, Bhaimunipatnam Korangi, Machilipainam, Vadarevu and Kothapatnam. From South East Asia, this art went to Europe through Persia and Turkey. Before French Revolution it reached France from where it travelled to North African countries. In its intercontinental journey, the Tolu Bommalata underwent changes.

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existing modes of" communication locally available. This situation increases A's problems at the headquarters - how to make the full use of these special tools for diffussion of information among the cultural variable, and by whom and where. Several decades of experience has proved that there is a great scope for more imaginative use of traditional folk forms. The only point, which needs to be looked into is the gap that exists between the source and the receiver. This gap can be bridged by a coordinating agency which can work at regional level in collaboration with the field units to help the local artistes to synchronize intended messages in their existing folk forms without disturbing their vital characteristics. This agency must be composed of artistes and script writers who possess essential knowledge of the target audience and the competence to transform the messages. Collaboration with such persons who are aware of folkways, dialects, mores and taboos of the rural and tribal communities and also the mind of the policy-makers is bound to produce the desired results. To quote Dr. Everett Kleinjans:

One possible choice is to frame the message differently for the people with different cultural backgrounds. The'categories of one language or one culture are not adequate for those of another. Or to put it in another way, no two cultures have the same set of meanings nor do they use similar symbols to represent similar meanings. In cross-cultural communication the message must be

given the proper form and style so that the receiver gets the message which the sender intends.4

This approach may perhaps remove the deficiencies of the present communication model, and with the addition of research-based feedback it may make the model complete, as referred above.

In India, the model-based arrangement may be feasible because most of the cultural values are inherent at both the levels - A and E. In a communication process where traditional values interact with contemporary values, the former have to undergo certain changes. Yet they do not drift aside from their basic characteristics on account of the strong hold of their inherent motifs and svmbols.

FOLK-URBAN CONTINUUM

Indian society - with its complex family system, class structure, ethnic groups and clans —has not fully emerged out of the deep associations of its folk culture. In remote villages and in tribal communities strands of basic roots persist through, the use of oral and functional role of folklore This emphasizes the strong links the Indian society has with its past. This cultural perpetuity is discernible in our attitudes and taboos, inspite of fhe acceptance of modern innovations..

Cities in India have grown with pockets of rural population within their fold - of which a large number is still having a limited gain from their access to the available electronic media. It is the use of traditional media and the oral literature that still brings about the sense of cultural identity and unity. Though the cultural diversity exists in one form or the other, yet the persistence of common values, congenial, to all kinds of societies, both in rural and urban sector, need to be traced for correlating the existing folk forms with the .new . media.^

TRADITIONAL TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION

Traditional

folkmediashouldmotbeconfused with the technology-based mj^^media. The technology-based mass media disseminate messages to heterogeneous audiences, whereas the tradi'tionar folk media ca.ter_to. the ethno-rural communities through the functionalj;£le_ofXolkjorev The folklore phenomenon represents an act of communication empioyingj/qcaj, vejbahmiusical and visual folk art forms,^transmitted to a society or a group of societies from one generation to another. They are indigenous modes and have served the society as tools of

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communication for ages. They have been integrated in the complex body of the^socio-cultural behaviour, determined by anthropomorphicjexjstence of the people to which they belong. The components of traditional media therefore co-exist with rituals and ceremonial functions as well.

The audiences catered to by the traditional media are- not diverse in cultural fabric like the audiences of the technology-based mass media. They are local, regional and belong to ethno-linguistic groups, although in the wider dissemination process through mass media, they cannot be sliced out of the vast heterogeneous population. The traditional media help immensely in greater dissemination of the messages emitted by the electronic mediaT^

A crucial role is played by opinion leaders or rural elites who channelise the messages along the traditional norms of the rural communities, fchaupal Charcha or the exchange of views in a common place m Baithaks (sittings) is needed.5 Local proverbs and sayings facilitate speech communication and help in cutting across resistance to new ideasT~FbTklore-tinged face-tb-face conversation makes i! easier for the

listener to decode.

Any communication network unfamiliar to the masses, which does not function close to their cultural predispositions and institutional values, will have little impact and no significance. Studies have stressed that no mass media can exist 'in^CjjUuxal-.vaciiurri.6^ After all, communication is fully realized wrier it passes through the attitudes and behavioural patterns of the people. It is shaped by cultural heritage and by • common ties of existence of the people together. That is why mass communication in rural India is

largely communication through nojwnass media, such as traditional forms of entertainment, situations and institutions which include :

• Traditional folk theatre forms

• Puppetry

• Oral literature-cum-musical forms (folk musical styles, ballads, story-telling, etc.)

• Fairs and festivals including social, ritual and ceremonial gatherings

• Traditional youth clubs particularly in tribal areas

• Folk dances

• Ritual symbols, traditional

designs and motifs

• Sound signals and speech

surrogates

This is only a broad categorisation. There are many more regional variations.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

BEHAVIOUR

In ethno-linguistic groups and jp_e_as£.rit______________________________________S-Q.cie.ties,communication rJehaviour^^CjlPi always formal. In their social functions and festivities, messages are disseminated by oral poetry,N legends, ballads, mime, puppetry and other

24 25

dramatic forms. Dancing helps as a means of informal communication in many tribal and agricultural communities. Singing inspires them in their day-to-day work and very often promotes coodination in manual work. Ti}£-!r traditional folk singing, akin to spe^h^servesasa_m^de_of specialized communication. Their age-old songs are infused in~~aTTthe activities from cradle to grave. In traditional communities, this is how the communication is channelised through the different genres of folklore. It is claimed that 'folk culture has its^own wode_ networj^-^ andjl 'does not_ depend solely on the great tradition for transmission of its elements.'

CONCEPT OF FIELD PUBLICITY

Owing to the then limited reach of the electronic media, the concept of field publicity was introduced by the Indian Government after Independence to give a new dimension to the communication process. The field publicity techniques involve direct "onfrontation with the masses through multiple media. The mass contact is maintained not only through film shows, exhibitions, posters, folders, pamphlets, seminars and discussions but also through traditional folk media of entertainment, popular in different

parts of the country.

Studies have proved that the hold of the traditional media on rural and semi-urban masses is still strong. The Vidyalankar study team,8 constituted to make an assessment of the impact of the publicity programmes on the people, had observed that from the point of view of its great appeal to the masses and its quality of touching the deepest emotions of the illiterate

millions, the medium of song and drama is matchless as means of mirroring popular responses to national challenges. Realizing the potential of these verbal-musjca[and visual, folk art media, some governmental agencies like State Directorates of Public Relations and non-governmental organisations have made imaginative use of the traditional live entertainment forms. Song and Drama Division has done several experiments by.employing many of these forms for dissemination of ideas and innovations .

Indian society is an elaborate and complex system of varied classes, clans and aborigins. Yet there is much in common in its total folk culture. Folk^culture as concei_ved_by...socjor logists is only 'part culture'. Elite.and urban culture constitutes the otherjpart In India, both cultures interact with each other, though folk communication between-different regions still exists without themediation of the elite.

Communication pattern in any society is a part of its total culture and can only be understood in the contextof its social organisation. Thus the heritage, caste and creed-based barrier^, cultural complexity and illiteracy furnish a backdrop with which the communicators and electronic media have to reckon with while working in India or any other developing country.

This calls for an effective blending of mass media and traditional channels of communication.

COALITION - A PROCESS OF INTEGRATION AND INTERACTION

The coalition of mass media and existing traditional media creates a process of interaction. The electronic media