37Casey

8/7/2019 37Casey

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T H E C I S T E R C I A N W A Y

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CS T E R C I A N S P I R I T U A L I T Y IS D E F I N E D , i n t h e f ir s t p l a c e , b y i t s

p e d i g r e e . I t i s a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s i x t h - c e n t u r y R u l e o f S t

B e n e d i c t a s t h is w a s l i v e d i n th e ' N e w M o n a s t e r y ' o f C R e a u x f o u n d e d i n

B u r g u n d y i n 1 0 9 8 . T h e t r a d i t i o n , t h u s b e g u n , q u i c k l y s p r e a d t o t h e f o u r

c o m e r s o f E u r o p e s o t h a t t h e r e w e r e 3 5 2 m o n a s t e r i e s o f C i s t e r c i a n m ~ ) n k s a t

t h e d e a t h o f S t B e r n a r d i n 1 1 5 3 .

D e m o g r a p h i c e x p a n s i o n w a s p a r a l le l e d b y a w i d e s p r e a d c o n c e r n w i th i n t h e

m o n a s t e r i e s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e s s e n ti a l q u a l it y o f th e C i s te r c i a n c h a r i s m . T h e

g r o w t h o f t h e O r d e r i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o m p r e h e n d e x c e p t b y r e f e r e n c e t o a n

a r t i c u l a t e g r o u p o f w r i t e r s w h o e x p r e s s e d a n d p r o p a g a t e d t h e v a l u e s o f t h e

C i s te r c ia n i de a l. B e r n a r d o f C l a ir v a u x ( 1 0 9 0 - 1 1 5 3 ) i s fa m o u s . W i ll i am o f S t -

T h i e r ry ( 1 0 7 5 - 1 1 4 8 ) , G u e r ri c o f I g n y ( 1 0 8 0 - 1 1 5 7 ) a n d A e l r e d o f R i ev a u l x

( 1 1 0 9 - 1 1 6 7 ) a l s o a r e o f g l o b a l im p o r t a n c e . T h e r e w e r e s c o r e s o f o t h e r w r i te r ss u c h a s G i l b e r t o f S w i n e s h e a d ( d. 1 1 7 2 ), B a l d w i n o f F o r d e , l a t e r A r c h b i s h o p

o f C a r i t e r b u r y ( d . 1 1 9 0 ) , J o h n o f F o r d e ( d . 1 2 1 4 ) a n d S t e p h e n o f S a w l e y

( d . 1 2 5 2) w h o h a d a l o c a l f o l l o w i n g i n th e i r li f e t im e s a n d w h o s e w o r k s r e m a i n

p o w e r f u l e v e n to d a y . A m o n g t h e n u n s i t i s B e a t r ic e o f N a z a r e th ( 1 2 0 0 - 1 2 6 8 )

w h o i s m o s t t y p i c a l , a l t h o u g h G e r t r u d e t h e G r e a t ( 1 2 5 6 - 1 3 0 2 ) a n d o t h e r s

f r o m H e l f t a a l s o c a m e w i t h i n t h e C i s t e r c i a n a m b i t . ~ S u c h p e r s o n s o f g r e a t

s p i r i t u a l a n d l i t e r a r y p o w e r n o t o n l y e x p r e s s e d t h e C i s t e r c i a n g r a c e b u t a l s o

c o n t ri b u te d t o it s d e e p e n i n g a n d g r o w t h . A m o n g th e m a n y m o n a s t ic r e f o r m s

o f t h e e l e v e n t h a n d t w e l f t h c e n t u r i es C R e a u x p r e v a i l e d b e c a u s e i t w a s t h e

mos t l i t e ra t e .

C i s t e r c i a n s p i r i t u a l i t y i s n o t , h o w e v e r , t h e e x c l u s i v e d o m a i n o f s u c h

s p i ri tu a l g i a n ts . I t is n o t a p h i l o s o p h y b u t a w a y o f l i f e (conversat io); n o t o n l y

a n e t w o r k o f b e l i e f s a n d v a l u e s b u t a l s o a b o d y o f p r a c t i c e s t h a t s h a p e th e

e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h o s e c o m m i t t e d t o t h i s w a y . T h e l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n o f

C i s t e r ci a n s p i r i t u a li t y is n o t s e l f- s t a n d in g ; i t p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t i t w a s ' f r o m t h e

l i v e s a n d l a b o u r s o f in n u m e r a b l e b r o t h e r s a n d s is t er s t h a t a p o w e r f u l s p i r i tu a l

he r i t age a ro se ' .2I t i s t h i s r e l i a n c e o n t h e c o m m o n a l i t y o f m o n a s t i c e x p e r i e n c e t h a t g i v e s

c o h e s i v e n e s s a n d u n i t y t o t h e d i v e r s e e x p r e s s i o n s o f C i s t er c i a n s p ir it u al it y . 3 I n

t h is w a y t h e b o d y o f w r i t i n g s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e e a r l y c e n tu r i e s c a n b e s e e n b o t h

a s th e u n f o l d i n g o f th e n o r m a t i v e v is i o n o f t h e f o u n d i n g a b b o t s ( R o b e r t o f

M o l e s m e , A l b e ri c a n d S t e p h e n H a r d i n g ) a n d a s t h e e x p r e ss i o n s o f t h e in n e r

m e a n i n g o f t h e d a i ly li f e f o l l o w e d b y s o m a n y m o n k s a n d n u n s t h r o u g h o u t th e

w o r l d a n d i n d i f f e re n t c e n t u r ie s . N o r w a s t h i s ' u n a n i m i t y ' a n a c c i d e n t a l

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74 TRADITIONS OF SPIRITUAL GUIDANCE

o u t c o m e . I t w a s e x p l ic i tl y p r o v i d e d f o r b y t h e t w o f o u n d a t i o n a l d o c u m e n t s o f

the Order , t he E x o r d iu m p a r v u m a n d t h e Ca rta car i ta t is. I n s u b s e q u e n t p e r io d s

o f c o n f u s i o n a n d d e c l i n e t h i s w r i t te n f u n d o f d o c tr i n e p r o v i d e d a r a l l y i n g c a ll

f o r e f f o r ts o f r e n e w a l a n d r e s t o r a ti o n .

W h a t v a l u e s w e r e p a r a m o u n t i n t he e x p e r i e n c e o f C i st e rc i a ns ?

Creat ive f idel i ty

T h e C i s t e r c i a n r e f o r m w a s n e v e r i n t e n d e d a s a c o m p l e t e l y n e w i n i t i a t i v e .

T h e f o u n d e r s u n d e r s t o o d t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e a s a r e t u r n t o a m o r e i n t e g r a l

o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e R u l e o f B e n e d i c t . T h e y l o c a t e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n a n

ex i s t i ng sp i r i t ua l t r ad i t i on . The ex t e rna l p r i o r i t i e s env i saged by t he r e fo rm

w e r e a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d b y t h e R u l e a n d e x p l a i n e d a n d s u p p o r t e d b y f i v e

c e n t u r ie s o f t e a c h i n g . T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h is w a y o f li f e w a s t h e d a i ly s e r v i c e

o f t h e L i t u r g y o f t h e H o u r s , b u t t r e s s e d b y a d i s c i p li n e d e x i s t e n c e t h a t g a v e

s c o p e f o r p r a y e r a n d lec t io d iv ina . I n a d d i ti o n a c e r t a in s t y l e o f c o m m u n i t y

l i v i n g w a s p r e s c r i b e d , w i t h s h a r e d l i v i n g s p a c e a n d a c t i v i t i e s , p r o v i d i n g f o r

s o m e m e a s u r e o f i n t e r a c ti o n a n d r e s p o n s ib i l it y . T o b a l a n c e t h e s p i r it u a l

o b s e r v a n c e s , t h e r e i s r o o m f o r h o s p it a l it y a n d t h e o b l i g a t io n o f r e a l w o r k . T h e

s p i r i t u a l i t y p r o p o u n d e d b y t h e R u l e i s o n e t h a t g i v e s m e a n i n g t o s u c h a l i f e -

s t y l e . T h e s p i r i t u a l i t y a n d t h e l i f e - s t y l e c a n n o t b e v i e w e d i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m

each o the r .

F r o m t h e s i xt h to t h e te n t h c e n tu r ie s w e s t e rn m o n a s t i c i s m b e c a m e m o r e

l e a r n e d . R e s p o n d i n g t o S t B e n e d i c t ' s c a l l t o w i d e r r e a d i n g a s a m e a n s o f

b r o a d e n i n g a n d d e e p e n i n g th e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o n a s t i c v a l u e s , B e n e d i c -

t in e m o n a s t e r i e s d e v e l o p e d i m p r e s s i v e li b r a ri e s a n d t h e l e v e l o f li t e ra c y

a m o n g t h e m o n k s r o s e . A s a r e s u lt , t h e re w a s a w i d e r a c c e s s to th e g r e a t w o r k s

o f t h e p a t r is t ic e r a , a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e o l o g i c a l e n r i c h m e n t o f th e m o n a s t i c

t ra d i ti o n f o l l o w e d n a t u ra l ly . B y t h e t i m e o f th e C i s te r c i a n r e f o r m s u c h w o r k s

a s G r e g o r y t h e G r e a t ' s M o r a l i a r a n k e d w i t h t h e S c r i p t u r e s a n d t h e l it u r g ic a l

b o o k s a s n o r m a l m o n a s t i c r e ad i ng . T h e s o - c a l l e d D a r k A g e s w i tn e s s e d a r e al

d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o c tr in e a s f a r a s m o n a s t i c i s m w a s c o n c e r n e d .

A l l t h i s p o s i t i v e e v o l u t i o n t h e C i s t e r c i a n s g l a d l y m a d e t h e i r o w n . I t w a s

a g a i n s t th e p e r c e i v e d l a x i t y o f m a n y o f th e e x i s t in g m o n a s t i c f a m i l ie s t h a t

t h e y r e a c t e d .

O n e r e a s o n f o r th e l o n g e v i t y o f t h e R u l e o f B e n e d i c t w a s i ts a d a p t a b i l it y to

l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B e n e d i c t i s f a m o u s f o r h i s r e a s o n a b l e n e s s , d i s c e r n m e n t

a n d m o d e r a t i o n . S u c h b r o a d n e s s , h o w e v e r , c a n p r o v i d e a n o c c a s i o n f o r

d e c l in e , e i t h e r w h e n t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a l o c a l c o m m u n i t y a r e i n su f f ic i e n t t o

r e s is t d e s t ru c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p ( a s in t h e c a s e o f A b b o t P o n s o f C l u n y ) o r w h e n a

g e n e r a l s l a c k e n i n g o f s t a n d a r d s s e t s in . S t a b l e c o m m u n i t i e s c a n e a s i l y b e c o m e

du l l ed b y rou t i ne ; an d i t is j u s t a s e asy t o i n s t it u t i ona l i ze ba d hab i t s a s good .

T h e c h a l l e n g e o f in t e g r a l B e n e d i c t i n e o b s e r v a n c e i s s u c h t h a t it te n d s t o

d e m a n d m o r e t h an a m e d i a n d e g r e e o f f e rv o u r . ' M o d e r a t i o n ' e a s i l y b e c o m e s

m e d i o c r i t y a n d i n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n a u t o n o m o u s B e n e d i c t i n e c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e

o n l y l im i t e d p o s s i b i li t ie s o f r e v e r s i n g t h e t re n d . T h i s i s w h y m a n y o f t h e g r e a t

m o m e n t s i n B e n e d i c t i n e h i s t o r y a re li n k e d w i t h t h e u p h e a v a l o f r e f o r m .

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T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R IT U A L G U I D A N C E 7 5

R o b e r t , A l b e r i c a n d S t e p h e n , t h e f i r s t a b b o t s o f C R e a u x , s a w a s t h e i r f i r s t

p r i o r i t y a r e t u r n t o t h e ' p u r i t y ' o f t h e R u l e ' s o b s e r v a n c e . T h i s t h e y d i d b y

t r i m m i n g a w a y t h e c u s t o m a r y c o n c e s s i o n s a n d m i t i g a t i o n s t h a t h i n d e r e d

m o n a s t ic o b s e r v a n c e f r o m g e n e r a ti n g e n e r g y . I n t he f o r e f r o n t o f t h e ir m i n d s

w a s t h e d e s i r e t o b e f a i t h f u l t o B e n e d i c t ' s v i s i o n . B u t s o m e t h i n g e l s e w a s

o p e r a t in g o f w h i c h t h e y m a y h a v e b e e n u n a w a r e . W i th t h e b e n e f it o f h in d s i g h t

w e a r e a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t w h a t m a d e t h e C i s t e r c i a n i n i t i a t i v e s o e x c i t i n g

w a s t h a t i t w a s r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e ' s ig n s o f t h e t im e s ' . T h e r e w a s n o q u e s t io n o f

n e o - p ri m i ti v is m . W h a t t h e y p r o p o s e d w a s a t h o r o u g h ly ' m o d e m ' v e r s io n o f

B e n e d i c t in e m o n a s t ic i s m . T h e y r e r e a d t h e R u l e i n th e l ig h t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y

a s p ir a ti o n s. T h e r e f o r m s th e y p r o p a g a t e d w e r e ' n o v e l ' , a s p r o t a g o n i st s a m o n g

t h e B l a c k M o n k s c o m p l a i n e d , i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y d e p a r t e d f r o m c o n v e n -t i o n a l u s a g e a n d p r o v i d e d m e n o f t h e tw e l f t h c e n t u r y w i t h a l i f e - s ty l e t h a t d id

f o r t h e m w h a t B e n e d i c t ' s R u l e h a d d o n e f o r t h e ir f o r e b e a r s in t h e s i x th .

T h e r e f o r m o f 1 0 9 8 h a d a n o t h e r t w i s t . A s i t s c o n c e p t t o o k r o o t a n d

a d h e r e n t s m u l t ip l i ed , p r e c a u t i o n s b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o e n s u r e t h a t it s s p e c i fi c

o b s e r v a n c e s w e r e n o t w a t e r e d d o w n . E a c h m o n a s t e r y re t a in e d a s u p e r v i so r y

r o l e o v e r a ll th e m o n a s t e r i e s i t f o u n d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t fi d e li ty d i d n o t w a n e . T o

s u p p l e m e n t th i s t h e r e w a s t o b e a n a n n u a l c h a p t e r u n d e r t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f th e

A b b o t o f C ~ te au x t o e n s u r e t h a t a ll ' l i v e d u n d e r t h e o n e r u l e a n d i n t h e p r a c t i c e

o f t h e s a m e u s a g e s ' . 4 I n t h e i n e v i t a b l e f l u c tu a t io n o f f e rv o u r , a b b e y s w e r e t o

s u p p o r t o n e a n o t h e r in s u c h a w a y t h a t th e d y n a m i s m o f t h e r e f o r m w a s n o t

l o st . C h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s w e r e a d d e d t o e n s u r e th a t lo c a l a u t o n o m y r e m a i n e d

a n a g e n t o f fr u i tf u l a d a p t a t i o n a n d n o t t h e c a u s e o f u n n o t i c e d d e c l in e .

AusterityT h e m o s t o b v i o u s c h a r a c t e r i st i c o f C i s t e r c i an l i f e, in t h e b e g i n n i n g , a s n o w ,

and w he reve r i t s i n t eg r i t y su rv ive s , i s i t s r e l a t i ve s impl i c i t y and aus t e r i t y .

Sho r t l y a f t e r 1135 , O rde r i cus V i t a l i s de sc r ibed the d i s t i nc t i ve fea tu re s o f t he

r e f o r m a s i t a p p e a r e d t o a n o u t s i d e r:

A l l g o w i t h o u t t r o u s e r s a n d l a m b s k i n s . T h e y a b s t a i n f r o m t h e e a ti n g o f

f a t a n d m e a t . . . T h e y h a v e a c a r e f o r s i le n c e al l t he ti m e a n d w e a r n o

d y e d c l o t h i n g . T h e y w o r k w i t h t h e i r o w n h a n d s t o p r o v i d e f o o d a n d

c l o t h i n g f o r t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y f a s t f r o m 1 3 S e p t e m b e r u n t i l E a s t e r ,

e x c e p t o n S u n d a y s . T h e y b a r t h e i r e n t r a n c e s a n d a l l o w n o a c c e s s t o t h e

i nt er io r [ o f t h e m o n a s t e r y ] . . . B y t h e ir o w n w o r k t h ey h a v e f o u n d e d

m o n a s t e r i e s i n d e s e r t s a n d w o o d e d p l a c e s . 5

I t i s a f a c t , e v i d e n t i n t h e p r i m i t i v e d o c u m e n t s , t h a t t h e e a r l y C i s t e r c i a n s

f i rs t d e f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s b y w h a t t h e y r e j e c te d . I n t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o l i v e

t h e R u l e l i te r a ll y , th e p i o n e e r s p e r m i t te d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e c o m e f a m o u s f o r th e

' u n u s u a l a n d a l m o s t u n h e a r d - o f h a r sh n e s s o f t h e ir l if e '. 6 A t a t im e w h e n m a n y

p e o p l e w e r e l i v i n g r o u g h i n p r e v i o u s l y u n s e t t l e d f r o n t i e r s , t h e C i s t e r c i a n

a d v e n t u r e p r o b a b l y a p p e a r e d f a r m o r e a t t ra c t iv e t h a n t h e s t o d g y r o u ti n e s o f

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7 6 " T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E

t h e l a r g e , e s t a b l i s h e d m o n a s t e r i e s . S u p e r f l u i t y w a s t r i m m e d t o t h e b o n e a n d

t h e r e s u l t w a s a l i fe t h a t h a d a s h a r p f o c u s a n d a c l e a r s e n s e o f p u r p o s e . N o t

s u r p ri s in g l y , m o r a l e w a s h i g h a n d r e c r u i t m e n t w a s e a sy .

E a r l y C ~ t ea u x w a s d e s i g n e d f o r t h e y o u n g a n d f e r v e n t. A s m o n a s t e r i e s g r e w

a n d p a s t o r al c a r e h a d t o a d a p t t o n e w s it u at io n s , s o m e o f t h e e a r ly e x t r e m i s m

w a s m o d i f i e d - e s p e c i a l l y a ft e r th e d e a th o f S te p h e n H a r d i n g i n 1 1 34 .

D e t a i l e d p r e s c r i p t i o n a n d c l o s e m o n i t o r i n g p r o v e d i m p o s s i b l e i n a c o m p l e x

i n t e r n a t io n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d , i n e v i t a b l y , t h e p a s t o r a l c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d i n t h e

e a r l y d a y s q u i c k l y b e c a m e i m p r a c t i c a b le . G r a d u a l l y , l i k e ri s in g d a m p , p a t c h e s

o f d e c li n e b e g a n t o a p p e a r a s m o n a s t e r i e s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s f o r c e d t o r e s p o n d

t o n e w d e m a n d s w i th i n su f f ic i e n t r e s o u rc e s . T h e ' G o l d e n A g e ' w a s o v er .

S i m p l i c i t y t h a t b o r d e r e d o n t h e e x t r e m e w a s c o n s i d e r e d s o e s s e n t i a l t h a t , i n

t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n i n t e rp o l a t o r a d d e d a p h r a se t o t h e R o m a n P r i v i le g e

o f 1 1 0 0 t o m a k e t h e p r o t e c t io n o f t h e A p o s t o l i c S e e s e e m t o b e d e p e n d e n t o n

t h e ' c o n t i n u e d o b s e r v a n c e o f d i s c ip l i n e a n d f r u g a l i t y ' . 7 E v e n t o d a y , w h e n

l i v i n g s ta n d a r d s h a v e n e v e r b e e n h i g h e r , a v e r y s i m p l e l i f e - s t y le i s a n e f f e c t i v e

g a u g e o f C i s te r c ia n a u th e n ti c it y . N e g a t i v e v a l u e s a r e h a r d t o m a r k e t a n d e a s y

t o i g n o r e , b u t t h e C i s t e r c i a n c h a r i s m c a n n o t e x i s t w i t h o u t t h e m : s i le n c e ,

s e p a r a ti o n f r o m s e c u l a r p ur s u it s a n d m a s s m e d i a , a h u m b l e e c o n o m y b a s e d o n

t h e m o n k s ' w o r k , t h e a v o i d a n c e o f i n d u l g e n c e a n d d i s p l a y i n b u i ld i n g s a n d

l i tu r g y , a c e r t a i n a b s t e m i o u s n e s s i n f o o d , c l o t h i n g , f u r n i s h i n g s a n d e q u i p m e n t .A u s t e r i t y i s n o t th e o n l y v a l u e - a n d t h e re i s a l w a y s t h e d a n g e r o f c o n f u s i n g

m e a n s a n d e n d s - b u t a li f e t h a t h a s n o b i t e is n o t C i s te r c i a n .

Experience

T h e t w e l f th c e n t u r y w a s a ti m e i n w h i c h e m e r g e d a n i n c r e a s e d a p p r e c i a t io n

o f s e l f h o o d , s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d e x p e r i e n c e . 8 T h e e m p h a s i s o n s u b j e c t i v e d i s p o s i -

t io n s a l r e a d y f o u n d i n t h e R u l e o f B e n e d i c t d e v e l o p e d i n t o a k e e n i n te r e st i n

t h e i n n e r f a c e o f m o n a s t i c o b s e r v a n c e s . M o n a s t i c l i fe m o v e d a w a y f r o m t h e

i d e a t h a t t h e m o n k ' s t a s k w a s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f c e r t a i n d u t ie s o r s e r v i c e s t oc o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n t h e q u a l i ty o f h is e x p e ri e n c e . O b j e c t i v e o b s e r v a n c e s w e r e

s e e n t o h a v e a s th e i r g o a l s u b j e ct i v e f o r m a t i o n . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f p r e s c r ib e d

a c ts f u n c t i o n e d t o p r o m o t e t h e g r o w t h o f p e r s o n s t o f u l le r h u m a n i t y .

I t w a s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e C i s t e r c i a n a u t h o r s i n s i s t e d o n t h e a n t h r o p o -

l o g i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f sp ir it ua li ty . A k n o w l e d g e o f G o d w a s n o t e n o u g h . I t w a s

n e c e s s a r y a l s o t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e n a t u r e , p o t e n t i a l a n d l i m i t a t io n s o f th e

r e c ip i e n ts o f g r a c e . Ju s t a s s e l f - k n o w l e d g e w a s n e c e s s a r y f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s

a u t h e n ti c p r o g r e s s , s o p a st o r s n e e d e d t o b e a w a r e o f th e i n n e r d e t e r m i n a n ts o f

h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . S o m e w r i t er s e v e n d a b b l e d i n m e d i c a l s c i e n c e t o g r o u n d

t h e m s e l v e s i n r e al it y . 9 I t is t h is c o n c e r n f o r t h e h u m a n a s p e c t s o f t h e o l o g y t h a t

g i v es t o C i s t e r c i an l i t e r a t u re i t s d i s t i n c t i v e f ee l .

F r o m t h ei r c o n s i d e r a ti o n o f h u m a n b e i n g s a s c re a t e d i n t h e i m a g e a n d

l i k e n e s s o f G o d , t h e C i s t e rc i a n s d e v e l o p e d a s p ir i tu a l i ty b a s e d o n d e s i r e f o r

G o d . m T h e y s aw , a s p a r a l le l t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e C h u r c h a n d o b j e c t iv e

r e v e l a t i o n , a n i n n a t e s e n s e o f G o d t h a t g u i d e s, e n e r g i z e s a n d s u s t a i n s u s in o u r

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T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E 77

seeking of the transcendent. Religion was not seen as a matter of external

certainties, but of fidelity to inward grace. The search for God was understood

to coincide with the deepest aspirations of the heart; it was human fulfilmentand not alienation.

This fundamental optimism was a source of courage in accepting as normal

the alterations in experience that mark human progress. Everyone goes

through phases of negativity and it is during these periods that encouragement

is needed most. One of the characteristics of Cistercian writing was its

willingness to identify and describe the obstacles to growth - often with a

certain amount of humour - and to suggest means of avoiding them. It is this

pragmatic and phenomenological approach which gives these texts a down-to-

earth quality which makes them pleasant to read and endows them with acertain timelessness.

Affectivity

The twelfth century was, likewise, an era in which love was seen as the

primary goal of human existence. 11 It was the age o f the love-lyric and of a

revival of Ovid. Chr4tien de Troyes was a neighbour of Bernard of Clairvaux.

The theme of love is one that predominates in all the Cistercian authors of the

twelfth and thirteenth centuries and the Song of Songs was their devouringinterest. When Bernard spoke to the already mature recruits to monastic life,

he described the spiritual journey in terms that resonated with their own

experience. It was a pursuit of love, a response to love, a forgetfulness of self

in order to make room for love.

Yet the Cistercians did more than celebrate love. They also instructed their

monks about how to install love as a principle of governance in their lives,

how to let love grow to assume its natural proportions, how to implement

love's dictates in the details of daily life. In his youth Bernard wrote On the

necessity of loving God, and at the end of his life the same theme dominated

his thoughts. William of St-Thierry was the author of The nature and dignity

of love and Aelred' s best-known works are The mirror of charity and Spiritual

friendship. These are lyrical works but they are also the products of theologi-

cal reflection and o f practical experience. The Cistercian phenomenon

revolves around the psychology and theology of love.

Love expressed itself most naturally for the Cistercians in their community

life. Monasteries were regarded as 'schools of love' and there was a strong

affective tone in everything that concerned community life.~2 Within com-

munities and between communities charity was the goal proposed, with no

divorce envisaged between love of God and of the brothers. Whatever

problems occurred, love remained the ideal.

This is very clear in the treatise o f Beaffice of Nazareth, The seven modes of

love. A century after St Bernard she translates this typical Cistercian emphasis

into a language and form that suits her own situation. Like her predecessors

the dominant thought and leitmotiv of her life is Minne.

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7 8 T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E

L o v e h a s d r a w n h e r a n d l e d h e r

a n d t a u g h t h e r t h e w a y s s h e h a s f a i t h f u l l y f o l l o w e d .

O f t e n i n g r e a t l a b o u r a n d i n m a n y a c t iv i ti e s,

m g r e a t i n f i r m i t y a n d i n s t r o n g d e s i r e ,

a n f r e q u e n t i m p a t i e n c e a n d i n g r e a t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n ,

a n a d v e r s i t y a n d i n p r o s p e r i t y ,

i n la c k i n g a n d i n h a v i n g ,

m c l im b i n g a n d i n h a n g i n g s u sp e n d e d ,

a n f o l l o w i n g a n d i n S t r i v i n g ,

a n n e e d a n d a n x i e t y ,

i n f e a r a n d c o n c e r n ,

m g r e a t f a i th f u l n e s s a n d i n m a n y u n f a i th f u l n e s s e s,i n p l e a s u r e a n d i n p a i n ,

i s s he r e a dy t o s u f f e r .

I n d e a t h a n d i n li fe s h e c o m m i t s h e r s e l f t o lo v e . x3

T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t t h e f ir st C is t e rc i a n s w e r e m e n a n d w o m e n i n lo v e

w i t h l o v e .

Myst icism

S p i r it u a l e x p e r i e n c e - w i t h a s tr o n g a f f e c t iv e c o m p o n e n t - i s t h e e n g i n e th a t

d r i v e s C i s te r c ia n s f o r w a r d . I t is b e c a u s e o f s o m e s o r t o f e x p e r i e n c e t h a t y o u n g

m e n t u r n e d t h e ir b a c k s o n w o r l d l y p l e a s u r e s a n d e n t e r e d t h e m o n a s t e r y . 14 A s

t h e y e a r s p a s s , i t i s j u s t a s n e c e s s a r y th a t t h e r e b e a n i n t e r i o r c o u n t e r p o i s e t o

t h e n e g a t i v i t y o f a s c e t i c i sm a n d a u s t e r i ty t h a t r e n d e r s t h e m t o le r a b le , a n d

p e r m i t s t h e m o n k t o p e r s e v e r e a n d ' b e c o n t e n t i n a l i f e t h a t i s o r d i n a r y ,

o b s c u r e a n d l a b o r i o u s ' , a5 U n l e s s t h e i n s ti n c t f o r G o d i s f e d a n d f o s te r e d , t h e

f o c u s o f th e l i fe b e c o m e s f u z z y a n d C i s te r c i a n s p e c if ic i ty i s lo s t.

C i s t e rc i a n m y s t i c i s m i s t h e u n s e e n c o n c o m i t a n t o f e x t e rn a l conversatio. I t

b e g i n s l o n g b e f o r e e n t r y w i t h a n e x t e r n a l d e v o t i o n a n d a s e n t i m e n t a l a t t a c h -m e n t t o t h e p e r s o n o f C h r is t. T h i s l e a d s , p e rh a p s , t o a n a w a k e n i n g o f th e

s p i r i t ua l s e ns e (compunctio) a n d t h e n c e t o c o n v e r s i o n . T h u s d e s i r e i s e n g e n -

d e r e d . W i t h t h e a s s e n t o f t h e w i ll , th i s b e c o m e s a s e e k i n g o f G o d w h i c h

g r a d u a l l y a s s u m e s t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i ty . I t i s a b o u t t h is t i m e t h a t m o n a s t i c l if e is

e m b r a c e d . T h e s t e a d f a s tn e s s o f s u c h r e so l v e is d e e p e n e d b y v i c i s s it u d e , a n d

i t s s e l f - s e r v i n g e l e m e n t s a r e p a t i e n t l y l e a c h e d a w a y . T h e W o r d v i s i t s t h e s o u l

a n d t h e re i s, o c c a s i o n a l l y , a b r i e f b u t l i f e - g i v i n g e n c o u n t e r t h a t h a s t h e e f f e c t

o f in t e n s i f y i n g d e s i re . I t is a s th i s p o i n t t h at t h e m o n k b e g i n s t o m o v e t o w a r d s

s i n g le n e s s o f h e a r t; t h e r e i s a c o n f o r m i t y o f h is w i ll w i th G o d ' s t h a t le a d s t o

s p i r i t u a l m a r r i a g e , unitas spiritus, a n d e c st as y . B y G o d ' s g i ft h e a v e n s e e m s

v e r y c l o s e .

S u c h a n i ti n e r a r y is n e v e r f a r f r o m t h e m i n d o f B e r n a r d a n d h i s f ri e n d s.

T h e i r v i e w o f m o n a s t i c l i fe is t h o r o u g h l y m y s t ic a l . I t m a k e s n o s e n s e u n l e s s i t

l e a d s t o c o n t e m p l a t i o n . H e r e t w o p r o v i s o s a r e i n o rd e r. T h e m y s t i c a l t e a c h i n g

o f t h e C i s t e rc i a n s w a s a l w a y s b i b li c a l; i t f lo w e d f r o m a n i n t e r p r e ta t io n o f

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TRADITIONS OF SPIRITUAL GUIDANCE 79

scriptural texts and strictly maint ain ed itse lf within their limits. 16 Secondly, it

was not concerned with the extraordinary or parapsychologicai. It was a

profoundly ethical mysticism, with its feet on the ground and its guarantee

sought in daily behav iour. ~7 Spiritua l exper ience was not reserved for the

advanced; its modalities suited persons at every stage of the ascent to God.

The anecdotal history of Herbert of Clair vaux illustrates this beautifully: the

monk is open to be touched by God whether he is chanting the psalms, or

engaged in private prayer; when he is sick or oppressed by lab our or disgusted

by monastic cook ing or even on the br ink of desertion, is To these mo nks it

seemed that heaven and earth interpenetrated in the p a r a d i s u s c l a u s t r a l i s ; no

wonde r Bernard warned his com mun ity that there were angels lurking behi nd

every corner. 19 Wha t today strikes us as un usual is the fact that my sticalexperience seems almost to have been taken for granted: the monastery was

really believed to be a school of contemplation.

S u m m a r y

The Cistercian way is grounded o n the Rule of Benedict a nd Latin tradition.

Cistercian spirituality involves material observance of the great precepts of

the Rule, with sensitivity to the needs a nd aspirations of our own times an d

with some protection against degeneration. The Cistercian way is austere,

because this is the only means b y which consc iousnes s can be purified for thedeep experience of love an d contemplation , but it is a spirituality of op timism

an d light: biblical, experi ential and affective. It has a strong eschatological

character, but mean while, its external roughness is ba lanced by greater inner

sweetness.

NOTES

For a survey which lists the most significantwriters in the Cistercian tradition see Edmund

Mikkers, 'Robert de Molesme' in D i c t i o n n a i r e d e S p i r i t u a l i t ~ X lII (1987), cols 736-814. See alsoAlberic Altermatt, 'The Cistercian patrimony: introduction to the most. important historical,

juridical and spiritualdocuments',C i s t e r c i a n S t u d i e s [ Q u a r t e r l y ] 25 (1990), pp 287-328. Fromthe beginning until 1800, some 3,000 writers are listed in E. Broutette, A. Dimier and

E. Manning (eds), D i c t i o n n a i r e d e s a u t e u r s c i s t e r c i e n s (Rochefort: La DocumentationCister-cienne, 1975-79). See also the unpublishednotes of Vincent Hermans,Spir i tual i t~ de CPteaux

(Rome, 1954-);M. Casey, Cistercianspirituality' n Michael Downey (ed),T h e n e w d i c t i o n a r y o f

C a t h o l i c s p i r i tu a l i t y (Collegeville:LiturgicalPress, 1993), pp 173-182.

z This phrase is lifted from T h e C o n s t it u ti o n s a n d S t a t u t es o f t h e m o n k s a n d n u n s o f t h e

C i s t e r c i a n O r d e r o f t h e S t r ic t O b s e r v a n c e (Rome, 1990), Preface, 1.

3 'Cistercianspiritualityduring the twelfth and thirteen centuries s remarkable for the coherenceof its doctrine and for the inner unity of the theory and practice of monastic life. This can beverified in the major authors who, while maintaining their personal vision of monastic life,

manifest this profound unity in their works. Such unity was nourished by a common life ofmonastic and liturgical observances, by the teaching of holy Scripture and the Fathers of the

Church and the Monast~ Fathers.' Translatedfrom Mikkers,op . t i t . , col 766.4 Car ta car i ta t i s 3.2.

/

5 H i s t o r i a e c c l e s i a s ti c a Part 3, Book 8, Chapter 25; PL 188.641c. There is an English translationby Marjorie Chibnall published by OUP in 1973; the section about the Cistercians is on

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8 0 T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E

p p 3 1 2 - 3 2 7 . F o r b a c k g r o u n d s e e M a r j o r i e C h i b n a ll , T h e w o r l d o f O r d e r i c V ita lis : N o r m a n m o n k s

a n d N o r m a n k n i g h t s ( W o o d b r i d g e : B o y d e l l , 1 9 9 6 ).

6 E x o r d iu m p a r v u m 16.4.

7 S e e C h r y s o g o n u s W a d d e l l , ' P r e l u d e t o a f e a s t o f f re e d o m : n o t e s o n t h e R o m a n P r i v il e g eD e s i d e r iu m q u o d o f O c t o b e r 1 9 , 1 1 0 0 ' , C f t e a u x 3 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p 2 4 7 - 3 0 3 .

8 C o l i n M o r r i s, T h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l: 1 0 5 0 - 1 2 0 0 ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o

P r e s s , r p 1 9 8 7 ); C a r o l i n e W a l k e r B y n u m , ' D i d t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y d i s c o v e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l ? ' i n

J e s u s a s m o t h e r : s t u d i e s i n t h e s p i r i t u a li t y o f t h e H i g h M i d d l e A g e s ( B e r k e le y : U n i v e r s i t y o f

C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p p 8 2 - 1 0 9 ; J o h n E B e n t o n , ' C o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s e l f a n d p e r c e p t i o n s o f

i n d i v i d u a l i t y ' i n R o b e r t L . B e n s o n e t a l . , R e n a i s s a n c e a n d r e n e w a l i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y

( T o r o n to : U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o P r e s s , rp 1 9 9 1 ), p p 2 6 3 - 2 9 5 ; U l r i c h K r p f , R e l ig i O s e E r f a h r u n g

i n d e r T h e o l o g i c B e r n h a r d s y o n C l a i r v a u x ( T t i b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r , 1 9 8 0 ) ; C h a r l e s D u m o n t ,

' L ' e x p r r i e n c e d a n s l a d i s c i p l i n e c i s t e r c i e n n e ' i n S a g esse a rd en te : ? t l ' g eo le c i s t e rc ien n e d e

l ' a m o u r d a n s l a t r a d i t i o n b i n d d i c t i n e (Oka : P a in de C ~ teanx , 1995 ) , pp 77 -82 .

9 ' A n y t h e o r y o f m a n ' s a b i l it y to e x p e r i e n c e G o d w h i c h a b s t ra c t s f r o m t h e b e s t c o n t e m p o r a r y

i n s i g h t in t o t h e n a t u r e o f m a n ' s p h y s i c a l s i tu a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d d o e s s o a t i ts o w n p e r i l . ' B e m a r d

M c G i n n ( e d ) , T h r e e t r e a t i s e s o n m a n : a C i s t e r c i a n a n t h r o p o l o g y ( K a l a m a z o o : C i s t e r c i a n

P ub l i ca t ions , 1977 ) , p 30 .

, o S e e M . C a s e y , A t h i r s t o r G o d : s p i r i t u a l d e s i r e in B e r n a r d o f C l a i r v a u x 's s e r m o n s o n t h e S o n g

o f S o n g s ( K a l a m a z o o : C i s t e r c i a n P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 77 ) ; L o d e v a n H e k e , L e d g s i r c la n s l ' e xp ~ r ien ce

re l ig ieu se : l ' h o m m e rd u n if id : re l ec tu re d e S a in t Be rn a rd (P a r i s : C er f , 1990 ) .

t x S e e J e a n L e c l e r c q , M o n k s a n d l o v e i n t w e l f t h c e n t u r y F r a n c e ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 ) ;

J o h n C . M o o r e , L o v e i n t w e l f t h c e n t u r y F r a n c e ( P h i l a d e lp h i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s ,

1972).

12 S e e C a r o l i n e B y n u m , ' T h e C i s te r c ia n c o n c e p t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y ' , op. cit . , p p 5 9 - 8 1 . ' T h u s ac o m p a r i s o n o f C i s t e r c i a n s e r m o n s a n d w o r k s o f a d v i c e w i t h t r e a ti s e s b y t h e i r c l o i s te r e d

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s u n d e r l i n e s t h e C i s t e r c i a n s ' a f f e c t i v e i n t e n s i t y b y s h o w i n g i t s c o n t e x t . I n c o n t r a s t

t o b l a c k m o n k s o f t h e e l e v e n t h a n d t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s , C i s t e r c i a n s e x p a n d t h e a t t e n t i o n p a i d t O

i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t io n s . I n c o n t r a s t to b l a c k m o n k s a n d r e g u l a r c a n o n s , t h e y i n t r o d u c e a p a s s i o n a t e

c o n c e r n f o r e m o t i o n a l c h a n g e . . . R e c e n t h i s t o ri o g r a p h y h a s a g r e e d t h at t h e a ff e c ti v e s p ir it u a li ty

o f t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y C i s t e r c i a n s i s s o m e t h i n g n e w , w h a t e v e r p r e c u r s o r s a n d r o o t s i t h a s i n w r i t i n g s

o f A n s e l m a n d o t h e r e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y f i g u r e s ' ( p 8 0 ) . S e e M . C a s e y , ' T h e d i a l e c t ic o f s o l i t u d e

a n d c o m m u n i o n i n C i s te r c ia n c o m m u n i t i e s ', C S Q 2 1 . 4 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , p p 2 7 3 - 3 0 9 ; ' I n c o m m u n i v i t a

f r a t r u m : S t B e r n a r d ' s t e a c h i n g o n c e n o b i t i c s o l i t u d e ' , A n a l e c t a C i s t e r c i e n s i a 46 (1990 ) ,

p p 2 4 3 - 2 6 1 .t~ L i n e s 5 2 8 - 5 4 3 . M . C a s e y ( t r an s ), ' B e a t r ic e o f N a z a re t h : t h e S e v e n M o d e s o f L o v e ' , T j u r u n g a

50 (1996 ) , p 82 .

~4 A s B e r n a r d n o t e s i n A d v 3 . 3: ' I f y o u h a v e n o k n o w l e d g e o f G o d , w h o i s i t t h a t l e d y o u h e r e ?

H o w i s it th a t y o u h a v e c o m e t o t h is p la c e ? H o w e l se i s i t t h a t y o u h a v e b e e n p e r s u a d e d to

r e n o u n c e , o f y o u r o w n f r e e w i l l, t h e a f f e c t i o n o f y o u r f r i e n d s , th e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e b o d y a n d t h e

v a n i t ie s o f t h e w o r l d ? '

15 C ons t i tu t io n 3 .5 .

16 S e e M . C a s e y , ' B e r n a r d ' s b ib l ic a l m y s t i c i s m : a p p r o a c h i n g s e r m o n o n t h e S o n g o f S o n g s 7 4 ' ,

S tu d ies in S p i r i tu a l i t y 4 ( 1 9 9 4 ) , p p 1 2 - 3 0 .

17 S e e M . C a s e y , ' I n p u r s u i t o f e c s ta s y : r e f le c t i o n s o n B e r n a r d o f C l a i r v a u x ' s D e d i l i g e n d o d e i ' ,

M o n a s t i c S t u d ie s 1 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p p 1 3 9 - 1 5 6 .

i s S e e M . C a s e y , ' H e r b e r t o f C l a i r v a n x ' s B o o k o f w o n d e r f u l h a p p e n in g s ' , C S Q 25 .1 (1990 ) ,

p p 3 7 ~ 6 4 .

19 Qui habi ta t 1 2 : 6 - 8 ; S B O p 4 : 4 6 0 - 4 6 2 .

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