360º360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON

360 DEGREESTHE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMONAlaska’s rich watersheds create an ideal home for wild salmon. The land

is laced with small springs and streams that feed rivers pouring into

pristine saltwater bays. Alaska is a place where salmon can thrive. The life

cycle of the wild salmon is interwoven with all of nature in Alaska. Salmon

carcasses are essential to the health of the land as pristine watershed con-

ditions are to salmon. Alaskans cherish and honor the wild salmon and is

woven into the lifeblood of Alaskans. Alaska is the last great stronghold for

healthy stocks of wild Pacific salmon and we are responsible for sustaining

this priceless resource.

051719770624

360 DEGREESTHE L IFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON

360º360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON

Compiled and Designed by Bianca Frank

360º

360 DEGREESTHE L IFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON

360º

360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON

Book design copyright © 2010 by Bianca Frank

Published by Bianca Frank for course number GR330,

Typography 3, instructor Carolina de Bartolo

Fall 2010 at Academy of Art University, San Francisco, CA.

Bound at The Key, Oakland, CA. All rights reserved.

DEDICATION

DEDICATION

For all the moments through this journey I’ve been on, I’d like to dedicate

this book to the people in my life that have supported me fully along the

entire way.

To all my beautiful nieces and nephews Sierra, Olivia, Isaiah, Nadia, Rosie,

David, Tony, Eve, Paul, and Isabella. You give me inspiration to keep on

pursuing my dreams. I hope you all know if Aggie can do this, you can too!

My son Henry, for his constant understanding and encouragement. Hearing

you tell your friends “my mom’s an artist” makes me feel like one.

And most importantly, my mom, for giving me the quiet, unassuming help

that I need. And knowing how important this challenge has been for me and

supporting me all of the way.

I love you all.

DEDICATION

EVERYONE SHARES THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE MOST MAGNIFICENT

HAS A FRIEND. SALMON NEED OF ALL OF US.

OF ALL SPECIES IN ALASKA

CONTENTS

INTR

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ii

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HIST

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1ii 2 3 4

CONTENTS

FARM

ED VS

. WILD

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COMM

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HATC

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PURE

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URE F

ISH

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PART

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ONSE

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GLOS

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OF T

ERMS

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5 7 8 vii6

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Everyone throughout the United States knows salmon; but people living at

far inland or even as far along the Atlantic Coast do not know salmon as

the people of the Pacific states know it. It’s as if they are magical as they

have accomplished and provided great things with their bodies. They are

survivors of the Ice Age and have weathered many storms of nature and still

continued to thrive. They are a saltwater fish which spawns in fresh water.

The Columbia River and the Puget sound country are especially noted for

their fine salmon, and of course, Alaska.

Alaskan’s cherish and honor the wild salmon. Whether drying on the racks

of fish camp on the Yukon River, dancing on the end of an angler’s line, or

flash frozen inside a fish processing plant, salmon are everywhere. From

bulging salmon recipe collections on the kitchen counter, to T-shirts, jewel-

ry, paintings and sculpture, salmon are part of Alaska’s daily life. Heralded

in songs and dances, Native totems and icons, festivals and celebrations,

the wild salmon is woven into the lifeblood of Alaskans.

INTRODUCTION

To cooks, gourmets, and fishermen alike, the salmon is the king of the all

waters. The distinctive color of the flesh of a salmon is part of its attrac-

tion. It can vary from a very delicate pale pink to a much deeper shade,

verging on red. In the Northwest, because of the various ethnic and cultural

backgrounds, you can find salmon smoked hard in the Indian tradition and

salmon smoked light in the Scottish tradition. It can also be as simple as a

barbecued salmon dotted with butter and lemon.

The Indian tribes of the Northwest look upon salmon with a great reverence

and have special rituals and legends for the yearly salmon run. They look

upon the salmon as life, as the salmon has nourished them physically and

spiritually since the days when people first came to this region. They would

migrate to the Columbia River each year during the spring and fall spawn-

ing season, when the salmon hurled themselves upstream from the Pacific

Ocean to lay their eggs. During that time, the Columbia River was so thick

with the countless salmon that the Indians simply speared or clubbed them

to death from their canoes or from the river banks. What the Indians did

not eat fresh, they would air-dry in the river winds to create a dried jerky.

Commercial fishing for salmon began shortly after the arrival of Europeans

on the West Coast. The Hudson’s Bay Company shipped salted salmon from

Fort Langley to the Hawaiian Islands starting in 1835, and the first salmon

cannery opened in 1876. By the turn of the century, up to 70 canneries were

operational. The first gillnet fishing on the Columbia took place in the mid

1850’s even before the states of Washington and Oregon were founded, and

before the Indian treaties were initially signed.

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Alaska’s rich watersheds create an ideal home for wild salmon. The land is

laced with small springs and streams that feed rivers pouring into pristine

saltwater bays. Alaska is a place where salmon can thrive. The life cycle

of wild salmon is interwoven with all of nature within Alaska. The salmons

carcasses are as essential to the health of the land as pristine watershed

conditions are to salmon.

Imagine Alaska without salmon. In the lower 48 states and British Colum-

bia, many salmon runs are in peril. Salmon have disappeared from much

of their historical range in Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California

because of human activities. People in the Pacific Northwest are now work-

ing to save and restore many of their remaining salmon runs and habitat.

Alaska is the last great stronghold for healthy stocks of wild Pacific salm-

on. We are responsible for sustaining this priceless biological resource.

21

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE

Salmon have been gradually evolving and adapting to changes in their

environment for millions of years. In Alaska, humans have been harvesting

and relying on Pacific salmon for less than 20,000 years. It has placed

a huge amount of demands upon Pacific salmon and their habitats. Today,

the survival of Pacific salmon depends upon our ability to protect, main-

tain, and restore salmon ecosystems in harmony with human development.

The evolutionary story of salmon is still being studied. Clues found in the

fossils tell a story of change and diversity. Most scientists agree that

ancestors of the first salmonids (the family of fishes that include Pacific

salmon) probably evolved in Northern Europe between 50 and 100 million

years ago. Over the next 30 million years, first the whitefishes, then the

char split from this common ancestor. Many scientists believe that salmon

began as freshwater fish that resembled today’s Arctic grayling. Then the

early salmonids (other species related to salmon) evolved to spend a por-

tion of their lives in salt water.

As the continental landmasses of Europe and America drifted apart, these

fishes found their way along the coastline of Arctic Ocean to the Pacific

Basin. These early salmonid species were able to adapt to certain changes

in the environment. They also developed into distinct populations to fill

new or expanding habitat opportunities. This adaptability to various habi-

tats is an important part of the story of salmon.

CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER ONEHISTORY OF SALMON EVOLUTION

The five species of Pacific salmon that exist today probably started to

appear about ten million years ago. It’s believed today’s Japanese cherry

salmon evolved first. Then a nomadic descendant of the cherry salmon,

the ancestor of rainbow trout, spread successfully from Asia all the way to

North America.

In the history of Native Americans, salmon have been fished for for thou-

sands of years. They had a happy life with nature, honoring the salmon.

Many legends of the Native Americans include salmon. The Natives used

every part of the salmon. They used bones for tools, the meat part, and

organs for food. Then the white settlers came. They fished for salmon, yet

they did not use every part of the salmon’s body and the salmon popula-

tion started to decrease.

Later salteries and then canneries were developed. Salteries are places

where people salt fish to preserve them. Canneries are the places where

fish are canned to sell in stores. A few of these would be : Living Silver,

Saginaw Bay, Loring and Tonka.They still only used the meat part of the

salmon. The canneries poured the excess parts of the salmon into streams

causing pollution. This caused the salmon to die faster. Hatcheries were

built to save salmon. But salmon born in hatcheries could not find food,

jump, or protect themselves as well as wild salmon.

Dams were put up and since the salmon couldn’t get over the dams, some

species started to die out like the Chinook salmon. Some people believe

that this is the reason that some species are endangered. A few dams on

the Columbia River are: the Bonneville Dam, The John Day Dam, The Dalles

Dam, McNary Dam, Priest Rapids Dam, Rocky Island Dam, The Rocky Reach

Dam, The Wells Dam, the Chief Joseph Dam, and The Grand Coulee Dam.

There are also a lot of dams on the other major rivers in Washington State.

THIS ADAPTABILITY TO VARIOUS HABITATS IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF THE SALMON STORY

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THIS ADAPTABILITY TO VARIOUS HABITATS IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF THE SALMON STORY

Many researchers believe that all five of the present day Pacific salmon

species found in Alaska evolved from the ancestors of rainbow trout. Sci-

entists studying the genetic make-up of Pacific salmon know that rainbow

trout, coho salmon, and chinook salmon are very closely related. Sockeye,

chum and pink salmon evolved from this line somewhat later. Alaska’s five

species of Pacific salmon evolved and established themselves four to six

million years ago.

About 1.8 million years ago the Pleistocene age began, it was a time of ice

ages punctuated by warmer periods. With each glacial period, ice sheets

that covered the land captured water from the oceans. This resulted vastly

lowered sea levels and changes in salmon habitat. Populations of the

salmon adapted slowly. As the climate cycle continued, the salmon popu-

lations have adapted to specific variations in their local habitats.

Scientists have two major concerns for salmon today. We must preserve

enough genetic variety so each species can adapt to climatic conditions.

And we must preserve natural habitats so that local populations of wild

salmon can thrive. The ability of salmon to gradually adapt to the changes

in their environment helped them evolve to spend a portion of their lives

in fresh and salt water. This adaptability carries a hidden price. The wild

salmon need pristine fresh water and habitat for spawning and rearing,

and the access to clean oceans rich with broad variety of food. Throughout

their full and complex life cycle, salmon must have sufficient amounts of

unpolluted water and undisturbed habitat in order to survive.

CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER TWO

The harvest of salmon is an important part of Alaska’s history and will

continue to play a major role well into our future. From the first Natives

to make Alaska home, to commercial developments beginning in the late

1800s, to today’s personal use dipnetter and resident or tourist sport

angler, catching salmon is vital to the economic and cultural strength of

the state of Alaska.

Today, state regulations define four categories of users who may harvest

salmon: commercial, subsistence, sport, and personal use. To participate in

subsistence and personal use fisheries, you must be an Alaskan resident.

Commercial and sport fish licenses are available to nonresidents as well as

many resident Alaskans.

While there is a priority in Alaska for subsistence users, and commercial

fishing accounts for the vast majority of salmon harvested. Commercial

salmon fishing provides jobs for fishing families, the processing industry,

and in the sales of high end quality wild salmon products. Even though

sport, subsistence, and personal use account for less than four percent of

the total annual salmon catch statewide, these fish are a principal food

source for many families and are important to the cultural and spiritual

vitality of many Alaskans.

CHAPTER TWOTHE HARVEST OF SALMON

Most salmon spawn in the small tributaries and streams that flow into

larger rivers. In Alaska, small streams produce more salmon than many

large rivers.

COPPER RIVER Copper River salmon are among the first commercially

caught Alaska salmon to reach markets each year. They are very high in

fish oils and command a premium retail price worldwide.

YUKON RIVER Alaska’s longest river hosts runs of salmon relied upon

primarily by Native peoples from its headwaters in Canada to the edge of

the river’s mouth.

KUSKOKWIM RIVER Once a mainstay of subsistence fishing, some runs of

salmon in the Kuskokwim River have had very weak returns in recent years.

Many scientists believe changes in ocean conditions are affecting the

survival of these stocks.

SUSITNA RIVER WATERSHED The Susitna River drainage is home to many

important salmon populations. Half of the state’s human population has

quick access to portions of this watershed for recreational fishing.

KENAI RIVER The area’s rivers and streams are home to all five salmon

species found in Alaska, contain millions of fish, and spawn the largest

Chinook salmon in the world. Historically the marine waters off the Kenai

Peninsula are of great importance to commercial fishermen. For sport

anglers, this is the most popular spot in Alaska, drawing tens of thousands

of resident and nonresident anglers each season.

KODIAK ISLAND Kodiak is often referred to as the heart of commercial

fishing in Alaska.

SITUK RIVER The Situk River is the premier steelhead river in Alaska and a

great producer of salmon.

SOUTHEAST ALASKA Thousands of short, productive, coastal rivers make

Southeast a fisherman’s paradise. Nearly half of all commercially caught

Alaskan salmon are harvested in this popular region of Southeast, Alaska.

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Yukon River

Yukon River

Yukon River

Tanana River

Colville River

Noatak River

Kobuk River

Kuskokwim River

Nushayak River

Kenai River

Susitna River Copper River

ALAS

KA SA

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FROM THE BEGINNING The first Native hunters to enter North America prob-

ably followed and hunted the great herds of land mammals, such as the

mastodon, for food. From recent archaeology, it appears that other people

probably traveled along the continental shelf during glacial periods when

much of the ocean’s water was frozen in the great ice sheets covering North

America. These first coastal Native people probably also caught salmon

that filled the rivers of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska each year.

All along the North Pacific rim, the wealth of salmon allowed the Native

cultures to flourish. Native people from all parts of Alaska relied upon

salmon for food. The Yupiit and Inupiat along the coast and lower reaches

of the great rivers and Athabaskans of the Interior harvested salmon as

part of their diet and as food for their dogs.

SUBSISTENCE HARVEST Many Alaskans engage in customary and tradi-

tional harvest of salmon and other fish, wildlife, and plant resources.

Fish, game, and plants are often used for food, clothing, tools, transporta-

tion, and arts particularly within rural and Native Alaskan communities.

These uses are known as subsistence. Subsistence harvests of salmon

account less than 3% of the annual Alaska salmon harvest, but they are

very important o the families, communities and cultures that depend

on subsistence. In spite of spirited debate over the allocation and man-

agement of subsistence in Alaska, subsistence salmon fishing is widely

regarded as essential.

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SPORT SALMON FISHING Sport fishing began in Europe over 2,000 years

ago. The roots of sport fishing for Pacific salmon go as far back as the first

European explorers. During the early years of the nineteenth century, Naval

officers on voyages of exploration fished for relocation. A rod and reel were

often part of the kit of prospectors during the gold rush, and in Juneau,

many miners fished on the Fourth of July, their one-day off each sum-

mer. Today, anglers come from all over the world to pursue Alaska’s world

famous salmon.

To many people, a sport fishing trip to Alaska brings images of halibut the

size of hang gliders and schools of salmon so this you think you could walk

across their backs. Fishing and fish viewing are major parts of the most

rapidly growing portion of Alaska’s economy and tourism. According to the

Division of Tourism, more tourists come to Alaska to view wildlife and to

sport fish that for any other reason.

Anglers fish year-round for Chinook in Southeast Alaska. All over the

downtown Anchorage area, fishermen in three piece suits and hip boots

pursue giant king salmon in Ship Creek while on their lunch hour. Anglers

will stand shoulder to shoulder on the Kenai River fishing for sockeye.

They sometimes stand in two ranks, one behind the other, to cast for king

salmon at Willow Creek in Susitna Valley. And angers in the Thorne River,

on Prince of Wales Island, fly fishing for steelhead every month of the year.

And sometimes it even seems that everyone in Alaska has gone fishing.

31

THE HARVEST OF SALMON

CHAPTER THR

CHAPTER THR

Every summer, millions of salmon return to Alaska’s streams and rivers

to spawn, where they are eagerly greeted by thousands of fishermen. Even

sport-fishermen from all around the world travel to the Alaska to catch

trophy-size salmon. King, Sockeye, Coho, and Chum salmon are the most

popular being bright, firm, and rich in flavor. Alaska is also the home

of legendary Copper River salmon and the Yukon River salmon which seem

to be among the most sought-after, and tastiest, salmon in the world.

Wild Alaska salmon are harvested commercially in all coastal regions of

Alaska. Salmon are troll-caught, gill-netted, and purse seined throughout

the summer months. Alaska harvests only wild, and not farmed, salmon.

Salmon is a kind of teleost fish. There are many different kinds of salmon.

Salmon belong to the same family of fish as the trout. Most kinds of salmon

live in salt water, or migrate between rivers and the sea. Many people like

to eat salmon, so the fish is also grown in fish farms. Usual ways to create

food out of salmon are smoking, cold smoking and graving. Salmon are

killed by people, other fish and their environment.

It turns out that Pacific Salmon, in their own way, are providing for their

offspring. When salmon swim upstream, they are returning to the waters

where they themselves hatched years before — their bodies plump with

eggs as well as the bounty of the seas.

CHAPTER THREEKINDS OF SALMON

CAUDAL FIN ANAL FIN ADIPOSE FIN PELVIC FIN LATERAL LINE DORSAL FIN PECTORAL FIN GILL COVER

After spawning, they leave their nutrient-rich carcasses behind. Many of

the microscopic creatures that nibble on the carcasses eventually become

prey for the next generation of fish. And so the parents nourish the young.

But salmon provide more than an indirect food source for baby salmon. At

least 137 different species — from grizzly bears to gray wolves — depend

on salmon for part of their diet. Even trees and plants benefit from the

nutrients brought back by salmon from the seas.

It is awe inspiring when you think about it. This mighty fish struggles

up stream, jumping waterfalls, and its last act is sacrificing its body to

ensure that the community that will raise its children will be thriving,

teeming with life.

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Color Adult king salmon typically have blue-green backs with bright silvery

flanks and white bellies. Their backs, dorsal fin, and tail are marked with

black spots. Spawning adults lose their silvery bright coloration and take

on an olive-brown to purple coloration, with males looking darker than the

females, and develop reddish hues around their fins and belly.

Shape Adult king salmon are a robust looking fish. When they spawn, their

teeth become enlarged and their snout develops into a hook. Spawning

males will also develop a hooked snout and slightly humped shoulder which

is absent in all adult spawning females.

Size Adult king salmon are typically 25 to 50 pounds with 60 to 80 pound

king salmon not uncommon among sport fishermen and commercial

catches. They typically can range between 2 to 4 feet in length. Because of

their size, they’re well recognized for their power.

SPECIES OF SALMON Five of the seven existing species of Pacific salmon

spawn in Alaska. The other two species, cherry and satsukimasu, spawn in

Asian waters.

Many other salmonids also live in Alaska’s fresh waters. Alaska’s rainbow

and cutthroat trout are now classified with Pacific salmon as members of

the genus Oncorhynchus.

Salmon are anadromous, which means they spawn in fresh water and they

migrate to salt water to feed and grow. They undergo several changes in

color and appearance during this life cycle. The common names of Alaska’s

five Pacific salmon species are Chinook, coho, sockeye, chum and the pink

salmon. In different parts of Alaska they go by different names.

King Salmon (silver) Alaska’s state fish, the coveted king salmon, is by far

the most desired salmon Alaska has to offer. They’re the largest and the

scarcest of the five species of Alaska salmon, bearing the highest amounts

of Omega-3 oils of all Alaskan salmon. Because of this high oil content,

they are considered to be the richest salmon in the world. Furthermore, the

king salmon one of the most important sport and commercial fish in North

America, and the most commercially valuable of all of the Alaska’s salmon

species. They are the king of all of the salmon species.

King salmon are wildly abundant from the southern panhandle of Alaska to

as far up the northwest coast as Kotzebue Sound. Considerably large runs

return inland hundreds of miles up and through the Yukon, Kuskokwim,

Nushagak, Susitna, Kenai, Copper, Alsek, Taku, and Stikine rivers, as well

as many other streams and rivers.

In scientific terms, king salmon is called “Oncorhynchus tshawytscha.”

The name Oncorhynchus means hooked snout, and tshawytscha is the name

given to these fish by the people of the Kamchatka Peninsula, in Russia.

The largest King salmon ever caught weighed in at 126 pounds. It was

caught in a fish wheel near Petersburg, Alaska in 1949. The largest sport-

caught king salmon was 97 pounds and caught on the Kenai River in 1985,

by Les Anderson.

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Red Salmon (sockeye) Blue-tinged silver in color, sockeye salmon live four

to five years. They weigh up to 7 pounds, and are the slimmest and most

streamlined of the five species of Alaskan salmon. Known to fishermen

as reds, the sockeye is a valuable fish because of its high oil content and

ability to hold its bright red flesh color.

Silver Salmon (coho) Bright silver in color, coho salmon live three years,

weigh up to 15 pounds, and are a popular game fish sought by sport

fishers. Coho are known as silvers when caught before full maturity. They

are the most popular game fish of the salmon family, as well as one of the

most valuable commercial species.

Chum Salmon (keta) Resembling sockeye, chum salmon have black specks

all over their silvery sides. They live three to five years, and weigh up to 10

pounds. Also known as Keta and Silverbrite salmon.

Pink Salmon (humpy) Living only two years, pinks are the smallest of the

Pacific salmon, weighing up to 5 pounds, and have heavily spotted backs

over silver bodies. Pink salmon are the most plentiful of the five species.

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SOCKEYE SALMON Oncorhynchus nerkaBoth sexes are distinguished from other species by the distinctive red-and-green coloration Males develop a moderate hump and

elongated jaws. The head is pale green with dark upper jaw contrasting with the white lower one.

COHO SALMON Oncorhynchus kisuchThe males develop a distinct hook on the upper jaw; they are brick red to bright red on the flanks,

greenish on the back and dark on the belly.

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PINK SALMON Oncorhynchus gorbushchaThe huge, laterally flattened hump of the male is characteristic. The flanks are reddish to yellowish with dull vertical streaks. The jaws

are elongated, the snout moderately hooked.

CHINOOK SALMON Oncorhynchus tshawytschaSpawners lack the pronounced breeding dress of other species. Females become dark brown to black; the males have moderately

enlarged jaws and dull yellow or reddish flanks. A distinctive feature is the spotting on body, dorsal fin and both lobes of the tail.

CHUM SALMON Oncorhynchus ketaThe massively developed fans on spawning males. The flanks have distinct vertical streaks of black or reddish with dull green spaces.

39

THE VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING CANNOT BE MEASURED IN DOLLARS

COMMERCIAL FISHING SUPPORTS A LIFESTYLE FOR MANY.

THE VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING CANNOT BE MEASURED IN DOLLARS

THE VALUE OF SALMON Salmon play an important role in the social and

economic fabric of North America’s Pacific coast. Along with a cultural and

historical value intricately woven into the society, the economic value of

the salmon has a tremendous impact on the quality of life.

Tribal groups and First Nations of the region depend upon the magnificent

Pacific Salmon in almost every facet of their existence. The fish hold a

central place in the ceremonial, subsistence and commercial aspects of

these people’s lives.

Each year the commercial and recreational salmon fisheries are worth mil-

lions of dollars to the economies of both the United States and Canada.

The impact of the Pacific salmon fisheries can be seen around the tens

of thousands of jobs and scores of industries they support. A partial list of

fishing-dependent businesses would include marina operations, process-

ing industries, transportation, fuel sales, boat building and repair, retail

fish sales, tackle manufacturers and distributors, hotels, restaurants and

resorts. The Pacific Salmon Treaty provides strong assurance of a more

stable and prosperous future for many such enterprises.

COMMERCIAL FISHING SUPPORTS A LIFESTYLE FOR MANY.

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CHAPTER FOU

CHAPTER FOU

Alaska salmon have a most interesting life. One that takes them from the

rivers and streams of Alaska’s wild frontier, all the way to the high seas of

the Pacific Ocean, and back again. In fact, right back to the very place they

were born. How they find their way back from the immensity of the Pacific

Ocean is a small feat in itself. Not to mention, that they swim from fresh

water to salt water and back again.

The salmon life cycle is famous in the fish world and justifiably so. The

odds against the survival of a fish from egg to spawning are huge. The epic

journey from the spawning grounds to the sea and the return to spawn in

the same spot years later is also a remarkable feat.

Salmon and other native fish play an important role in maintaining the

health and diversity of Alaska’s aquatic ecosystems. Fish occupy many

levels in aquatic food chains throughout their entire lives. Salmon eggs,

newly hatched alevin, and fry are important food for other fish, birds, and

aquatic insects. Adult fish serve as food for bears, eagles, mink, otter,

other fish, and humans. Fish carcasses release accumulated nutrients to

restart the food chain and nourish plant life in the riparian zone.

Pacific salmon start their lives as freshwater fish, then change and develop

the ability to live and grow in the ocean where they mature.They return

to the freshwater streams as adult fish to reproduce and subsequently die.

THE LIFE CYCLE

CHAPTER FOUR

After returning from the ocean, the female’s eggs ripen within her. When

her eggs are ripe, she locates a suitable spawning area and hollows out

a redd in the gravel with her tail. Each species of salmon looks for dif-

ferent qualities in the perfect habitat that they choose for redds.All good

salmon nesting habitats have some similar features; clean, fresh and well

oxygenated water, gravel of the correct size and depth, constant cold

water temperature, water velocity of the correct speed, and appropriate

water depth.

While the female is busy making her redd, male salmon hover along nearby,

fighting for breeding rights. The winning male waits until the female

settles into her redd to expel her eggs, and then he moves in next to her to

fertilize the freshly laid eggs with his sperm or milt. The female will then

covers the fertilized eggs with gravel and beginsbuilding another redd to

deposit more eggs. One male may fertilize several different redds. One

female may build several redds which may be fertilized by different males

each and every time.

The eggs, now safely buried in the streambed, develop slowly. In winter or

early spring, the developing salmon break though the egg’s think shell.

Around this stage the young salmon, called alevins, still have a yolk sac

attached to the under belly of their small abdomens.

The alevins rely upon the yolk sac for food and depend on the surround-

ing gravel for protection or cover. When the young fish, now called fry, use

up their yolk sac, they struggle out of the gravel bed into the free-flowing

stream or river water.

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Once the fry emerge, they seek different kinds of rearing habitat. Young

Chinook salmon like slow moving water along the naturally vegetated

banks. Juvenile Coho salmon like still water, lakes, beaver dams, and the

wetlands. Sockeye salmon rear in lakes or calm pools, pink and chum fry

swim quickly out to sea. By using different rearing habitats, several salmon

species can share the same watershed environment as a place to find food

and cover. This is called habitat partitioning.

After one to two years for Chinook, on to five years for Coho, and up to four

years for sockeye, salmon become smolts. Instead of staying in the slow

waters close to the bank or river bottom, they swim up against the surface

currents. This helps them migrate downstream to saltwater estuary areas

at the mouths of their home rivers. In estuaries, where fresh and salt water

meet smolts undergo a series of internal and external changes that will

allow them to live in the salty environment of the ocean.

Salmon spend different amounts of time living in the ocean, depending

on the species and stock. After spending from six months to six years

feeding and maturing at sea, adult salmon are drawn back to spawn in

the streams where they were hatched. Scientists are still not certain how

salmon find their way from the far reaches of the Salmon go to sea in

search of food. There are not enough bugs or other fish in fresh waters to

feed the great numbers of growing salon. However the cold waters of the

North Pacific Ocean can be very productive and salmon grow rapidly, feed-

ing in a variety of prey species.

45

THE LIFE CYCLE

STAG

ES O

F SAL

MON

DEVE

LOPM

ENT

Alas

ka s

alm

on h

ave

deve

lope

d a

very

com

plex

life

cyc

le a

nd h

ave

adap

ted

to v

arie

d en

viro

nmen

ts o

ver t

he p

ast t

en m

illio

n ye

ars.

Eggs are safely buried in the stream bed by the female, and males move in to fertilize the freshly laid eggs.

Alevins rely upon the yolk sac for food and depend on the sur-rounding gravel for protection.

Fry emerge as small fish that find various rearing habitats.

46

Adult salt water salmon grows in size substantially for 1-6 years in the ocean.

Smolts develop and go through a series of internal and external changes in habitat, diet, and location.

Spawning adult salmon returns to fresh water to lay eggs, fertilize eggs, and then die.

47

North Pacific to their home waters. Combinations of factors, including

ocean currents, the position of the sun, even the magnetic north pole,have

been considered to explain how salmon navigate back to coastal areas.

None of these theories have been proven. We do know that salmon have an

ncredible,finely tuned, sensitive sense of smell that helps guide them back

to the exact stream where they were originally born.

Adult salmon occasionally stray from their own original streams of origin

and spawn in other streams.This behavior contributes to the diversity

and health of the wild salmon populations, and allows salmon to rapidly

colonize new breeding areas.

All pacific salmon die after spawning. This appears to be a great waste

of fish. Actually, the survival of future generations of salmon and the long-

term health of entire watersheds depend upon these carcasses.

In streams, caddis fly larvae feed on salmon carcasses. The larvae some-

times provide half the food for young salmon. The remains of salmon that

have been dragged onto the banks by wildlife are soon covered with other

fly larvae. During heavy rains, these maggots wash back into the stream

and feed fish. In this way, the death of adult salmon supports the vast life

throughout the watershed, including the young they have spawned.Flesh

from carcasses also provides fresh food directly to young salmon and any

other fish.

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Salmon carcasses are rich in nutrients important to fish, wildlife, and the

plants. Because of its geologic history, much of Alaska’s topsoil is think

and lacking in nutrients. Nearly every creatures, bears, wolves, eagle and

mink to small birds,or shrews and insects, spread uneaten pieces of the

salmon and salmon-rich feces throughout the watershed. This fertilized

the land and provides necessary minerals and organic material to the land

and water. Each dying salmon is a gift of life to the entire ecosystem.

Wild Pacific salmon are resilient organisms. However, the cumulative

stresses are wiping out wild salmon. Currently, they are experiencing death

by a thousand cuts. Sustainability of this valuable resource requires that

managers address the underlying problems from population stressors and

not merely try to cover up the symptoms.

The mysterious secret world of the salmon is has encapsulated many of

us. Bristol Bay, is an excellent place to view millions of spawning Sockeye

salmon. The Kenai River also has several viewing opportunities for salmon

such as Coho, Pinks, Chinook and Chum. Visit the hatchery during spawn-

ing season for a glimpse into the fascinating world of the salmon.

49

THE LIFE CYCLE

CHAPTER FIVE

CHAPTER FIVE

The commercial harvest of salmon in Alaska began during the Russian

occupation in the 1860s when fish were salted and sent back to Russia.

In 1878, the first cannery was built at Klawock in Southeast Alaska. Just

eleven years later, thirty-seven canneries were operating in Alaska.

The history of commercial salmon fishing in Alaska during the years before

statehood is one of boom and bust. Soldiers in both World Wars were fed

with Alaska salmon. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, canned

salmon became an inexpensive food for families in need.

In 1936, a peak of 129 million fish was harvested. Salmon harvests then

fell, averaging 41 million fish a year from 1951 to 1959. In 1953, President

Eisenhower declared Alaska a federal disaster area due to the poor fishing,

mainly caused by substantial overharvesting.

COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES

CHAPTER FIVE

ALASKA’S CONSTITUTION PROTECTS THE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF FISH, FOREST, WILDLIFE,

GRASSLANDS AND ALL REPLENISHABLE RESOURCES

The salmon returning to Alaskan stream and rearing in Alaskan fresh

waters are the basis for one of Alaska’s most important industries and

underpin a traditional subsistence lifestyle within rural portions of

the State. From 2000–2004, on the average, harvest of salmon sold by

commercial fishermen in Alaska was almost 157 million fish (about 742

million pounds).

The value of the commercial harvest varies both with the size of the runs

and with foreign currency exchange rates. Average annual value of the

2000–2004 harvest was in excess of $230 million. Because of the magni-

tude of commercial fisheries and of salmon, state biologists collect exten-

sive information and statistics for management decisions. Alaska also

has very important sport and subsistence fisheries for salmon.

The Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (CFEC) helps to con-

serve and maintain the economic health of Alaska’s commercial fisheries

by limiting the number of participating fishers. They issue permits and

vessel licenses to qualified individuals in both the limited and unlimited

fisheries, and we provide due process hearings and appeals. If you wish to

contact in-season managers of Alaska commercial fisheries or find rules

controlling fishers and their harvest during Alaska’s commercial fishing

seasons. These are all regulated by the Commercial Fisheries Division of

the Alaska Deptartment of Fish & Game.

ALASKA’S CONSTITUTION PROTECTS THE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF FISH, FOREST, WILDLIFE,

GRASSLANDS AND ALL REPLENISHABLE RESOURCES

53

COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES

HISTORY Alaska did not always have healthy stocks of salmon. The salmon

catch grew very rapidly with the expansion of the cannery capacity through

1920. This led to over fishing, which resulted in such low salmon stocks

that President Eisenhower declared Alaska a federal disaster area in 1953.

In fact, in 1959, statewide harvests totaled only about 25 million salmon,

which is less than 20% of current sustained production. This was a major

factor in the declines of the Alaska salmon fishery that occurred between

1920 and 1959.

Alaska achieved statehood in the year of 1959. After analysis, it was very

clear that the reason for the decline was the lack of implementation of the

primary federal policies in place before statehood. Furthermore, the federal

government failed to provide the financial resources needed to manage

and research salmon stocks and fisheries that fishing could be regulated

and a depressed stock could be rehabilitated. The decline was temporarily

arrested after Alaska became a state and instituted new dramatic conser-

vation and environmental measures.

The inexorable entry of more technological fishing gear coincided with the

further decline to record low levels in 1972. This decline helped promote

the enclosure of the salmon fishery in 1973 under a limited entry permit

system. Since then the catch has rebounded to near-record levels due to

Alaska’s salmon management.

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POLICIES When Alaska changed from federal management of its fisher-

ies to state management in 1959. Alaska’s constitution has an article

regarding the management and utilization of the state’s natural resources.

Article VIII, Section 4 states: “Fish, forests, wildlife, grasslands, and all

replenishable resources belonging to the State shall be utilized, developed,

and maintained on the sustained yield principle, subject to preferences

among beneficial uses.”The Alaska Department of Fish and Game was

formed when Alaska became a state. While the Alaska Department of Fish

and Game was formed with a strong conservation mandate to manage the

salmon fisheries for sustained yield, the Alaska Board of Fisheries, on the

other hand, was given the responsibility for allocating that yield of salmon

to users.The clear separation of primary conservation authority from alloca-

tion authority is one of the strengths of the Alaskan fishery management

system opeartions.

The dominant goal is the primary harvest policy known as “fixed escape-

ment,” or ensuring that sufficient numbers of adult spawning salmon

escape capture in the fishery and are allowed to spawn in the rivers, and

thus maintaining the long-term health of the stocks. Salmon managers

open and close fisheries on a daily basis to ensure that there is adequate

spawning escapements are achieved. When run failures occur, managers

close fisheries to provide for predetermined escapement needs and there-

fore ensuring long-term sustainable yields. When run strength is strong,

managers liberalize harvest regulations to utilize the abundant surpluses.

55

COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES

Gulf of Alaska

Arctic OceanAlaska

Bering Sea

Pacific Ocean

KING SALMON FISHING AREAS

spawning salmon catch areas

Alaska salmon concentrations

Yukon River Bristol Bay Chignik Cook Inlet Copper River Southeast

56

Gulf of Alaska

Arctic OceanAlaska

Bering Sea

Pacific Ocean

ALAS

KA SA

LMON

COM

MERC

IAL F

ISHI

NG AR

EAS T

he s

alm

on

retu

rnin

g to

Ala

skan

str

eam

and

rear

ing

in A

lask

an w

ater

s ar

e th

e ba

sis

for o

ne o

f Ala

ska’

s m

ost i

mpo

rtan

t ind

us-

trie

s an

d un

derp

in a

trad

ition

al s

ubsi

sten

ce li

fest

yle

in ru

ral p

ortio

ns o

f the

Sta

te. F

ishe

ry m

anag

emen

t pla

ns

give

top

prio

rity

to th

e su

bsis

tenc

e us

e of

fish

reso

urce

s.

57

THE VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING CANNOT BE MEASURED IN DOLLARS

COMMERCIAL FISHING SUPPORTS A L LIFESTYLE FOR MANY.

LIMITED ENTRY ACT The Alaskan legislature adopted the Limited Entry Act,

establishing the current limited entry system for the salmon fisheries. The

Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (CFEC) administers the commer-

cial fishery entry permit system. The objective of the CFEC is to “limit entry

into commercial fisheries and provide annual licensing and permitting of

fisheries to facilitate the management and development fishery resources

for maximum benefit of those dependent upon them and the economy of the

state of Alaska.”

The limited entry permit system has been the most beneficial to Alaska’s

fisheries in several ways. Implementation of the Limited Entry Act protected

Alaska’s fisheries from an influx of new fishermen from West Coast fisher-

ies where fishing opportunities have been severely reduced by court deci-

sions and stock conditions. Net economic benefits have accrued that could

not have existed under open access. In reference to salmon populations,

the permit system has been vastly successful in increasing the existing

salmon populations.

A NEW LOOK AT ALASKA’S SALMON FISHING INDUSTRY In a very bold effort

to improve Alaska’s commercial salmon industry, the Board of Fisheries

recently formed a group to provide suggestions and options for updating

the state’s commercial salmon fishing regulations.

The Salmon Industry Restructuring Panel is charged with the examining

options, identifying research and information of its needs, and review-

ing models on the range of alternatives for Alaska’s commercial salmon

fisheries. The panel is composed of harvesters, processors, and hatchery

operators, along with other interests; members were chosen by the board

as a cross section of interests within the industry. The board intends to

work with this panel to receive input for developing a model for fisheries

policy considerations, and to identify research and analysis needs on the

range of considerations. In addition, the board will be gathering public

comment throughout the state on any options that are currently developed.

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THE VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING CANNOT BE MEASURED IN DOLLARS

COMMERCIAL FISHING SUPPORTS A L LIFESTYLE FOR MANY.

TOTAL RETURNS IN ALASKA SALMON HATCHERIES

MIL

LION

S OF

SAL

MON

YEARS

1888 1898 1918 1928 1948 1958 1968 1978 1988

salmon catches after state management

salmon catches prior to state management

10

50

100

150

200

ALAS

KA C

OMME

RCIA

L SAL

MON

CATC

HES A

lask

a ha

s su

ccee

ded

in s

usta

inab

le y

ield

man

agem

ent o

f its

sal

mon

fish

erie

s si

nce

the

encl

osur

e of

the

salm

on fi

sher

y in

197

3 un

der a

lim

ited

entr

y.60

TOTAL RETURNS IN ALASKA SALMON HATCHERIES

1888 1898 1918 1928 1948 1958 1968 1978 1988

STATE MANAGEMENT

BEGINS 1959

salmon catches after state management

salmon catches prior to state management

61

GEAR USED IN COMMERCIAL FISHING There are three main types of fishing

gear catch Alaskan salmon; troll, gillnet, and purse seine.

Trollers use long trolling poles to pull two to four, deep, weighted lines

through the water, each with twelve leaders attached. At the end of each

leader, there is a lure or baited hook. Trollers catch relatively small num-

bers of primarily chinook and coho salmon. The fish they catch are bright

and vigorous from fresh ocean waters. They are often sold dressed, or

filleted, in the fresh or fresh frozen market.

Gillnetters set curtain-like nets in the water. The net’s mesh openings are

just large enough to allow an adult fish’s head to get through and become

entangled at the gills. There are two types of gillnets;driftnets that are free

floating from boats and setnets that often have one end attached to the

shoreline. The majority of sockeye salmon harvested in Alaska are caught

by use of gillnets.

Purse Seiners use large floating net that is pulled and set in a circle by a

large power skiff to surround schooling salmon. The weighted “purse line”

at bottom of the net is draw closed to contain the fish. Then, a high-pow-

ered hydraulic block gathers the net full of fish to the boat. Seiners target

pink and chum salmon that are often processed for canning. Chum salmon

roe is also a popular delicacy.

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COMMERCIAL FISHING IS RISKY BUSINESS Thanks in part to heightened

safety measures the fatality rate of Alaskan Fishermen has dropped dra-

matically since 1990. This is in turn due to the U.S. Congress passing the

Commercial Fishing Industry Vessel Safety Act in 1988. The bill requires

commercial fishing boats to carry survival equipment on board, putting the

power of enforcement into the hands of the U.S. Coast Guard.

Common causes of fishermen deaths include drowning, hypothermia, cap-

sizing and falling overboard. Falling overboard immediately puts someone

at risk of death, especially in the cold Alaskan waters. Over a 10 year

period, the occurrence of this type of accident remained consistent because

of the factors associated with it, inclement weather, slippery decks and

becoming entangled in fishing equipment.

The Coast Guard also stresses the importance of preventative measures

for ship safety. In the 2004 sinking of the crab fishing boat Big Valley,

for instance, investigators found that the boat had been overloaded with

supplies, making it unsafe to sail. Likewise, between 20 and 40 Alaskan

fishing boats capsize each year, which is what happened to the Arctic Rose

in 2001 when it took 15 men to their deaths in the Alaskan waters. How-

ever, no mandatory safety review exists for commercial fishing boats. Of

the 20,000 boats in the United States that the Coast Guard oversees, only

about 6% undergo voluntary inspections. Additional prevention measures,

like inspections, have not been widely embraced and accepted within the

private sector fishing industry.

For all of the hazards that fishermen endure in their aquatic quests, the

safety issues bring a new appreciation to the smoked salmon, crab legs

and other seafood delectables the rest of us enjoy after a long day at the

office. If anything, you can be grateful that you didn’t have to catch it all

of the fish yourself.

63

COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES

(2001)51,000

(2007)65,000

(2009)80,000

(2003)50,000

(2005)53,000

TOTAL RETURNS IN ALASKA SALMON HATCHERIES

salmon released into wild

total egg takes (gathered)

64

TOTAL RETURNS IN ALASKA SALMON HATCHERIES

salmon released into wild

total egg takes (gathered)

ALAS

KA H

ATCH

ERIE

S It i

s re

lativ

ely

clea

r tha

t the

reas

on fo

r inc

reas

ed p

opul

atio

ns o

f sa

lmon

fish

erie

s wa

s th

e co

nver

sion

to s

tate

man

age m

ent i

n 19

59 a

nd th

en th

e lim

ited

entr

y pe

rmit

syst

em in

19

73. H

owev

er, v

iabl

e al

tern

ativ

e ex

plan

atio

ns a

lway

s ex

ist.

Initi

ally

con

ceiv

ed a

s st

ate-

run

syst

ems,

m

ost A

lask

an h

atch

erie

s ar

e no

w ru

n by

priv

ate

sect

or c

orpo

ratio

ns.

65

FUTURE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING Some have suggested that the greatest

potential for expanding the economic base is education. A well-educated

populace may generate new perspectives and ideas that might reduce the

state’s economic resource dependency.

Alaska’s salmon fishery has been a primary element of Alaska’s great his-

tory. Alaska’s first cannery opened in 1878, in Klawock. By the 1890s the

industry produced millions of cases of salmon annually, and was Alaska’s

leading industry. By the turn of the century Alaska Packers’ Association

dominated the business. By the 1920s, a small tax on every case of salmon

packed in the territory contributed 70% of general fund revenue. Today,

the Alaska salmon fishery is world renowned. Significant competition from

farmed salmon grown in Chile, Norway and British Columbia, however,

this has decreased the market for Alaska wild salmon. Commercial fishing

contributes about 5% of Alaska’s economic base. In the 1980s a significant

new fishery opened in Alaska, the Bering Sea bottom fishery for pollack and

other species, most of which is processed into surimi, imitation crab meat.

In 2003 over 22 million pounds of pollack and related fish were taken in the

Bering Sea.

It is relatively clear that the reason for increased populations of the salmon

fisheries was the conversion to state management in 1959 and then the

limited entry permit system in 1973. However, the viable alternative expla-

nations always exist.

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One such explanation is the enhancement of salmon due to the start of

the state hatchery program in 1971. Modern salmon hatcheries in Alaska

were developed in response to record low wild-stock runs in the 1970s.

Initially conceived as state run systems, most of Alaskan hatcheries are

now run exclusively by private sector corporations. Alaska now has 33

production hatcheries in balanced programs designed to enhance fisheries

while maintaining healthy wild stocks. Some hatcheries release upwards

of 100 million juvenile salmon annually. Statewide totals are 1.2 to 1.4

billion annually over the last decade. During the past decade, hatcheries

have produced 27–63 million adults annually, accounting for 14%–37% of

statewide commercial salmon harvest. These high percentages help show

that the massive increase within salmon populations was not only due to

the policies implemented during statehood and the entry of the limited per-

mit system, but it may have occurred due to the introduction of hatcheries.

If the hatchery enhanced salmon populations.

67

COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES

CHAPTER SIX

CHAPTER SIX

All Alaska salmon are wild. These fish grow naturally in Alaska’s cold,

clear waters. Farm raised salmon are fed pellets that contain antibiotics,

pesticides, growth hormones and artificial coloring agents. Free-ranging

wild Alaska salmon are recognized as the purest fish found anywhere. In

fact, the Alaska Division of Public Health continues to encourage “pregnant

women, women who are breast feeding, women of childbearing age, and

young children continue unrestricted consumption of fish from Alaskan

fishing waters.”

A recently published article in, The Audubon’s Living Oceans Campaign,

says that “Farm-raised salmon consume more antibiotics per pound

of ‘livestock’ than are any other farm-raised animal.” A total of over 23

million pounds of antibiotics are consumed by livestock in US animal

production each year. Trying to regulate the use and overuse of antibiotics

is a serious problem in the fish farming industry in North America as well

as British Columbia. It has been almost impossible to regulate antibiotic

use in other countries where salmon are raised in the extremely remote

locations, including countries like Chile.

FARMED VS. WILD SALMON

CHAPTER SIX

WILD SALMON 5,302 PG/GRAM

PCB

LEVE

LS FO

UND

IN SA

LMON

The

fishm

eal f

ed to

farm

ed s

alm

on a

re

mor

e co

ntam

inat

ed w

ith d

ioxi

ns th

an a

ny o

ther

live

stoc

k. R

esea

rch

foun

d th

at fa

rmed

sal

mon

have

nea

rly 1

0 tim

es P

CBs

than

wild

sal

mon

.

FARMED SALMON SHOW HIGH LEVELS OF CANCER CAUSING PCB’S Sources

of chemical pollution from salmon farms include antibiotics and other

drugs, pesticides, feed additives, paints used on netcages and boats that

prevent marine growth (antifouling paints), and disinfectants. Many of

the chemicals used in aquaculture have been adopted from other industrial

sectors and have never been evaluated with respect to their effects on

the marine ecosystems.There is little or no data on the environmental or

human health effects of feed additives. U.S. adults eat enough PCBs from

farmed salmon to exceed allowable lifetime cancer risk 100 times over.

70

FARMED SALMON 51,216 PG/GRAM

71

ALL THE SALMON FOUND IN ALASKAN WATERS ARE WILD!

WILD SALMON MEANS THE FISH ARE FREE RANGE.

IT IS ILLEGAL TO FARM SALMON IN ALASKA.

ALL THE SALMON FOUND IN ALASKAN WATERS ARE WILD!

WILD SALMON MEANS THE FISH ARE FREE RANGE.

IT IS ILLEGAL TO FARM SALMON IN ALASKA.

The latest information from the David Suzuki Foundation, is that the farmed

salmon may be dangerous for consumers: “Salmon farmers attempting

to limit disease and kill parasites that threaten fish in their pens, use an

extremely powerful anti-biotics combined with other drugs. This toxic com-

bination is dumped in open net-pens. Mostly un-regulated, this misuse of

super-antibiotics-these very same drugs are used to treat human infections

is being associated with the development of drug-resistant “super-bugs.” A

grave risk is being created to the wild marine eco-system, as well as to the

workers at these fish farms. Plus, untold damage and unnecessary risks are

being directed at consumers of farm raised salmon who could very well be

affected by antibiotic-resistant micro bacteria.

WILD SALMON ARE HEALTHY Alaska’s wild salmon runs are the healthiest

on earth. Each year, millions of wild Alaska salmon return to spawn in their

native rivers. Pristine habitat and well-managed commercial fisheries

contribute to the preservation of Alaska’s most precious, and richest sus-

tainable, natural resource that Alaska has.

Wild Alaskan Salmon is the first U.S. fishery to be awarded this certifica-

tion for meeting the MSC’s strict environmental standards. The MSC is

supported by the World Wildlife Fund, the Audubon Society, Monterey Bay

Aquarium/Seafood Watch Program and many others. The fisheries are man-

aged by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG) and the Alaska

state constitution requires that all salmon habitats are conserved and

environmentally protected.

73

FARMED VS. WILD

CHAPTER SEV

CHAPTER SEV

In Alaska, we often take clean, plentiful water for granted. Most of our fresh

water comes from the storms that grow out of the Pacific Ocean and the

Bering Sea. These storms produce snow and rain that eventually will drain

into the sea through our watersheds. In some parts of Alaska, the water

remains frozen as ice or captured in glaciers. Some water seeps into porous

rock and may come to the surface as springs or lie trapped for centuries

underground. Eventually, all water finds its way back to the sea.

Alaska is thousands of miles away from large sources of pollution that

can contaminate the human food supply in other parts of the world. These

distances, combined with the earth’s patterns of circulation of water and

air, help to ensure that Alaska’s own waters are among the cleanest in the

entire world.

PURE WATER PURE FISH

CHAPTER SEVEN

Alaska’s human population density is the lowest of any in the entire United

States, and lower than most places in the world. Alaska has little heavy

industry, and has strict regulations governing development activities, such

as road building, mining, logging, and sewage treatment. The State of

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) has a regulatory

section dealing specifically with water quality. When the water discharges,

such as sewage and other potential pollutants, are closely regulated to

ensure high water quality. In addition, ADFG requires prior approval for any

of the in-stream construction activities in Alaska’s salmon streams through

the authority of the Alaska statutes known as the “Anadromous Fish Act.”

Alaska also has a Forest Practices Act requiring buffer zones from logging

along salmon streams to prevent erosion and protect spawning and rearing

habitat. Clean marine habitats produce pure seafood products.

An effective way to judge the cleanliness of any body of water is to examine

the sessile (non–moving) organisms that live there, such as mussels

and oysters. Since 1986, the U.S. National Mussel Watch Project of the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Status

and Trends (NS&T) Program has been doing exactly that. The program is

growing, and there are well over 250 sampling sites distributed throughout

the coastal United States. Every two years, either mussels or oysters are

widely tested for the presence of 44 different kinds of petroleum hydrocar-

bons, and other pollutants, such as metals, pesticides, and PCBs. NS&T

sampling is near Alaska’s fishing grounds have shown no human caused

contamination. The Alaska sites, including two in Prince William Sound, all

ranked among the 25 sites with the least petroleum contamination in the

United States. Alaska sites are not considered to have high concentrations

of petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, or pesticides.

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Years ago, worldwide concern forced a ban on certain organic chemicals,

such as DDT (a pesticide) and PCBs (a class of industrial chemicals).

Before and since those bans took effect, DDT and PCB were found at levels

of concern in many marine organisms around the world, but not in Alaska

seafood. Many studies conducted by both the government and university

level scientists over the course of decades have repeatedly demonstrated

that Alaska seafood is pure and clean, with little to no traces of contami-

nants. Contaminant levels that constitute a public health concern, as

determined by the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA), have never been

approached and Alaska seafood is routinely purer than products from other

parts of the whole world.

The Cook Inlet region of Southcentral Alaska near Anchorage is the most

populated in the state. Studies performed for the U.S. Minerals Manage-

ment Service report that Cook Inlet’s waters and sediments are remarkably

free of hydrocarbons and metals. One of the research teams, University of

Alaska’s Environmental and Natural Resources Institute, said “The physi-

cal, chemical, and bioassay results of this study show that the Cook Inlet

area has very low environmental concentrations of hydrocarbons, and that

sediments and water are generally free from toxicity. Results also show

no immediate evidence of heavy metal pollution in Cook Inlet.”

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COMMUNITY LANDFILLS5%

SEAFOOD PLANTS2%

POLLUTION AND CONTAMINANTS Most of Alaska’s vast water

resources remain clean and usable for all fish and wildlife.

However, human activities can damage or destroy the quality of

salmon streams. Personal, recreational, and industrial activities

all impact the quality of the watershed. Pollution and contami-

nants in our watersheds may come directly from an industry or

development project, or from an industrial accident. They may

also accumulate from a variety of places and activities such as

in non-point source pollution.

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION Through our small, daily, and

timely actions, people often cause the greatest lasting impacts

on watersheds and salmon streams. When we build our houses

or roads, fertilize our lawns, wash our vehicles, or change the oil

in our cars, we sometimes pollute the environment. If not done

properly, many other activities can also affect local waterway.

Activities such as riding four wheelers through streams or tram-

pling a stream bank while fishing can lead to bank erosion and

sediments entering our waterways. Surface runoff flows into the

ground water, wetlands, streams, rivers, and lakes and eventu-

ally into our estuaries and oceans. Our pollution adds to all other

pollution sources and has lasting impacts on salmon habitat.

This is non-point source pollution, and is a major problem for

salmon in densely populated areas.

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OTHER INDUSTRIES9%

INDUSTRIAL MINING11%

LOG TRANSFER FACILITIES16%

COMMUNITY RUNOFF

POLL

UTAN

T SOU

RCES

IN AL

ASKA

WAT

ERS M

ost o

f Ala

ska’

s va

st w

ater

re

sour

ces

rem

ain

clea

n an

d us

able

for f

ish

and

wild

life.

How

ever

, hum

an a

ctiv

ities

can

dam

age

or d

estr

oy q

ualit

y of

sal

mon

str

eam

s. P

erso

nal,

recr

eatio

nal,

and

indu

stria

l act

iviti

es a

ll im

pact

the

qual

ity o

f the

wat

ersh

ed. T

he

larg

est s

ingl

e so

urce

of w

ater

pol

lutio

n in

Ala

ska

is s

torm

wat

er ru

noff

and

ero

sion

from

pav

emen

t, pa

rkin

g lo

ts

and

ditc

hes,

com

mer

cial

and

resi

dent

ial c

onst

ruct

ion,

and

sep

tic s

yste

ms.

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WATERSHEDS One of the key areas of managements concerns are for the

vast watersheds in Alaska that provide rearing opportunities for native

salmon. A watershed is an area of land in which all of the water that falls

as snow or rain collects and eventually flows into a larger body of water.

Small watersheds are a part of larger watersheds. A watershed can be as

small as the area between two hills, or as vast as the entire drainage into

the Yukon River.

Human activities can change the environment and alter the quality and

quantity of habitat, sometimes to the point where salmon can no longer

survive. We have the power to destroy salmon by simply not understanding

their needs. We also have the power to sustain Alaska’s wild salmon by

conserving salmon populations and protecting their habitats.

GLACIERS Glaciers and snow pack contribute a constant supply of fresh

water to salmon streams during summer months. Advancing and retreating

glaciers sculpt the earth, creating new habitat for salmon. Glaciers have

shaped Alaska’s salmon habitat for hundreds of thousands of years.

UPLAND AREAS Upland areas are the collection point for all water that

eventually flows into a watershed’s aquatic system. Natural cover and the

vegetation helps reduce erosion and serves to moderate flow and water

temperature, thus stabilizing whole watersheds.

HEADWATERS, STREAMS AND SMALL FLOWS It is easy to understand how

important larger streams are for salmon, but some of the most important

salmon streams are small enough to step across. The creek behind your

house may hold hundreds of young salmon. Biologists have found young

salmon in tiny creeks above tree line in some watersheds. They have docu-

mented that the most productive streams may be only a foot or two across.

Sometimes small streams that appear to go dry in the winter come alive

with young fish during spring rains. Water still flows through the gravel

under these streambeds and salmon are hatching there.

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RIVERS,LAKES, AND STREAMS Alaska’s great rivers, lakes and large

streams have always been at the center of Alaskan life. The world’s great-

est single salmon fishery, Bristol Bay, exists because of the productivity

of the region’s lakes. In Southeast Alaska, it is the short, steep coastal

streams and rivers that contribute the majority of salmon to their fisheries.

Large and small rivers, lakes, and streams have defined life in many parts

of Alaska for centuries.

WETLANDS Wetlands are areas that remain wet for all or part of the year.

They are vital part of every watershed. Wetlands act as sponges and absorb

rainfall and runoff that is later released to the watershed. They filter some

pollution, provide critical habitat for wildlife, and provide important rearing

areas for fish. Wetlands can be compared to the value of coral reefs or old

growth forests for their importance in the environment.

ESTUARIES Estuaries are the mixing areas where fresh and salt waters

will meet at the mouths of streams and rivers. Alaska’s tidal range may be

greater that 25 feet between high and low tide. This produces many huge

estuaries. Estuaries are essential nursery and feeding areas for salmon

and wide range of the waterfowl and aquatic wildlife. Fingerlings, or also

salmon smolts, rear in both freshwater and estuarine areas for up to five

years, depending on the species. The mix of fresh and salt water helps the

salmon emerging from freshwater streams adapt to their new marine envi-

ronment. Kelp, eelgrass, and other plants found in estuaries that provide

young salmon protection from predators and harbor a richer food supply of

small organisms.

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GLACIERS UPLAND

AREAS

RIVERS,

LAKES,

& STREAMS

WETLANDS ESTUARIE

ALAS

KA SA

LMON

WAT

ERSH

EDS

Larg

e wa

ters

heds

pro

vide

a v

arie

ty o

f hab

itats

to s

uppo

rt th

e ne

eds

of s

alm

on. W

e co

ntin

ue to

enj

oy s

alm

on

beca

use

the

vast

maj

ority

of A

lask

a’s

salm

on h

abita

ts a

re h

ealth

y.

ALASKA’S MARINE HABITATSARE EXTREMELY CLEAN, AND OUR SEAFOOD

BY PESTICIDES, PETROLEUMS PCB’S, METALS & BACTERIA

IS REMARKABLY FREE OF CHEMICALSCONTAM

COMMUNITY STREAM RESTORATION PROJECTS You personal efforts to

lessen pollution often matter the most. A significant part of the restoration

of Alaska’s waters is performed by volunteers of all ages who care about

the water they live near. Stream restoration projects happen year round by

way of local school systems, corporate volunteers and funding, as well

as retired environmental employees.

PROTECTING OUR CLEAN WATER We know salmon need plenty of cold, clear

water with adequate volume and flow for safe passage, spawning, incuba-

tion, and rearing. People also need water to live. Alaskans use nearly 90

million gallons of fresh water each day. In Alaska, the greatest competition

for water is in areas with high populations. Industrial activities such as oil

and mining development, manufacturing operations, fish processing, fish

hatcheries, snow making, and hydropower generation use large amounts of

water. Agricultural uses can also remove a lot of water from a river, stream,

or lake. Recently, some companies have begun to export water from Alaska

to other locations experiencing water shortages or water of poor quality.

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ALASKA’S MARINE HABITATSARE EXTREMELY CLEAN, AND OUR SEAFOOD

BY PESTICIDES, PETROLEUMS PCB’S, METALS & BACTERIA

IS REMARKABLY FREE OF CHEMICALSCONTAM

CHAPTER EIGH

CHAPTER EIGH

Partnerships are an important aspect of salmon conservation. Individuals,

communities, tribes, businesses, harvesters, state, federal and also non-

government organizations work together to sustain Alaska’s wild salmon.

By protecting and restoring healthy salmon habitats, we support jobs in the

commercial and sport fishing businesses, and subsistence and personal

use of wild salmon for food and celebrations. Each salmon that Alaskans

harvest to sell or put on the table represents the healthy functioning natu-

ral ecosystem that salmon need. Just as ecosystems sustain businesses

and families, we in turn sustain those ecosystems by helping to protect and

restore salmons natural habitat.

PARTNERS FOR SALMON CONSERVATION

CHAPTER EIGHT

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT Your voice is essential in the partnership to sustain

salmon. Alaska has a well established open public process with strong

public involvement for making fisheries decisions. As well as the Alaska

Board of Fisheries is at the center of this public process.

The public and individuals are vital in protecting and restoring the salmon

habitat. Ensuring development does not destroy habitat, participating in

local educational activities, or helping with watershed restoration projects

within your community are examples of things each of us can do as a

partner in sustaining Alaska’s wild salmon.

Another powerful salmon stewardship tool available to many of us is our

purchasing dollar. Choosing to buy and asking for wild Alaska salmon over

imported, farmed salmon for you and your family makes a difference. You

send a signal to the marketplace that you prefer seafood this is wild and

natural. You also support Alaskan fishing families, seafood businesses, as

well as the communities that depend on intact salmon ecosystems for their

livelihood. As a consumer you participate in salmon stewardship by cast-

ing your economic vote in the marketplace for free flowing rivers, healthy

estuaries and oceans, and for the local fishing economies.

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INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS Some partnerships span international borders.

The Sitka Salmon Summit, called by Alaska Governor Tony Knowles in

1996, was an important step for future international salmon partnerships

and conservation. Participants included the governors of Washington and

Oregon, tribal leaders, and chief negotiators of the Pacific Salmon Treaty.

They worked to reach agreement for securing federal funds to protect and

restore stocks that cross state and national boundaries and to improve

communication among state, the U.S and Canada, tribal governments, and

communities affected by salmon resources. In addition, they also agreed

to protect and restore salmon habitat, and to rehabilitate stocks in the

Columbia River Basin where many salmon runs are in peril due to dams

and other developments that affect salmon habitat.

Following the Sitka Salmon Summit, ten year fishery agreements were all

signed in 1999 by Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Treaty Tribes, and Canada

under the Pacific Salmon Treaty. The treaty includes agreements for adopt-

ing Alaska’s successful abundance-based management plan for salmon

fisheries; agreements for creating funds to restore and protect the salmon

habitat; provisions for improving communication and cooperation between

the U.S. and Canada; and provisions for sharing of scientific information.

The U.S. and Canada formed another international partnership agreement

in March of 2001 with signing of the Yukon Salmon Treaty. This treaty

establishes protection for Yukon River salmon by setting harvest quotas,

and establishes restoration, conservation, and management program for

Yukon River Chinook and chum salmon stocks.

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ALASKA’S SAFE FISH PASSAGE AND CLEAN WATER LAWS Alaska’s constitu-

tion is unique among the fifty states in its commitment to the sustainable

management of natural resources including salmon. Since statehood in

1959, Alaska’s laws have given ADF&G the responsibility to protect salmon

habitat and ensure safe passage for all of Alaska’s fish species. Strict laws

and regulations govern industrial and developmental activities, such as

road building, logging and mining.

Four state laws in particular work together to protect salmon spawning

and their rearing habitats: The Anadromous Fish Act, the Fishways Act, the

Alaska Forest and Resources Practices Act, and the Water use Protec-

tion Act. The Anadromous Fish Act has been the cornerstone of the state’s

salmon habitat protection programs for nearly half a century. It requires

ADF&G to identify rivers, streams, and parts of streams that are important

for salmon rearing, spawning, or migration. These are included in an Anad-

romous Waters Catalog. Of all the anadromous waters estimated to exist,

approximately 50% have been cataloged. For waters in the catalog, the

Act requires that an individual or governmental agency get approval from

ADF&G for projects that may be harmful to fish. Examples of some instream

activities that must be approved by ADF&G include building of road cross-

ings, filling or removing gravel, placer mining, withdrawing water, stabiliz-

ing the bank, or driving a vehicle into the waterway.

In addition to state protection, the federal Clean Water Act seeks to prevent

pollution and restore polluted waters. The federal Coastal Zone Manage-

ment Act and the Alaska Coastal Zone Management Program work within

the concert to ensure coastal development that maintains the quality of

coastal habitats important to salmon and other living resources.

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THERE ARE A NUMBER OF BOARDS, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS WORKING TO CONSERVE THE ALASKA SALMON.

SALMON PROGRAMS

The Kenai Center is an excellent example of partnerships for salmon. The Kenai River

Center is a multi-agency permitting, information, and education center.

Marine Stewardship Council Sustainable fishery certification for Alaska’s com-

mercial salmon industry.

The Southeast Sustainable Fund Congressional funds allocated to recover and

assist salmon stocks in the Pacific Salmon Treaty region.

Pacific Salmon Commission Is the group of people brought together by Canada and

the U.S. to implement and manage the Pacific Salmon Treaty.

Pacific Salmon Treaty North Established as part of the agreement reached under

the Pacific Salmon Treaty in 1999.

Northern Pacific Anadromous Fund Was established under the Convention for the

Conservation of Anadromous Stocks in the North Pacific Ocean.

Alaska Coastal Management Includes a state coastal plan, coastal district plans,

standards for evaluating and managing areas.

Exxon Valdez Spill Monitoring Serves as a sentinel system by detecting, identifying,

and predicting changes in the marine ecosystme to aid managers and consumers.

Interagency Hydrology Committee Is an organization of technical specialists work-

ing at the federal,state, and local levels. Their purpose is to coordinate the collection

and implementation of water resources.

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GLOSSARY OF

GLOSSARY OF

ADAPTABILITY The ability of

salmon species to gradually

change and take advantage of new

habitat opportunities.

ALEVIN A young fish; especially a

newly hatched salmon when still

attached to the yolk sac.

ANADROMOUS A fish that spawns

in freshwater and spends a portion

of its life living in salt water.

BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES

Bottom dwelling auatic organisms.

CARCASS Remains of a salmon

after it has died.

CONSERVATION The preservation

of natural resources for future use.

DIVERSITY Variety in species.

ECOSYSTEM The combination

of physical environment and the

animals and plants which make up

a complete unit.

ESCAPEMENT Number of salmon

that must be allowed to spawn.

ESTUARY Area at the mouths of

rivers or streams where fresh and

salt waters mix, creating a very

rich environment.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

EVOLUTION Changes that occur

through successive generations

as a species adapts and develops

over geologic time.

FINGERLING A salmonid fry soon

to begin changing into a smolt.

FRY A young salmonid just

emerged from the gravel nest.

GENETICS The study of heredity

among all living things.

HABITAT the area in the environ-

ment where an organism lives.

HABITAT PARTITIONING The

dividing of a stream’s habitats

among different species of various

salmon and areas.

INTERTIDAL The area of land

exposed between tides.

MIGRATORY Undertaking a migra-

tion; to rove nomadic from place

to place.

NATAL The place of birth.

PARR MARKS The protective

coloration (vertical bars) on young

salmon prior to their becoming

full smolts.

PREDATOR An animal that lives

by using another for food.

PREY An animal hunted for food.

REDD A hole or depression a

female salmon creates in river

gravel nest.

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RIPARIAN The area near or along a

river or waterbody.

SALMONID Any fish of the family

Salmonidae, including salmon,

trout, and whitefish.

SMOLT A young salmon residing

in an estuary area preparing to

outmigrate to the ocean.

SPAWN The act of fish mating to

reproduce a species young.

SPECIES A class of individuals or

species that resemble one another

and are capable of reproducing

with one another.

STOCK A breeding population of

salmon from a single watershed.

TRIBUTARY A stream or river flow-

ing into a larger stream or river.

UPLAND The area above and away

from a waterbody.

VEGETATION Plants.

WATERSHED The area of land in

which all of the water that falls as

snow or rain eventually flows into

the same streams or rivers and

back to the sea.

WETLANDS Area of land that

remains wet for at least a part of

the year.

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GLOSSARY