MMPI-2 Interpretative Statements

MMPI-2 Interpretation: Implications of Score Elevations

TABLE 10. ? (Cannot Say) Score: Implications of Score Elevations

Raw-Score Level Usefulness of Profile Source of Elevation Interpretive PossibilitiesHigh Probably Severe reading Severe depression

(30 & above) invalid problems or Obsessional state

dyslexia Psychomotor retardation Confusion Defiance

Indecision

Moderate Questionable Mild reading Unfamiliarity with(11-29) validity problems English language

Lack of Paranoid mentation experience Over-cautious or legalistic

Modal Probably valid Idiosyncratic(2-10) (check content interpretation

for selective omissions)

Low Valid(0-1)

TABLE 11. L (Lie) Scale: Implications of Score Elevations

T-Score Level Usefulness of Profile Source of Elevation Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Probably “Faking-Good” Test resistance(80 & above) invalid (“Well Adjusted”) or naivete

High Questionable Random Confusional state

(70-79) validity responding Repressive style

Denial of Lacks insight faults

Moderate Probably valid Defensive set Over-conventional &(60-69) Conforming

MoralisticRigidly virtuous

Modal Valid Typical test- Comfortable with(50-59) taking approach own self-image

Low Possibly “Plus-getting” Over-emphasizing(49 & below) “Faking-Bad” set pathology

“All-True” Self-confident and responding independent

Cynical, sarcastic

TABLE 12. F (Infrequency) Scale: Implications of Score Elevations

T-Score Level Usefulness of Profile Source of Elevation Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Probably Random Uncooperat ive(91 & above) invalid Scoring errors faking bad

Severe dyslexia Test resistance

High Questionable Malingering Marginal readingability

(71-90) validity Psychotic process Plea for help

“All-True” Adolescent identity responding crisis

Confusional state

Moderate Probably valid Desire to be Risk of aggressive (56-70) unconventional acting-out

Strong political or Moody, restless, social, or religious unstable commitments Self-critical Lagging attention Agitated, distractible Extreme honesty in answering Agitation in midst of crisis

Modal Acceptable A few deviant Well-functioning(45-55) record Beliefs Typical test-

responding

Low Acceptable “Plus-getting” Over-emphasizing(44 & below) record set pathology

“All-True” Self-confident and responding independent

Cynical, sarcastic

TABLE 13. K (Correction) Scale: Implications of Score Elevations

T-Score Level Source of Elevation Interpretive PossibilitiesHigh Marked defensiveness Shy, inhibited, lacking

(71 &above) Faking good emotional involvement

All False responding Reliance on denialGuardedness in employment Lack of insightsituations

Moderate Moderate defensiveness Adaptive(56-70) No acknowledgement of Self-reliant

distress Unwilling to seek help

Modal Balance between self- Sufficient resources for(41-55) protectiveness and intervention

self-disclosure

Low Fake bad responding Cynical, skeptical(40 & below) All True responding Panic state

Plea for help Poor self-conceptInadequate defenses Critical of self and others

TABLE 14. Scale 1 (Hs): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Schizoid, bizarre bodily or somatic delusions(76 & above) Constricted, immobilized by mult iple symptoms

and complaints

High Over-reaction to any real problems (66-75) Extreme self-centeredness and selfishness

Bitter, cynical outlook, demandingDefeatist attitudes, pessimisticExaggerat ion of physical problemsShifting, multiple complaints

Moderate May have specific organic disorder(56-65) Complaining, irritable, whining, immature

Over-concern with personal health, dieting,weight, bodily functioning

Modal Little or no special concern about body or health(41-55) Emotionally open and balanced

Realistic and insightful

Low May disregard signs or symptoms of illness(40 & below) Optimistic, energetic

Capable, effective

TABLE 15. Scale 2 (D): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Withdrawn, overwhelmed with problems, hopelessness(76 & above) Guilt-ridden, feelings of unworthiness and inadequacy

Preoccupied with death, suicideDespondent, slowed in thought and action

High Retiring, shy, remote, sad(66-75) Lacking in energy, unable to concentrate, physical complaints,

problems with sleepingSelf-deprecating, low self-confidence, feelings of inadequacyDistressed, miserable, dysphoric

Moderate Inhibited, irritable, timid, moody(56-65) Discouraged, blue, unhappy dissat isfied with self or world

Pessimistic, worryingIntroverted, moralisticResponsible, modest

Modal Comfortable with self(41-55) Stable, well-balanced

Realistic

Low Active, enthusiastic(40 & below) Cheerful, optimist ic

Lacking inhibition, under-controlledSocially outgoingFree of emotional turmoil, self-confident

TABLE 16. Scale 3 (Hy): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Highly suggestible(76 & above) Sudden anxiety and panic episodes

UninhibitedInfantile tantrumsReacts to shame by developing physical symptoms

High Uses denial and dissociation(66-75) Specific functional symptoms and complaints

Naive, poor self-insightDemanding and histrionicFlirtatious

Moderate Self-centered and superficial(56-65) Immature and manipulative

Conforming and moralisticNeed to be liked, insecureDemonstrative and extroverted

Modal Realistic(41-55) Open to feelings

Logical, level-headed

Low Cynical tough-minded(40 & below) Socially isolated and aloof

Few interests

TABLE 17. Scale 4 (Pd): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Poor judgment(76 & above) Unstable

IrresponsibleSelf-centered and immatureAntisocial actionsAggressive or assaultive

High Poor tolerance of boredom or tedium(66-75) Problems with authority

Recurrent marital and work problemsRebellious and host ileSuperficial emotional reactions (shame, guilt)Substance abuseHistory of underachievementSuperficial relationships

Moderate Impulsive and adventurous(56-65) Hedonistic

ResentfulUnreliable and impatientSociableSelf-confident and assertiveImaginative and creative

Modal Sincere(41-55) Trusting

PersistentResponsible

Low Conventional and rigid(40 & below) Unassertive and passive

MoralisticSelf-criticalOver-controlled

TABLE 18. Scale 5 (Mf): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive Possibilities Interpretive Possibilities Males Females

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Very High Traditional feminine Traditional masculineM (76 & above) interest pattern interest patternF (70 & above) Conflicts over sexual Unfriendly

identity DominatingPassive and effeminate AggressiveInsecure in assertivenessHomoerotic trends

High Curious and creative Self-confidentM (66-75) Tolerance of others Logical

F (60-69) Individualistic UnemotionalIntellectual Interests CompetitiveEmpathic Vigorous

Moderate Self-controlled ActiveM (56-65) Expressive and demonstrative AdventurousF (51-59) Uses common sense Spontaneous

Aesthetic interests AssertiveInterpersonal sensitivity

Modal Practical Empathic

M (41-55) Easy-going CapableF (41-50) Realistic Competent

Conventional Easy-going

Low Traditional masculine Traditional feminineM & F (40 & below) interest pat tern interest pattern

Macho protest, crude and Insecure and self- depreciativeaggressive Passive and submissive Reckless Constricted Few interests Helplessness Action-oriented DependentSelf-confident Self-pitying and complaining

(see Note below)

Note: Graham (1987) indicates that these descriptors apply primarily to women of low to average educationWomen with above average education are more accurately described as: capable, conscientious, forcefulintelligent, considerate, easy-going, insightful, and unprejudiced.

TABLE 19. Scale 6 (Pa): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Thought disorder(76 & above) Mistaken beliefs

Ideas of referenceVengeful and broodingMay act upon delusions

High Angry and resentful(66-75) Displaces blame and criticisms

Hostile and suspiciousRigid and stubbornMisinterprets social situations

Moderate Overly sensitive to slights and rejection(56-65) Guarded in initial social contacts

Moralistic and martyr-likeTrusting until betrayedHard-working

Modal Rational(41-55) Clear-thinking

CautiousFlexible

Low Balanced and cheerful(40 & below) Wary and evasive

StubbornSuggestive of paranoid disorder

MMPI-2 Supplementary Scales TABLE 20. Scale 7 (Pt): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive Possibilities

Very High Ruminating(76 & above) Rigid rituals

AgitationSuperstitious phobiasFeelings of guiltFearfulAnxietyDepression

High Insecure and anxious(66-75) Worrying and apprehensive

Fears of failureOverly meticulous and indecisiveMoralisticTense and miserable

Moderate Responsible and conscientious(56-65) Intellectualizing

Hard-workingOrderly and perfectionisticSelf-criticalIntrospective

Modal Punctual(41-55) Reliable

TrustingAdaptableWell-organized

Low Self-confident(40 & Free of insecuritiesbelow) Relaxed and comfortable

Persistent and efficient

TABLE 21. Scale 8 (Sc): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Disordered thinking(76 & above) Eccentric behaviors

DelusionalSocially seclusivePoor contact with realityHallucinatory and autistic

High Unusual beliefs(66-75) Bizarre actions

Withdrawn and alienatedUnconventionalSelf-doubting and identity confusionDifficulties in concentrating and thinking

Moderate Litt le interest in people(56-65) Impractical

Creative and imaginativeHigh-strungReligious concerns

Modal Adaptable(41-55) Dependable

Well-balanced

Low Conventional and conservative(40 & Self-controlledbelow) Submissive

TABLE 22. Scale 9 (Ma): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Expansive and grandiose(76 & above) Irritable

Poor temper controlHyperactive and distractibleImpulsive decisionsConfusion Over-extended

High Excessive activity(66-75) Euphoric

TalkativeRestless and labileSuperficial involvementsImpatientGregarious and outgoingPoor tolerance of tediumWide range of interestsHard-working and effect iveAchievement orientedEnterprising

Moderate Sociable and friendly(56-65)

Modal Responsible(41-55) Realistic

EnthusiasticPoised

Low Apathetic and pessimistic(40 & Easily fatiguedbelow) Shy and dependent

Lacking in energyPoor self-confidenceDepressed

TABLE 23. Scale 0 (Si): Implications of Scale Elevations

T-Score Level Interpretive PossibilitiesVery High Aloof(76 & above) Insecure and indecisive

RetiringRuminativeIntrovertedWithdrawn

High Shy and timid(66-75) Lack of self-confidence

MoodySubmissiveRigidReserved

Moderate Self-effacing(56-65) Overly-controlled

SeriousCautiousSocially inept Active

Modal Energetic(41-55) Friendly

TalkativePoisedWarm

Low Sociable and gregarious(40 & Self-confident and assertivebelow) Self-indulgent

ExhibitionisticManipulative

Harris-Lingoes Subscales Interpretative Statements

Scale 2. Depression

Dl/Subjective Depression Unhappy, low energy, sense of inferiority, low self-confidence, sociallyuneasy, few interests.

D2/Psychomotor Retardation Low energy, immobilized, socially withdrawn, listles

D3/Physical Malfunctioning Reports wide variety of physical symptoms, preoccupied withhealth, denial of good health.

D4/Mental Dullness Low energy, pessimistic, little enjoyment of life; difficulties withconcentration, attention, and memory; apathetic.

D5/Brooding May feel as if he or she is losing control of his or her thoughts; broods, cries,ruminates, feels inferior, and is hypersensitive.

Scale 3. Hysteria

Hy1/Denial of Social Anxiety Extraverted, comfortable with social interaction, minimallyinfluenced by social standards.

Hy2/Need for Affection Strong needs for affection with fears that these needs will not be met,denies negative feelings toward others.

Hy3/Lassitude-Malaise Subjective, discomfort, poor health, fatigued, poor concentration,insomnia, unhappiness.

Hy4/Somatic Complaints Wide variety of physical complaints, denial of hostility towards others.

Hy 5/Inhibition of Aggression Denial of hostility and anger, interpersonally hypersensitive.

Scale 4. Psychopathic Deviate

Pd1/Familial Discord Family that was critical, unsupportive, and interfered withindependence.

Pd2/Authority Conflict Rebellion against societal rules, beliefs of right/wrong thatdisregard societal norms, legal/academic difficulties.

PdS/Social Imperturbability Opinionated, socially confident, outspoken.

Pd4/Social Alienation Isolated from others, feels poorly understood.

PdS/Self-Alienation Unhappy with self, guilt and regret regarding past behavior.

Scale 6. Paranoia

Pal/Persecutory Ideas Perceives world as dangerous, feels poorly understood, distrustful.

Pa1/Poignancy Feels lonely, tense, hypersensitive, possibly high sensation-seeking.

Scale 6. Paranoia (cont.)

Pa2/Naivete Overly optimistic, extremely high moral standards, denial of hostility.

Scale 8. Schizophrenia

Scl/Social Alienation Feels unloved, mistreated, and possibly persecuted.

Sc2/Emotional Alienation Depression, fear, possible suicidal wishes.

Sc3/Lack of Ego Mastery, Cognitive Strange thoughts, sense of unreality, poor con-centrat ion and memory, loss of mental control.

Sc4/Lack of Ego Mastery, Conative Depressed, worried, fantasy withdrawal, life is too difficult,possible suicidal wishes.

Sc5/Lack of Ego Mastery, Defective Inhibition Sense of losing control of impulses and feelings,labile, hyperactive, cannot control or recall certain behaviors.

Sc6/Bizarre Sensory Experiences Hallucinations, peculiar sensory and motor experiences.Experiences strange thoughts, delusions.

Scale 9. Hypomania

Mal/Amorality Selfish, poor conscience, manipulative; just ifies amoral behavior by believingothers are selfish and opportunistic.

Ma2/Psychomotor Acceleration Restless, hyperactive, accelerated thoughts and behaviors.Seeks excitement to reduce boredom.

Ma3/lmperturbability Unaffected by concerns and opinions of others, denies feeling sociallyanxious.

Ma4/Ego Inflation Unrealistic perception of abilities, resentful of demands placed on himself orherself.

Scale 0. Social Introversion

(Note: The Social Introversion subscales are scored on the MMP1-2 Supplementary

Scales Profile sheet.)

Sil/Shyness Easily embarrassed, reluctant to initiate relationships, socially uncomfortable, shy.

Si2/Social Avoidance Dislike and avoidance of group activities, parties, social activities.

Si3/Self/Other Alienation Poor self-esteem, self-critical, low self-confidence, sense ofineffectiveness.

MMPI-2 Supplementary Scales Interpretative Statements

A/Anxiety High scores indicate that the person is upset, shy, retiring, insecure, has low self-

confidence. is inhibited, uncertain, hesitant, conforming, under stress, and has extreme difficultymaking decisions. Low scores indicate that the individual is extraverted. secure, relaxed,energetic, competitive, and generally has an absence of emotional difficulties.

R/Repression High scorers tend to be submissive, over-controlled, slow, clear thinking,conventional, formal, cautious, use denial and rationalization, and go to great lengths to avoidunpleasant interpersonal situations. Low scorers are likely to be dominant, enthusiastic, excitable.impulsive, self-indulgent, outspoken, and achievement oriented.

Esl/Ego Strength This scale assesses the degree to which a client is likely to benefit frompsychotherapy. Specific to predicting the response of neurotic pat ients to insight-oriented therapy:Not useful for other types of patients or other kinds of treatments.

High scores suggest these persons can benefit from psychotherapy because they are likely to beadaptable and possess personal resources, have good reality contact, are tolerant, balanced, alert,have a secure sense of reality, will seek help in situational difficulties, possess strongly developedinterests, are persistent, can deal effectively with others, have a sense of personal adequacy. caneasily gain social acceptance, and have good physical health.

Low scores reflect general maladjustment. These people are likely to have low self-esteem, a poorself-concept, lack personal resources, feel insecure, be rigid and moralistic, have chronic physicalproblems, possess fears and phobias, are confused and helpless, have chronic fatigue, may hewithdrawn and seclusive, inhibited, have personality rather than situational problems and poorwork histories, and will. therefore, have difficulty benefitt ing from psychotherapy.

MAC-R/MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale-Revised The potential to become involved in alcoholuse is assessed rather than current alcohol use. The scale has difficulty differentiating alcoholabusei's from other substance abusers.

High scores on the MAC-R scale primarily surest actual or potential substance abuse but may alsosuggest extraversion, affiliation, confidence, assertiveness. risk taking, sensation seeking, pastschool behavior problems, the possibility of having experienced blackouts, and possible difficultieswith concentration.

Low scores are not only a contraindication of substance abuse, but also may suggest introversion,conformity, and low self-confidence. If low scores in a known substance abuser do occur, thissuggests that the abuse is based more on psychological disturbance than typical addictiveprocesses.

Recommended raw score cutoff to indicate the initial point of drug and/or alcohol problems.Males = 26 to 28; Females = 23 to 25.

MAC-R/MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale-Revised

Not particularly effective with African Americans and other non-Caucasian respondents fordetection of alcohol abuse.

High scorers are likely to be extraverted, impulsive risk takers who will benefit from a group-oriented, confrontive treatment approach.

Low scorers are more likely to be introverted, withdrawn, depressed risk avoiders who will bemore likely to benefit from a supportive and relatively non-confrontational treatment approach.

AAS/Addiction Acknowledgment Scale Most sensitive MMPI-2 scale for detecting substanceabuse.

High scores suggest a conscious awareness of and willingness to share information related to drugand/or alcohol-related problems.

Low scores merely clarify that the person has not acknowledged these problems (there is still thepossibility that they do have drug and/or alcohol-related difficulties).

APS/Addiction Potential Scale Does not necessarily measure the extent of current use but morethe potential for developing such problems. If the APS (or MAC-R) is used to identify personswho are actually abusing substances, it is likely to result in a high number of false positives.Measures same factors as the MAC-R as or more effectively.

High scores indicate that the person has a considerable number of lifestyle and personality factorsconsistent with those who abuse alcohol and/or drugs.

If the person scores in the normal-to-low range but history reveals that they have a drug and/oralcohol problem, this problem is probably based primarily on psychological maladjustment(drug/alcohol use as self-medication) rather than a typical addictive pattern (harmful habits, peergroup issues, physiological impact of the drug).

MDS/Marital Distress Scale More specifically related to marital difficulties than the FAMcontent scale or Scale 4 (both of which assess relationship difficulties not necessarily specific tomarriage). MDS should be interpreted only for persons who are married, separated, or divorced.

High scores indicate the person is experiencing marital distress.

0-H/Overcontrolled Hostility Scale Most useful in understanding past behavior rather thanpredicting the likelihood of future hostility.

High scores suggest that the person is emotionally constricted, bottles up anger, and mayoverreact, possibly becoming physically or verbally aggressive: the aggressiveness usually occursas rare incidents in a person who is otherwise extremely well controlled. Some persons who scorehigh are not act ively struggling to control dangerous host ility but are very well controlled andhighly socialized. The scale is more direct ly a measure of persons who deny aggressive actionsand are somewhat constricted. Initially in therapy, individuals might seem superficial and lackingin affect.

Do/Dominance Useful and frequently used in personnel selection (e.g.. police officer selection).

Elevations indicate that the individual is self-confident, realistic, task oriented, feels a sense ofduty toward others: is competent to solve problems, socially dominant, poised, and self-assured inworking with groups; takes the initiative in relationships, possesses strong opinions, perseveres attasks, and has a good ability to concentrate

Re/Responsibility High scores suggest that the individual possesses high standards, a strong sense of justice andfairness, strong (even rigid) adherence to values, is self-confident. dependable, trustworthy: thescale is a general index of positive personality characteristics; often useful in personnel screening.

Mt/College Maladjustment

High scores indicate general maladjustment among college students; they are likely to be worried,anxious, and procrastinate: they are pessimistic. ineffectual, somatize stress, and feel that, much ofthe time, life is a strain.

GM/Masculine Gender Rule This is still an experimental scale in need of further research.

Both Males and Females High - Likely to be self-confident, deny feeling afraid or worried, and be persistent in pursuingtheir goals.

Females - High: Likely to be honest, unworried. and have a willingness to explore new things

High on GM & Low on Gf - Stereotypic male interests and orientations:

High on both GM and Gf suggest androgyny (the person has both masculine and femininecharacteristics)

Low on GM along & High on GF suggest stereotypic feminine interests and orientation

Low on both GM and Gf suggest an undifferentiated masculine/feminine orientation:

GF/Feminine Gender Role This is still an experimental scale in need of further research.

High scores suggest the endorsement of stereotypically feminine interests and orientations. Mayalso suggest religiosity and possibly abuse of alcohol and/or nonprescription drugs.

MalesHigh: May be hypercrit ical, express religiosity, avoid swearing but act bossy, and have a difficulttime controlling their temper.

PK/Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale The scale does not determine that trauma has actuallyoccurred but indicates that the symptoms reported are consistent with persons exposed totraumatic events. The existence of a trauma still needs to be determined through other means.

High scores indicate emotional distress, depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, guilt, loss otcontrol over thinking, a feeling of being misunderstood and mistreated by others.

PS/Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale An experimental scale under development.

MMPI-A Supplementary Scales Interpretative Statements

MAC-R/MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale

High scores suggest that the person is similar to others who have alcohol or drug problems;dominant, assertive, egocentric, self-indulgent, impulsive, unconventional: risk taker and sensationseeker: increased possibility of conduct disorder and legal difficulties.

Low scores suggest that the person is dependent, conservative, avoids sensation-seekingactivities, is over-controlled and indecisive.

ACK/Alcohol Drug Acknowledgment Scale

Persons who score high have a conscious awareness of and willingness to admit to alcohol- and/ordrug-related problems: includes problem use, reliance on alcohol to cope or as a means of freelyexpressing feelings, harmful substance abuse habits: friends or acquaintances may tell them thatthey have alcohol and/or drug problems: they may get into fights while drinking.

PRO/Alcohol Drug Proneness Scale

A high score suggests that the person is prone to developing drug- and/or alcohol-relatedproblems, school and home behavior problems. No obvious items related to drugs and alcohol areincluded on the scale; therefore, the scale measures personality and lifestyle patterns moreconsistent with alcohol- and drug-related problems. The scale does not so much measure currentalcohol or drug use patterns although they may still be present.

MMPI-A Supplementary Scales Interpretative Statements (cont.)

IMM/Immaturity Scale

High scorers are untrustworthy, undepcndable, boisterous: quickly become angry, are easilyfrustrated, may tease or bully others; are resistant, defiant, and arc likely to have a background ofschool and interpersonal difficulties.

MMPI-2 Content Scales Interpretative Statements

ANX (Anxiety). High scorers on ANX report general symptoms of anxiety including tension,

somatic problems (such as heart pounding and shortness of breath), sleep difficulties, worries,

and poor concentration. They fear losing their minds, find life a strain, and have difficulty making

decisions. They appear to be aware of these symptoms and problems, and freely admit to having

them.

FRS (Fears). A high score on FRS indicates an individual with many specific fears. These include

the sight of blood; high places; money; animals such as snakes, mice, or spiders; leaving home;

fire; storms and natural disasters; water; the dark; being indoors; and dirt.

OBS (Obsessiveness). High scorers on OBS have great difficulty making decisions and are likely

to ruminate excessively about issues and problems, causing others to become impatient. Having to

make changes distresses them, and they may report some compulsive behaviors like counting or saving

unimportant things. They are excessive worriers who are frequently overwhelmed by their own

thoughts.

DEP (Depression). High scores on this scale characterize individuals with significant depressive

thoughts. They report feeling blue, uncertain about their future, and uninterested in their lives.

They are likelv to brood, be unhappy, cry easily, and feel hopeless and empty. They may report

thoughts of suicide or wishes that they were dead. They may believe they are condemned or have

committed unpardonable sins. Other people may not be viewed as sources of support.

HEA (Health Concerns). Individuals with high scores on HEA report many physical symptoms

across several body systems. Included are gastro-intestinal symptoms (such as constipation, nausea

and vomiting, stomach trouble), neurological problems (convulsions, dizzy and fainting spells,

paralysis), sensory problems (poor hearing or eyesight), cardiovascular symptoms (heart or chest

pains), skin problems, pain (headaches, neck aches), and respiratory trouble (coughs, hay fever,

asthma). These individuals worry about their health and feel sicker than the average person.

MMPI-2 Content Scales Interpretative Statements (cont.)

BIZ (Bizarre Mentation). Psychotic thought processes characterize individuals high on the BIZ

scale. They may report auditory, visual, or olfactory hallucinations and may recognize that

their thoughts are st range and peculiar. Paranoid ideation (such as the belief that they are being

plotted against or that someone is trying to poison them) may be reported as well. These

individuals may feel they have a special mission or special powers.

ANG (Anger). High scores on the ANG scale suggest anger-control problems. These individuals

report being irritable, grouchy, impatient, hotheaded, annoyed, and stubborn. They sometimes feel

like swearing or smashing things. They may lose self-control and report having been physically

abusive toward people and objects.

CYN (Cynicism). Misanthropic beliefs characterize high scorers on CYN. They expect hidden,

negative motives behind the acts of others — for example, believing that most people are honest

simply because they fear being caught. Other people are to be distrusted, because people use each

other and are friendly only for selfish reasons. They are likely to hold negative attitudes toward

those close to them, including fellow workers, family, and friends.

ASP (Antisocial Practices). In addition to having misanthropic attitudes similar to those of high

scorers on the CYN scale, high scorers on the ASP scale report problem behaviors during their

school years and antisocial practices such as being in trouble with the law, stealing, or shoplifting.

Thev report sometimes enjoying the antics of criminals, and even if not explicitly endorsing

unlawful conduct, they believe it is all right to get around the law.

TPA (Type A). High scorers on TPA are hard-driving, fast-moving, and work-oriented

individuals who frequently become impatient, irritable, and annoyed. They do not like to wait or

be interrupted. There is never enough time in a day for them to complete their tasks. They are

direct and may be overbearing in their relationships with others.

LSE (Low Self-Esteem). High scores on LSE characterize individuals with low opinions of

them-selves. They do not believe that they are liked by others or that they are important. They

hold many negative attitudes about themselves, including thinking they are unattractive, awkward

and clumsy, useless, and a burden to others. They clearly lack self-confidence and find it hard to

accept compliments. They may be overwhelmed by all the faults they see in themselves.

SOD (Social Discomfort). SOD high scorers are very uneasy around others, preferring to be by

themselves. When in social situations, they are likely to sit alone rather than joining in the group.

They see themselves as shy and dislike parties and other group events.

FAM (Family Problems). Considerable family discord is reported by high scorers on FAM.

Their families are described as lacking love, quarrelsome, and unpleasant . They may even report hating

members of their families. Their childhood may be portrayed as abusive, and their marriages as

unhappy and lacking in affection.

MMPI-2 Content Scales Interpretative Statements (cont.)

WRK (Work Interference). A high score on WRK is indicative of behaviors or at titudes likely

to contribute to poor work performance. Some of the problems relate to low self-confidence,

concentration difficulties, obsessiveness, tension and pressure, and decision-making problems.

Others suggest lack of family support for their career choice, personal questioning of career choice,

and negative attitudes toward co-workers.

TRT (Negative Treatment Indicators). High scores on TRT indicate individuals with negat ive

attitudes toward doctors and mental-health treatment. High scorers do not believe that anyone can

problems they are not comfortable discussing with anyone. They may not want to change anything

in their lives, nor do they feel that change is possible. They prefer giving up to facing a crisis or

difficulty.

PSY-5 Scales Interpretative Statements

Harkness and McNulty developed a mode! for assessing psychopathology based on the "Big Five"

model of personality. They Selected items from the MMPI-2 item pool that matched their model

and developed five scales: Aggressiveness (AGGR), Psychoticism (PSYC), Disconstraint (DISC),

Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism (NEGE), and Introversion/Low Positive Emotionality

(INTR). An extended description of these constructs, the scale development process,

psychometric properties, validity evidence, and guidelines for interpretat ion is given in

Harkness, McNulty, Ben-Porath, and Graham (2002).

Aggressiveness (AGGR)

PSY-5 Aggressiveness focuses on offensive and instrumental aggression. Persons high on PSY-5

Aggressiveness may enjoy intimidating others and may use aggression as a tool to accomplish

goals. PSY-5 Aggressiveness does not emphasize defensive or reactive aggression. Inter-

personally, high PSY-5 Aggressiveness is linked with dominance and hate.

Psychoticism (PSYC)

PSY-5 Psychoticism assesses disconnection from reality. Unshared beliefs, as well as unusual

sensory and perceptual experiences, are examples of disconnection. Alienated and unrealistic

expectation of harm is also assessed. Persons with high Psychoticism scores tend to have a higher

probability of delusions of reference, thinking that is disorganized, bizarre, disoriented,

circumstantial, or tangential. PSY-5 Psychoticism is a phenotype, not linked to any specific

etiology. It is important to distinguish these PSY-5 Psychoticism concepts from the use of the

term by Hans Eysenck, whose concept was linked more to criminality and antisocial behavior.

PSY-5 Scales Interpretative Statements (cont.)

Disconstraint (DISC)

Persons with high scores on PSY-5 Disconstraint tend to be more risk taking, impulsive, and

less t raditional. They have a slight tendency to prefer romantic partners who have the same

features. They tend to be easily bored with routine. Tellegen's (1982) Constraint concept was

the antecedent to identifying PSY-5 Disconstraint in the structure of normal personality and

personality psychopathology markers (Harkness & McNulty, 1994). This pattern of behavioral

disinhibition has been further described by Watson and dark (1993). Although Zuckerman's

(1994) Sensation Seeking Scale bears a different label and research tradition, empirical

correlations suggest significant overlap in personality individual differences tapped by measures of

disconstraint and sensation seeking (McNulty, Harkness, & Ben-Porath, 1998).

Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism (NEGE)Common features of elevated Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism are focusing on problematic

aspects of incoming information, worrying, being self-critical, feeling guilty, and concocting

worst-case scenarios. The personality disposition to experience negative affects and emotions was

articulated by Tellegen (1982) and further described in Watson and dark's (1984) landmark

review.

Introversion/Low Positive Emotionality (INTR)Patients with PSY-5 Introversion/Low Positive Emotionality experience little joy or positive

engagement. Although linked with the corresponding social dimension of Introversion versus

Extroversion, Tellegen (1982, 1985) and Watson and dark (1997) argued persuasively that the

core of the individual differences dimension is the affective disposit ion. The scale name

emphasizes the link between these two dimensions.