Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin MclaughlinPREPARED ON TIlE BASIS OF TIlE GERMAN VOLUME EDITED BY ROLF TIEDEMANN

THE BELKNAP PRESS OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIIlGE, MASSACHUSETTS, AND LONDON, ENGLAND 1999

CONTENTS

Copyrigflt 0 1999 by the Praidc:nt and FdIows of Harvard CollegeAllrighu~

Translators' Foreword Printc:d in lhc: United SuIc:S of Amc:rica

'" TIm work is a tr:uulation of Waha Benjamin, Da.s /Wsag<'ll .WtrA:, edited by RoIfTICdanann, copyrigtuo 1982 by Suhrkamp \bUg; voIumc: 5 of \-IhI(c:r Bc:njamin. Gutuuuflt &ltrjftnt, prepared with the: 00-

Exposes 1opc:ntion oCTheodor W Adorno and Gc:rshom Schokm, edited by RoIflic:dc:mann and Hc:rm:um "Paris, the Capital of the Nineteenth Century" (1935) 3Schwq>pc:nhaUKr, copyrigbt 0 1972, 1974, 1977, 1982, 1985, 1989 by Suhrkamp \b'Iag, ~Diakctia at aStandstill." by RolfTICdc:mann. w:u lint published in F.ngIUh by MIT Prest, copyright 0 1988 by the

"Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century" (1939) 14 Manac:husc:tu Institute oC1Cchnology.

Publication of this book has bern 5Upponc:d by a grant from the: National Endowment for the Humani· Convolutes 27

ties, an independent fedc:ral agency. Overview 29 Cover photo: Walter Benjamin, ca. 1932. Photographa unknown. Courtesy of the Theodor W. AdornoArchiv, Frankfurt am Main. First Sketches 827 Frontispieo::: Panage:JoulTroy, 1845-1847. Photographer unknown. Courtesy Mus~ Camavalet, Paris. Photo copyrigbt 0 Photothtque des Musles de Ia Ville de Paris. Early Drafts"Vignettes: pages i, 1, 825,891, 1074, Institul Fraoo;:ais d'Arcltitecture; page: 27, Hans Meyu-~; "Arcades" 871page: 869, Robc:n. Doisnau.

"The Arcades of Paris" 873 Library of Congress Cataloging.in·Publication Data "The Ring of Saturn" 885 Benjamin. Walter, 1892- 1940.

[Pauagc:n·W:rk. English) 99 201 75 AddendaThe:u-cades projea I Walla Benjamin: Expose of 1935, Early Version 893translated by Howard Eiland and i«;vin McLaughlin;

prepared on the balis of the Gc:rrua.tl m lumc: ediled by RoIfT>edemann. Materials for the Expose of 1935 899p. ou. Materials for "Arcades" 919

Includes index. ISBN ().{j74..()4326-X (alk . paper)I.liedem;uUl. Rolf. IL litle.

PT2603.FA55 Pl3513 1999 "Dialectics at a Standstill," by RolfTtedemann 929944' .361081-d.:21 99-27615 , "The Story of Old Benjamin," by Lisa F"ittko 946

Dc:sign«1 by G-n Nefsky Frankfddl Translators' Notes 955 Guide to Names and Tenus 10 16

Ind"" 1055

nIustrations

Shops in the Passage Vero-Dadat

Glass roof and iron girders, Passage Vivienne

The Passage des Panoramas

A branch of La BelleJardiniere in Marseilles

The Passage de 1'000ra, 1822-1823

Street scene in front of the Passage des Panoramas

Au Bon Marthe department store in Paris

I.e Pont de; planete;, by Grandville

Fashionable courtesans wearing crinolines, by H onore Dawnier

Tools used by Haussmann's workers

Interior of the Crystal Palace, London

La Caue-ttte-omanie, ou La Fureur du j our

The Paris Stock Exchange, mid-nineteenth century

The Palais de l'Industrie at the world exhibition of 1855

I.e 1'riompht du lcaliidOJcope, ou I.e tombeau dujeu ,hinou

Exterior of the Crystal Palace, London

Charles Baudelaire, by Nadar

The Pont-Neuf, by Charles Meryon

Theophile Gautier, by Nadar

The sewers of Paris, by Nadar

A Paris omnibus, by Honore Daumier

3<

35

36

47

49

50

59

65

67

134

159

164

165

166

169

185

229

232

242

413

433

A page of Benjamin's manwcript from Convolute N 457

A gall")' of the PaIai.-RoyaI 491

A panorama under colutruction 529

A diorama on the Rue de Bondy 534

Self-portrait by Nadar 680

Nadar in his balloon, by Honore Dawnier 682

1?te Origin ofPainting 683

Rue 1'raJUlIonain, Ie 15 auri11834, by H onart Daumier 717

Honore Dawnier, by Nadar 742

Victor Hugo, by Etienne: Catjat 747

L'Artiste et l'amateur du dix-neuuiime Jude ~50

L'Homme de ['art daTU I'mbarras de J01I milia- 751

Alexandre Dumas p(n=, by Nadar 752

L'Etrangomanie hlamie, au D 'Elre R-anrou it n} a pas d'tiffronl 783

Aaualiti, a caricature of the painter Gustave Courhet 792

A barricade of the Paris Commune 794

TIle Fourierist missionary JeanJoumet, by Nadar 813

Walter Benjamin consulting the Grand Dictionnaire univu.sel 888

Walter Benjamin at the card cataJogue of the Bibliothcque Nationale 889

The Passage Choiseul 927

Translators' Foreword

The materials assembled in Volume 5 of Walter Benjamin's G~.sammt/ttSchriflm, under the: title DflJ pQJ.kJgen-WerA (first published in 1982), repre­sent research that Benjamin carried out, over a period of thirteen years, on

e subject of the Paris arcades-les pa.ssagt.l-which he considered the mostimportant architectural form of the nineteenth cenrury, and which he linked witha number of phenomena characteristic of that century's major and minor preoc­cupations. A glance at the overview preceding the "Convolutes" at the center ofthe work reveals the range of these phenomena. which extend from the literaryand philosophical to the political, economic, and technological, with all sorts ofintennediate relations. Benjamin's intention from the first, it would seem, was tograsp such diverse material under the general category of Urgtsdiich/e, signifyingthe "primal history'" of the nineteenth cencury. This was something that could berealized only indirectly, through "cunning" : it was not the great men and cele­brated eventS of traditional historiography but rather the "refuse" and "detrirusn

of history, the half-<:oncealed, variegated traces of the daily life of "the collective,nthat was to be the object of study, and with the aid of methods more akin-aboveall, in their dependence on chance-to the methods of the nineteenth-centurycollector of antiquities and curiosities, or indeed to the methods of the nine­teenth-century ragpicker, than to those of the modem historian. Not conceptu..alanruysis but something like dream interpretation was the model. The nineteenthcentury was the collective dream which we, its heirs, were obliged to reenter, aspatiendy and minutely as possible, in order to follow out its ramifications and,finally, awaken from it_lbis, at any rate, was how it looked at the outset of theproject, which wore a good many faces over time.

Begun in 1927 as a planned collaboration for a newspaper article on thearcades, the project had quickly burgeoned under the influence of Surrealism, amovement toward which Benjamin always maintained a pronowlced ambiva­lence. Before long, it was an essay he had in mind, "Pariser Passagen: Einedialektische Feerien (Paris Arcades: A Dialectical Fairyland), and then, a fewyears later, a book, Paro, die Hauptsladt du XIX. Jahrhunderts (Paris, the Capitalof the Nineteenth Century). For some two-and-a-half years, at the end of theTwenties, having expressed his sense of alienation from contemporary Germanwriters and his affinity with the French cultural milieu, Benjamin worked inter­mittendy on reams of notes and sketches, producing one shon essay, "Der

Sarumring oder Etwas vom Eisenbau" (The Ring of Saturn, or Some Remarks on Iron Construction), which is included here in the section "Early Drafts." A hiatus ofabout four years ensued, until, in 1934, Benjamin resumed work on the arcades with an eye to "new and far-reaching sociological perspectives." The scope of the undertaking, the volume of materials collected, was assuming epic proportions, and no less epic was the manifest intenninabili~ ~f the task, which Benjamin pursued in his usual fearless way-~tep by step, nskin~ c:ngulfment­beneath the ornamented vaulting of the reading room of the Blbliotheque Na­tionale in Paris. Already in a letter of 1930, he refers to Tht AraukJ Projtct as "the theater of all my struggles and all my ideas."

In 1935, at the request of his colleagues at the Instirute of Social Research in New York, Benjantin drew up an expose, or documentary synopsis, of the main lines of 1M AraukJ Project.. another expose, based largely on the first but more exclusively theoretical, was written in French, in 1939, in an attempt to interest an American sponsor. Aside from these remarkably concentrate~ essays, an~ ~e brief text "The Ring of Saturn," the entire Arcadu complex (WIthout ddininve tide, to be sure) remained in the form ofseveral hundred notes and rdl.ections of varying length, which Benjamin revised and grouped in sheafs, or "con~lutes," according to a host of topics. Additionally, from the late Twenties on, It ~uld appear, citations were incorporated into these materials-passages drawn mainly from an array of nineteenth-century sources, but also from the works of key contemporaries (Marcel ProUSt, Paul Valery, Louis Aragon, Andre Breton, Georg Simmel, Emst Bloch , Siegfried Kracauer, Theodor Adorno). These proliferating individual passages, extracted from their original context like collectibles, were eventually set up to communicate among themsdves, often in a ra¢.er subterra­nean manner. The organized masses of historical objects- the particular items of Benjamin's display (drafts and excerpts)-together give rise to "a world of secret affinities," and each separate article in the collection, each entry, was to constitute a "magic encyclopedia" of the epoch from which it derived. An imagt of that epoch. In the background of this theory of the historical image, constituent of a historical "mirror world," stands the idea of the monad-an idea given its most comprehensive fonnulation in the pages on origin in the prologue to Benjamin's book on German tragic drama, Ursprung tks ckulJchen 7Taumpiels (Origin of the German Trauerspiel)-and back of this the doctrine of the re8ective medium, in its significance for the object, as expounded in Benjamin's 1919 dissertation, "Der BegrifT der Kunstkritik in der deutschen Romantik" (The Concept ofCriti· cism in Gennan Romanticism). At bottom, a canon of (nonsensuous) similitude rules the conception of the Arcadts.

Was this conception realized? In the text we have before us, is the world of secret affinities in any sense perceptible? Can one even speak of a "world" in the case of a literary fragment? For, since the publication of the PasJagen-WtrR, it has become customary to regard the text which Benjamin himself usually called the Passagenarheit, or just the PaJJag~, as at best a "torso," a monumental fragment or ruin, and at worst a mere notebook, which the author supposedly intended to mine for mon: extended discursive applications (such as the carefully outlined and possibly half<ompleted book 011 Baudelaire, which he worked on from 1937 to 1939). Certainly, the project as a whole is unfinished ; Benjamin abandoned

work on it in the spring of 1940, when he was forced to Bee Paris before the advancing Genllan army. Did he leave behind anything more than a large-scale ­plan or prospectus? No, it is argued, '!ht ArcadeJ Project is JUSt that: the blueprint for an unimaginably massive and labyrinthine architecture-a dream city, in effect. This argument is predicated on the classic distinction between research and application, rorschung and Darsttflung (see, for example, entry N4a,5 in the "Convolutes"), a distinction which Benjamin himself invokes at times. as in a letter to Gershom Scholem of March 3, 1934, where he wonders about ways in which his research on the arcades might be put to use, or in a letter of May 3, 1936, where he tdls Scholem that not a syllable of the actual text (tigenllichen 'text) of the PasJagt1lllrbeil exists yet. In another of his letters to Scholem of this period, he speaks of the future construction ofa literary form for this text. Similar statements appear in letters to Adorno and others, Where 1k Arauks Projtct is concerned, then, we may distinguish between various stages of research, more or less advanced, but there is no question of a realized work. So runs the lament.

Nevertheless, questions remain, not least as a consequence of the radical stants of "srudy" in Benjamin's thinking (see the Kafka essay of 1934, or Convolute m of the Arcades, "Idleness"). For one thing, as we have indicated, many of the passages of reflection in the "Convolutes" section represent revisions of earlier drafts, notes, or letters. Why revise for a notebook? The fact that Benjamin also transferred masses of quotations from actual notebooks to the manuscript of the convolutes, and the elaborate organization of these cited materials in that manu­script (including the use of numerous epigraphs), might likewise bespeak a com­positional principle at work in the project, and not just an advanced stage of research. In fact, the montage fonn-with its philosophic play of distances, tran­

sitions, and intersections, its perperually shifting contexts and ironic juxtaposi­tions-had become a favorite device in Benjamin's later investigations; among his major works, we have examples of this in EinbaJmslraJJt (One-Way Street), lhrlitw Kiru1hei1 um N'ronuhnhurukrt (A Berlin Childhood around 1900), "Ober den Begriff der Geschichte" (On the Concept of History), and "Zentralpark" (Central Park). What is distinctive about 1k Arauks Projul-in Benjamin's mind, it always dwelt apart-is the working of quotations intO the framework of montage, so much so that they eventually far outnumber the commentaries. If we now were to regard this ostensible patchwork as, de facto, a determinate literary form, one that has effectively constructed itself (that is, fragmented it­sclf), like the JOUf'7UlUX inh'mts of Baudelaire, then surrly there would be sig­nificant repercussions for the direction and tempo of its reading, to say the least. TIle transcendence of the conventional book form would go together, in this case, with the blasting apart of pragmatic historicism-grounded, as this always is, on the premise of a continuous and homogeneous temporality. Citation and commentary might then be perceived as intersecting at a thousand different angles, setting up vibrations across the epochs of recent history, so as to effect "the cracking open of natural teleology." And all this would unfold through the medium of hints or "blinks"-a discontinuous presentation deliberately opposed to traditional modes of argument. At any rate, it seems undeniable that despite the infonnal, epistolary aIUlouncements of a "book" in the works, an t igenl/jchtn Buch, the research project had become an end in itself.

Of course, many readers will concur with the German editor of the Pauagtn­WerA, Rolf TIedemann, when he speaks, in his essay "'Dialectics at a Standstill" (first published as the introduction to the German edition, and reproduced here in translation), of the "'oppressive chunks of quotations" filling its pages. Part of Benjamin's purpose was to document as concretely as possible, and thus lend a "heightened graphicness" to, the scene of revolutionary change that was the nineteenth century. At issue was what he caJJed the "conunodification of things." He was interested in the unsettling effects of incipient high capitalism on the most intimate areas of life and work-espccially as reBected in the work of an (its composition, its dissemination, its reception). In this "projection of the historical into the intimate," it was a matter not of demonstrating any straightforward cultural "decline," but rather of bringing to light an uncanny sense of crisis and of security, of crisis in security. Particularly from the perspective of the nineteenth­century domestic interior, which Benjamin likens to the inside of a mollusk's shell, things were coming to seem more entirely material than ever and, at the same time, more spectral and estranged. In the society at large (and in Baude­laire's writing par excellence), an unHinching realism was cultivated alongside a rhapsodic idealism. "This essentially ambiguous situation-one could caJJ it, using the tenn favored by a number of the writers studied in 1M Arcades Projut, "phantasmagoricaJ"-sets the tone for Benjamin's deployment of motifs, for his recurrent topographies, his mobile cast of characters, his gallery of types. For example, these nineteenth-century types (Bineur, collector, and gambler head the list) generally constitute figures in the middle-that is, figures residing within as well as outside the marketplace, between the worlds of money and magic­figures on the threshold. H ere, funhermore, in the wakening to crisis (crisis masked by habitual complacency), was the link to present-day concerns. Not the least cunning aspeCt of this historical awakening-which is, at the same time, an awakening to myth-was the critical role assigned to humor, sometimes humor ofan infernal kind. "This was one way in which the documentary and the artistic, the sociological and the theological, were to meet head-on.

To speak of awakening was to speak of the "afterlife of works," something broUght to pass through the medium of the "'dialectical image." The latter is Benjamin's central tenn, in The Arcade; Project, for the historical object of inter­pretation: that which, under the divinatory gaze of the collector, is taken up into the collector's own particular time and place, thereby throwing a pointed light on what has been. ~lcomed into a present moment that semlS to be waiting just for it-"'actualized," as Benjamin likes to say-the moment from the past comes alive as never before. In this way, the "now" is itself experienced as preformed in the "' then," as its distillation- thus the leading motif of "precursors" in the text. The historical object is rebonl as such into a present day capable of receiving it, of suddenly "recognizing" it. "This is the fanlous "now of recognizability" a eht tier ErAennharAe-it), which has the character of a Iighming Bash . In the dusty, cluttered corridors of the arcades, where street and interior are one, .historical time is broken up into kaleidoscopic distractions and momentary come-ons, myriad displays of ephemera, thresholds for the passage of what Gerard de Nerval (in Aurilia) calls "the ghOSts of material things." Here, at a distance from what is nonnally meant by "progress," is the ur-histOrical, collective redemption of lost time, of the rimes embedded in the spaces of things.

The German edition of the Pauagen-Werk contains-besides the two exposes we have mentioned, the long series of convolutes that follow, the "Erste Notizen" (here translated as "Flnlt Sketches") and "Friihe EnlWiirfe" ("Early Drafts") at the end-a ....realth of supplementary material relating to the genesis of 17u Arcades Project. From this textual-oitical apparatus, drawn on for the Translators' Notes, r we have extracted three additional sets of preliminary drafts and notations and

[ ~-

translated them in the Addenda; we have also reproduced the introduction by the German editOr, Rolfiiedemann, as well as an account of Benjamin's last days written by Lisa Fittko and printed in the original English at the end of the German edition. Omitted from our volume are some 100 pages of excerpts from letters to and from Benjamin, docwnenting the growth of the project (the major­ity of these letters appear elsewhere in English); a partial bibliography, compiled by TIedemann, of 850 works cited in the "Convolutes"; and, finally, precise descriptions of Benjamin's manuscripts and manuscript variants (see translators' initial note to the "Convolutes"). In an elTon to respect the unique constitution of these manuscripts, we have adopted Tiedemann's practice of using angle brack­ets to indicate editorial insertions into the text.

A salient feature of the German edition of Benjamin's "Convolutes" ("'Aufzeiclmungen und Materialien") is the use of two different typefaces: a larger one for his reBections in German and a smaller one for his numerous citations in French and German. According to Tiedemann's introduction, the larger type was used for entries containing significant conunentary by Benjamin. (In "First Sketches," the two different typefaces are used to demarcate canceled passages.) This typographic distinction, designed no doubt for the convenience of readers, although it is without textual basis in Benjamin's manuscript, has been main­tained in the English translation. ~ have chosen, however, to use typefaces differing in style rather than in size, so as to avoid the hierarchical implication of the German edition (the privileging of Benjamin's re.8ections over his citations, and, in general, of German over French). What Benjamin seems to have con­ceived was a dialectical relation-a fonnal and thematic interfusion of citation and commentary. It is an open, societary relation, as in the protocol to the imaginary world inn (itself an unacknowledged citation from Baudelaire's Paradis artificiels) mentioned in the "Convolutes" atJ75,2.

As for the bilingual character of the text as a whole, this has been, if not entirely eliminated in the English-language edition, then necessarily reduced to merely the citation of the original titles of Benjamin's sources. (Previously pub­lished translations of these sources have been used, and duly noted, wherever possible; where two or more published translations of a passage are available, we have tried to choose the one best suited to Benjamin's context.) In most cases we have regularized the citation of year and place of book publication, as well as volunle and issue number of periodicals ; bits of infonnation, such as first names, have occasionally been supplied in angle brackets. Otherwise, Benjamin's irregu­lar if relatively scrupulous editorial practices have been preserved .

As a funher aid to readers, the English-language edition of 1"he Arcades Projut includes an extensive if not exhaustive "Guide to Names and TemlS"; translators' notes intended to help contextualize Benjamin's citations and reflections; and cross-references serving to link particular items in the "FIest Sketches" and "Early Drafts" to corresponding entries in the "Convolutes."

Translation duties for this edition were divided as follows: Kevin McLaughlin translated the Expose of 1939 and the previously unttanslated French passages in Convolutes A-C, F, H , K, M (second half) , 0 , Q-I, and p-r. Howard Eiland translated Iknjamin's German throughout and was responsible for previously untranslated material in Convolutes D, E, G, I ,j , L, M (first half), N, P, and m, as well as for the Translators' Foreword.

In conclusion, a word about the translation of Kon uolut. As used for the grouping of the thirty-six alphabetized sections of the PaJJagen manuscript, this tenn, it would seem, derives not from Benjaniln himself but from his friend Adorno (this according to a communication from Rolf Tiedemann, who studied with Adorno). It was Adorno who first sifted through the manuscript of the "Aufzeich­nungen und Materia1ien," as Tiedemann later called it, after it had been hidden away by Georges Bataille in the Bibliotheque Nationale de France during the Second \r\brld War and then retrieved and delivered to New York at the end of 1947. In Germany, the term Konvolut has a common philological application: it refers to a larger or smaller assemblage-literally, a bundle-of manuscripts or printed materials that belong together. The noun "convolute" in English means "something of a convoluted form." VW:: have chosen it as the translation of the German term over a number of other possibilities, the most prominent being "folder," "file," and "sheaf." The problem with these more common English terms is that each carries inappropriate connotations, whether of office supplies, computerese, agriculture, or archery. "Convolute" is strange, at least on first acquaintance, but so is Iknjamin's projea and its principle of sectioning. Aside from its desirable closeness to the German rubric, which. we have suggested, is both philologically and historically legitimated, it remains the most precise and most evocative tenn for designating the elaboratdy intertwined coUecuons of "notes and materials" that make up the central division of this most various and colorful ofIknjaminian texts.

The translators are grateful to the National Endowment for the Humanities for a two-year grant in suppon of the translation, and to the Dean of the Graduate School of Brown University, Itder Estrup, for a generous publication subven­tion. Special thanks are due Michael W. Jennings for checking the entire manu­script of the translation and making many vaJuable suggestions. VW:: are funher indebted to Wmfried Menninghaus and Susan Bernstein for reading portions of the manuscript and offering excellent advice. Rolf Tiedemann kindly and promptly answered our inquiries concerning specific problems. The reviev.'t.TS enlisted by Harvard University Press to evaluate the tranSlation also provided much help with some of the more difficult passages. Other scholars who gener­ously provided bibliographic information are named in the relevant Translators' Notes. Our work has greauy benefited at the end from the resourceful , vigilant editing of Maria Ascher and at every stage from the for:esight and discerning judgment of Lindsay Waters.

POSES

Paris, the Capital of the Nineteenth Century

<Expose of 1935>

The waters aR blue, the plants pink; the evening is SWttt to look on;

One goes for a walk; the (;ramUs damn go for a walk; behind thc:m stroll the petius tkJ~s.

- Nguyen Trong ffiep, Pans, Ulpitak tk fa Frail"; Rtctl ffl ck IJUJ

(Hanoi. 1897), poem 25

I. Fourier, or the Arcades

The magic columns of these palaces Show to the amateur on all sides, In the objects their porticos display, That industry is the rival of the am.

- ){OUIXIJIIX Tabkau ck Paris (Paris, 1828), vol. 1, p. Xl

Most of the Paris arcades come intO being in the decade and a half after 1822. The first condition for their emcr~nce is the boom in the textile trade. Magasins de nouveau/h, the first establishments to keep large stocks of merchandise on the premises, make their appearance, I They are the forerulUler5 of department stores. This was the period of which Balzac wrote: "The great poem of display chants its stanzas of color from the Church of the Madeleine to the Fbne Saint­IXnis .'" The arcades are a center of commerce in luxury items. In fitting them Out, art enters lhe service of the merchant. Contemporaries never tire of admir­ing them, and for a long time they remain a drawing point for foreigners . An llIuJirated Guide /0 Paris says: "These arcades, a recent invention of industrial luxury, are glass-roofed, marble·paneled corridors extending through whole blocks of buildings, whose owners have joined together for such enterprises. Lining both sides of these corridors, which get their light from above, are the most elegant shops, so that the jJaJJage is a city, a world in miniature." The arcades are the scene of the first gas lighting.

The second condition for the emergence of the arcades is the beginning of iron construction. The Empire saw in this technology a contribution to the revival of

architecture in the classical Greek sense. The architectural theorist Boetticher expresses the general view of the matter when he says that, "with regard to the art fonns of the new system, the formal principle of the Hellenic mode" must come to prevail.s Empire is the style of revolutionary terrorism, for which the state is an end in itself. just as Napoleon failed to understand the functional naoore of the state as an instrument of domination by the bourgeois class, so the architects of his time failed to understand the functional nature of iron, with which the constructive principle begins its domination of architecture. These architects design supports resembling Pompeian columns, and factories that imi­tate residential houses, just as later the first railroad stations will be modeled on chalets. "Construction plays the role of the subconscious.>U Nevertheless, the concept of engineer, which dates from the revolutionary wars, starts to gain ground, and the rivalry begins between builder and decorator, Ecole Polytech­nique and Ecole des Beaux-Arts.

For the first time in the history of architecture, an arti6cia1 building materia] appears: iron. It undergoes an evolution whose tempo will accelerate in the COUTSC: of the century. 11tis development enters a decisive new phase when it becomes clear that the locomotive-on which experiments have been conducted since the end of the 1820s-is compatible only with iron tracks. The rail be;. comes the first prefabricated iron component, the precursor of the girder. Iron is avoided in home construction but used in arcades, exhibition halls, train Sta­tions-buildings that serve transitory purposes. At the same time, the range of architecrural applications for glass expands, although the social prerequisites for its widened application as building materia] will come to the fore only a hundred years later. In Scheerbart's Glasarchitdtur (1914), it still appears in the COntext of utopia.s

Each epoch dreams the ont: to rouow-.

-Michdct, "AvaW-! Avenir!'"

e:om:spo~ding to the form of the new means of production, which in the begin­rung IS still ruled by the form of the old (Marx), are images in the collective ~ns~ousnes~ in which the old and the new interpenetrate. These images are :nsh una.ges; In them the collective seeks both to overcome and to transfigure the unmatunty of the social product and the inadequacies in the social organization of production. At the same time, what emerges in these wish images is the resolute effort to distance oneself from all that is antiquated- which includes, however, the recent past. These tendencies deflect the imagination (which is given impetus by the new) back upon the primal past. In the dream in which t'.ach epoch entertains images of its successor, the latter appears \\-edded to elements of primal history < Urgt:Jdl icht~that is, to elements of a classless society. And the experiences of such a society-as stored in the unconscious of the collective­engender, through interpenetration with what is new, the utopia that has left its

trace in a thousand configurations of life, from enduring edifices to passing -fashions. These relations are disttmible in the utopia conceived by Fourier. Its secret cue

is the advent of machines. But this fact is not directly expressed in the Fourierist literature, which takes, as its point of departure, the amorality of the business world and the false morality enlisted in its service. The pha1anstery is designed to restore human beings to relationships in which morality becomes superfluous. The highly complicated organization of the phaJanstery appears as machinery. The meshing of the passions, the intricate collaboration of j>aJJioru miCIJnute; with the j>aJJion ClJhaJilte, is a primitive contrivance formed-on analogy with the machine-from materials of psychology. This mechanism made of men pro­duces the land ofmilk and honey, the primeval wish symbol that Fourier's utopia has 6l1ed with new life.

In the arcades, Fourier saw the architectural canon of the pha1anstery. Their reactionary metamorphosis with him is characteristic: whereas they originally serve commercial ends, they become, for him, places of habitation. The phalan· stery becomes a city ofarcades. Fourier establishes, in the Empire's austere world of fonns , the colorful idyll of Biedermeier. Its brilliance persists, however faded, up through Zola, who takes up Fourier's ideas in his book Trauai/, just as he bids farewell to the arcades in his 1lztrt;e Raquin.-Marx came to the defense of Fourier in his critique of Carl Griin, emphasizing the fonner's "colossal concep­tion of man.") He also directed attention to Fourier's humor. In fact,jean Paul, in his "Levana," is as closely allied to Fourier the pedagogue as Scheerbart, in his GiaJJ Architecture, is to Fourier the utopian.·

U. Daguerre, or the Panoramas

Sun, look out for yoursdf!

-A.J. WJatt, (hum IiUirafm (Paris. 1870), p. 374

just as architecture, with the first appearance of iron construction, begins to outgrow art, so does painting, in its rum, with the first appearantt of the pano­r:unas. The high point in the diffusion of panoramas coincides with the introdUC-1 Mn of arcades. One sought tirelessly, through technical devices, to make panoramas the scenes of a perfect imitation of nature. An attempt was made to reprodutt the changing daylight in the landscape, the rising of the moon, the rush of waterfalls. gacques·Louis> David counsels his pupils to draw from nature as it is shown in panoramas. In their attempt to produce deceptively lifelike changes in represented naoore, the panoramas prepare the way not only for photography but for <silent> film and sound film.

Contemporary with the panoramas is a panoramic literaoore. Le Liure de; cent-et-un [TIle Book of a Hundred-and-One], Le; Franrau peinLJ par eux-mime; [The French Painted by Themselves], Le Diab/e aPari; [TIle Devil in Paris], and La Grande Ville [The Big City] belong to this. Thcse books prepare the belletristic

collaboration for which Girardin, in the 1830s, will create a home in the feuille­ton. They consist of individuaJ sketches, whose anecdotal fonn corresponds to the panoramas' plastically arranged foreground , and whose infonnational base corresponds to their painted background. This literature is also sociaJly pano­ramic. For the last time, the worker appears, isolated from his class, as part of the setting in an idyll.

Announcing an upheaval in the relation ofan to technology, panoramas are at the same time an expression of a new attitude toward life. The city dweller, whose political supremacy over the provinces is demonstrated many times in the course of the century, attempts to bring the countryside into town. In panoramas, the city opens out to landscape-as it will do later, in subtler fashion, for the fi1neurs . Daguerre is a srudent of the panorama painter Prevost, whose estab­lishment is located in the Passage des Panoramas. Description of the panoramas of Prevost and Daguerre. In 1839 Daguerre's panorama bums down. In the same year, he announces the invention of the daguerreotype.

(Fran~ois) Arago presents photography in a speech to the National Assembly. He assigns it a place in the history of technology and prophesies its scientific applications. On the other side, artists begin to debate its artistic value. Photogra­phy leads to the extinction of the great profession of portrait miniarurist. This happens not just for economic reasons. The early photograph was artistically superior to the miniature portrait. The technical grounds for this advantage lie in the long exposure time, which requires of a subject the highest concentration; the social grounds for it lie in the fact that the first photographers belonged to the avant-garde, from which most of their clientele came. Nadar's superiority to his colleagues is shown by his attempt to take photographs in the Paris sewer system: for the first time, discoveries were demanded of the lens. Its importance becomes still greater as, in view of the new technological and sociaJ reality, the subjective strain in pictoriaJ and graphic infonnation is called into question.

The world exhibition of 1855 offers for the first time a speciaJ display called "Photography." In the same year, Wiertz publishes his great article on photogra· phy, in which he defines its task as the philosophical enlightenment of painting.' This "enlightenment" is understood, as his own paintings show, in a political sense. Wiertz can be characterized as the first to demand, if not actually foresee , the use of photographic montage for politica1 agitation. With the increasing \ scope of communications and transport, the infonnational value of painting di­minishes. 10 reaction to photography, painting begins to stress the elements of color in the picture. By the time Impressionism yields to Cubism, painting has created for itself a broader domain into which, for the time being, photography cannOt follow. For its part, photography greatly extends the sphere of commodity \ exchange, from mid-century onward, by Hooding the market with countless im­ages of figures, landscapes, and events which had previously been available either not at all or only as pictures for individual customers. To increase turnover, I it renewed its subject matter through modish variations in camera technique­innovatioHs that will detemline the subsequent history of photography.

Ill. G randville, o r the World Exhibitions

"'lb. when all the world from Paris to China Pays heed to your doctrine, 0 divine Saint-Simon, The glorious Golden Age will be reborn. Rivers will Bow with chocolate and tea, Sheep roasted whole will frisk on the plain, And sauteed pike will swim in the Seine. Fricassttd spinach will grow on the ground, Garnished with crushed fried croutons; The trees will bring forth apple compotes, And fanners will harvest boots and coau. It will snow wine, it will rain chickens, And duds cooked with turnips will fall from the sky.

_~ and Vanderburdt, u,uis-Brottu d k Saillt-Sinwnicz (lbUu-e du Pa!ais·Royal, February 27, 1832)10

\r\brld exlubitions are places of pilgrimage to the commodity fetish. "Europe is off to view the merchandise," says Taine in 1855.11 The world exhibitions are preceded by national exhibitions of industry, the first of which takes place on the Champ de Mars in 1798. It arises from the wish "to entertain the working classes, and it becomes for them a festival of emancipation."12 The worker occupies the foreground, as customer. The framework of the entertainment industry has not yet taken shape; the popular festival provides this. Chapw's speech on industry opens the 1798 exhibition.-The Saint-5imonians, who envision the industriali­zation of the earth, take up the idea of world exhibitions. Chevalier, the first authority in the new field, is a student of Enfantin and editor of the Saint­" Simonian newspaper I.e Globe. The Saint-5imonians anticipated the development of the global economy, but not the class snuggle. Next to their active participa­

" tion in industrial and commercial enterprises around the middJe of the cenmry stands their helplessness on all questions concerning the proletariat.

\\brld exhibitions glorify the exchange vaJue of the commodity. They create a framework in which its use value recedes intO the background. They open a phantaSmagoria which a person enters in order to be distracted. The entertain­ment industry makes this easier by elevating the person to the level of the commodity. He surrenders to its manipulations while enjoying his alienation from himself and others.- The enthronement of the commodity, with its luster of distraction, is the secret theme of Grandville's art. This is consistent with the split between utopian and cynica.1 elements in his work. Its ingenuity in repre­senting inanimate objects corresponds to what Marx ca1Is the "theological nice­ties" of the commodity.13 They are manifest clearly in the spiciaJili--a category of goods which appears at this time in the luxuries industry. Under Grandvill~'s pencil, the whole of nature is transfonned into specialties. He presents them 10

the same spirit in which the advertisement (the tenn ric/arne also originates at this point) begins to present its articles. He ends in madness.

Fashion: "Madam Death! Madam Deathl" - Leopardi, KOialogue: bcl....'CCn Fashion alld Dc:ath~ "

impinge 011 social ones. In the: formation of his private environment, both arekept out. From this arise the phantasmagorias of the interior- which, for theprivate man, represents the universe. In the interior, he brings together the far\r\Qrld t:xhibitions propagate the universe of commodities. Grandville's fantasies away and the long ago. His living room is a box in the theater of the world.confer a commodity character on the universe. They modernize it. Saturn's ring

becomes a cast-iron balcony on which the inhabitants of Saturn take the evening Excursus on Jugendstil. The shattering of the interior occurs viaJugendstil

air. The literary counterpart to this graphic utopia is found in the books of the around the tum of the century. Of course, according to its own ideology, the

Fourierist naturalist Toussenel.-Fashion prescribe! the ritual according to which Jugendstil movement seems to bring with it the co":,wnmation .0: the. inte.n~r.

the commodity fetish demands to be worshipped. Grandville extends the author­The transfiguration of the solitary soul appears to be Its goal. indIVIdualism IS Its

ity of fashion to objects of everyday use, as well as to the cosmos. In taking it to theory. With van de Velde, the house becomes an expression of the personality.

an extreme, he reveals its nature. Fashion stands in opposition to the organic. It Ornament is to this house what the signature is to a painting. But the real

couples the living body to the inorganic world. To the living, it defends the rights meaning of Jugendstil is not expressed in this ideology. It represents the last

of the corpse. The fetishism that succumbs to the sex appeal of the inorganic is its attempted sortie ofan art besieged in its ivory tower by technology. This attempt

vital nerve. The cult of the commodity presses such fetishism into its service. mobilizes all the reserves of inwardness. They find their expression in the medi­

For the Paris world t:xhibition of 1867, Victor Hugo issues a manifesto: "To the wnistic language of the line, in the Hower as symbol of a naked vegetal nature

Peoples of Europe.n Earlier, and more unequivocally, their interests had been confronted by the technologically anned world. The new elements of iron con­

championed by delegations ofFrench workers, of which the first had been sent to struction-girder forms-preoccupyJugendstil.1n ornament, it endeavors to win

the London world exhibition of 1851 and the second, numbering 750 delegates, back these forms for art. Concrete presents it with new possibilities for plastic

to that of 1862. The latter delegation was of indirect importance for Marx's creation in architecture. Around this time, the real gravitational center of living

founding of the International \r\brkingmen's Association.- The phantasmagoria space shifts to the office. The irrca1 center makes its place in the home. Theconsequences ofJugendstil are depicted in Ibsen's MtzJter Buikkr: the attempt byof capitalist culrure attains its most radiant unfolding in the world exhibition of the individual, on the strength of his inwardness, to vie with technology leads to1867. The Second Empire is at the height of its power. Paris is acknowledged as

the capital of luxury and fashion. Offenbach sets the rhytlun of Parisian life. The his downfall.

operetta is the ironic utopia of an enduring reign of capital.

I be:lieve ... in my soul: the lbing. - Uoll Dc:ubc:l, Ont/lffl (Paris. 1929), p. 193IV. Loui8 Philippe, or the Interior

The head ...On the: night table, like a ranunculus,

The interior is the asylwn of an. The collector is the true resident of the interior.Rests. He makes his concern the transfiguration of things. To him falls the Sisyphean - Baudc:lain:, KUne: Manyn:~l$

task of divesting things of their commodity character by taking possession ofthem. But he bestows on them only connoisseur value, rather than use value.The collector dreams his way not only into a distant or bygone world but alsoUnder Louis Philippe, the private individual makes his entrance on the stage of

history. The expansion of the democratic apparatus through a new electoral law into a better one-one in which, to be sure, human beings are no better provided

coincides with the parlianu:ntary comlption organited by Guttot. Under cover with what they need than in the everyday world, but in which things are freedfrom the drudgery of being useful.of this cOmlption, the ruling class makes history ; that is, it pursues its affairs. It

funhers railway construction in order to improve its stock holdings. It promotes The interior is not just the universe but also the eM of the private individual.

the reign of Louis Philippe as that of the private individual managing his affairs. To dwell means to leave traces. In the interior, these are accentuated. Coverletsand antimacassars, cases and containers are devised in abundance; in these, theWith theJuly Revolution, the bourgeoisie realized the goals of 1789 (Marx).

For the private individual, the place of dwelling is for the first time opposed to traces of the most ordinary objects of use are imprinted. In just the same way, thetraces of the inhabitant are imprinted in the interior. Enter the detective story,the place of "'Ork. The former constitutes itself as the interior. Its complement is

the office. The private individual, who in the office has to deal with reality, needs which pursues these traces. Fbe, in his "Philosophy of Fumiruren as well as in his

the domestic interior to sustain him in his illusions. This necessity is all the more detective fi ction, shows himself to be the first physiognomist of the domesticinterior. The criminals in early detective novels are neither gentlemen norpressing since he has no intention of allowing his commercial consi~erations to apaches, but private citizens of the middle class.

V. Baudelaire. or the Streets of Paris

Everything becomes an allegory for me.

-Baudelairc, ~Lc Cygne~ 16

! '0 Baudelaire's genius, which is nourished on melancholy, is an allegorical geni~.

For the first time, with Baudelaire, Paris becomes the subject of lyric poetry. This poetry is no hymn to the homeland; rather, the gaze of the allegorist, as it falls on the city, is the gaze of the alienated man. It is the gaze of ~e Saneur, ~hose way of life still conceals behind a mitigating nimbus the conung desolabOn of the big-city dweller. The Baneur still stands on the threshold~of ~e metropolis as of the middle class. Neither has him in its power yet. In neither 15 he at home. He seeks refuge in the crowd. Early contributions to a physiognomi~ of the ~~d are found in Engels and Poe. The crowd is the veil through which the familiar city beckons to the flineur as phantaSmagoria-now a landscape, now a. ~m. Both become elements of the department store, which makes use of Banene Itself to sell goods. The departtnent store is the last promenade for the San:ur.

In the flineur, the intelligentsia sets foot in the marketplace-ostensibly to look around but in truth to find a buyer. In this intennediate stage, in which it still has patrons'but is already beginning to familiarize itself with the market, it appears as the hoMme. To the uncertainty of its economic position corresponds the uncer­tainty of its political function. The latter is manifest n:o~t. ~learly in the ~~f~­siona! conspirators, who all belong to the hoMme. ThetT nutial field of aCtlVl~ IS

the anny; later it becomes the petty bourgeoisie, occasi0n.a.tIy th~ proletanat. Nevertheless, this group views the true leaders of the proletanat as Its advers.ary. The Communist Manifesto brings their political existence to an end. Baudelarre's poetry draws its strength from the rebellious pathos of this class. He sides with the asocial. He realizes his only sexual corrununion with a whore.

Easy the way that leads into Avemus.

-vrrgil, 1M Aroeid' l

It is the unique provision of Baudelaire's poetry that the image of the woman and the image of death intermingle in a third: that of Paris. The Paris o~his poems is a sunken city, and more submarine than subterranean. The chthoruc ~ements of the city-its topographic fonnations, the old abandoned bed of the Serne-have evidendy found in him a mold. Decisive for Baudelaire in the "death-frau.ght idyll" of the city, however, is a social, a modem substrate. The modem 15 a principal accent of his poetry. A:s spl~en.' it fractu~. the i~eal ("~pleen et ideal"1' But precisely the modem, la moderlllti, IS always cIWlg pnmal history. Here, ~ occurs through the ambiguity peculiar to the social relations and products of this epoch. Ambiguity is the manifest imaging of dialectic, the law of dialectics at a standstill. This standstill is utopia and the dialectical image, therefore, dream image. Such an image is afforded by the commodity per se: as fetish. Such an image is presented by the arcades, which are house no less th~ street. Such an image is the prostitute- seller and sold in one.

I travel in order to get to know my geography.

- Note of a madman, in Man:cl R~a. Uri ,lin lufous (Paris, 1907). p. 13 1

TIle last poem of U s F/eurs du mal: "Lc Voyage.'" "Death, old admiral, up anchor now." The last journey of the Saneur: death. Its destination: the new. "Deep in the Unknown to find the new!"''' Newness is a quality independent of the use value of the commodity. It is the origin of the illusory appearance that belongs inalienably to images produced by the collective unconscious. It is the quintes­sence of that false consciousness whose indefatigable agent is fashion. 'Ibis sem­blance of the new is reSected, like one mirror in another, in the semblance of the ever recurrent. The product of this reSection is the phantaSmagoria of "cu1tural history," in which the bourgeoisie enjoys its false consciousness to the full. The art that begins to doubt its taSk and ceases to be "inseparable from <••• ) utility" {Baudelaire)'9 must make novelty into its highest value. The arbiter novarum rerum for such an art becomes the snob. He is to art what the dandy is to fashion.-Just as in the seventeenth century it is allegory that becomes the canon of dialectical images, in the nineteenth century it is novelty. Newspapers Sourish, along with magasins de nouveautb . The press organizes the market in spirirual values, in which at first there is a boom. Nonconformists rebel against consigning art to the marketplace. They rally round the banner of ['art pour /'art. From this watchword derives the conception of the "total work of art"-the Gesamtkunstwerk-which wou1d seal art off from the developments of teclmology. The solemn rite with which it is celebrated is the pendant to the distraction that transfigures the com­modity. Both abstract from the social existence of human beings. Baudelaire succumbs to the rage for Wagner.

VI. Haussmann, or the Barricades

I venerate the Beautiful, the Good, and all things great; Beautiful nature, on which great art rests-How it enchants the ear and channs the eye! I love spring in blossom: women and roses.

- Baron Haussmann, OJ'!foJSilJ1l d'un filln dnJrou uirox'llJ

The Howery realm of decorations, The chann of landscape, of architecture, And all the effect of scenery rest Solely on the law of perspective.

- Franz BOhle, 'llItal"-Caltchism uJ (Munich), p. 74

Haussmann's ideal in city planning consisted of long perspectives down broad straight thoroughfares. Such an ideal corresponds to the tendency-corrunon in the nineteenth century-to ennoble teclUlological necessities through artistic ends. The instirutions of the bourgeoisie's worldly and spirirual dominance were to find their apotheosis within the framework of the boulevards. Before their completion, boulevards were draped across with canvas and unveiled like monu­

ments.-Haussmann's acnvtty is linked to Napoleonic imperialism. Louis Napoleon promotes invesnnent capital, and Paris experiences a rash of specula­tion. Trading on the stock exchange displaces the fonus of gambling handed down from feudal society. The phantasmagorias of space to which the Raneur devotes himself find a counterpart in the phantasmagorias of time to which the gambler is addicted. Gambling converts time into a narcotic. <Paul) Lafargue explains gambling as an imitation in miniature of the mysteries of economic Ructuation?l The expropriations carried out under Haussmann call forth a wave of fraudulent speculation. The rulings of the Coun of Cassation, which are inspired by the bourgeois and Orleanist opposition, increase the financial risks of Haussmannization.

Haussmann tries to shore up his dictatorship by placing Paris under an emer­gency regime. In 1864, in a speech before the National Assembly, he vents his hatred of the rootless urban popuJation, which keeps increasing as a result of his projects. Rising rents drive the proletariat into the suburbs. The quarriers of Paris in this way lose their distinctive physiognomy. The "red belt" fonus. Haussmann gave himself the title of "demolition artist," artiste dimQIU$wr. H e viewed his work as a calling, and emphasizes this in his memoirs. Meanwhile he estranges the Parisians from their city. They no longer feel at home there, and start to become conscious of the inhuman character of the metropolis. Maxime Du Camp's monumental work Paris owes its inception to this consciousness.72 The ]irimUuies d'un Hauumannisi give it the fOIm of a biblicallament.:13

The true goal ofHaussmann's projects was to secure the city against civil war. He wanted to make the erection of barricades in Paris impossible for all time. With the same end in mind, Louis Philippe had already introduced wooden paving. Nonetheless, barricades played a role in the February Revolution. Engels studies the tactics of barricade fighting. 2-4 Haussmann seeks to neutralize these tactics on two fronts. Widening the streets is designed to make the erection of barricades impossible, and new streets are to furnish the shonest route between the barracks and the workers' districts. Contemporaries christen the operation "strategic embellishment."

Reveal to these depraved, o Republic, by foiling their plots, \bur great Medusa face Ringed by red lightning.

- \\brkc:rs' sOllg from about 1850, in Adolf Stahr, Zwei M01U/le ;1I Pam (Oldenburg, 1851 ), vol. 2, p. 1992:1

The barricade is resurrected during the CommWle. It is stronger and better secured than ever. It stretches across the great boulevards, often reaching a height of two stories, and shields the trenches behind it. J ust as the Communist Mani.fos/o ends the age of professional conspirators, so the Commune puts an end to the phantasmagoria holding sway over the early years of the proletariat. It dispels the illusion that the task of the proletarian revolution is to complete the work of 1789

hand in hand with the bourgeoisie. This illusion dominates the period 183 1­1871, from the Lyons uprising to the Commune. The bourgeoisie never shared in this error. Its battle against the social rights of the proletariat dates back to the great Revolution, and converges with the philanthropic movement that gives it cover and that is in its heyday under Napoleon III. Under his reign, this move­ment's monumental work appears: Le Play's Ouun"ers europ(rns [European "\-\brk­ers].:lfi Side by side with the concealed position of philanthropy, the bourgeoisie has always maintained openly the position of class warfare.:n As early as 1831 , in the Journal de; dibau, it acknowledges that "every manufacturer lives in his factory like a plantation owner among his slaves." If it is the misfonune of the worke~' rebellions of old that no theory of revolution directs their course, it is also this absence of theory that, from another perspective, makes possible their spontaneous energy and the enthusiasm with which they set about establishing a new society. TIlls enthusiasm, which reaches its peak in the Commune, wins over to the working class at times the best elements of the bourgeoisie, but leads it in the end to succumb to their worst elements. Rimbaud and Courbet declare their suppon for the Commune. The burning of Paris is the worthy conclusion to Haussmann's work of destruction.

My good father had been in Paris.

-Karl Gutzkow, Briefl aIlS Paro (Leipzig, 1842), vol. I, p. 58

Balzac was the first to speak of the ruins of the bourgeoisie.~8 But it was Surreal­ism that first opened our eyes to them. The development of the forces of produc­tion shattered the wish symbols of the previous century, even before the monuments representing them had collapsed . In the nineteenth century this development worked to emancipate the fonus of consnuction from art,just as in the sixteenth century the sciences freed themselves from philosophy. A start is made with architecture as engineered consnuction. Then comes the reproduc­tion of nature as photography. The creation of fantasy prepares to become prac­ticaJ as commercial art. Literature submits to montage in the feuilleton. All these products are on the point of entering the market as commodities. But they linger on the threshold. From this epoch derive the arcades and in/in"eurs, the exhibition halls and panoramas. They are residues of a dream world. The realization of dream elements, in the course of waking up, is the paradigm of dialecticaJ think­ing. Thus, dialectical thinking is the organ of historical awakcning. Every epoch, in fact , not only dreams the one to follow but, in dreaming, precipitates its awakening. It bears its end within itself and unfolds it-as Hegel already no­ticed-by cunning. With the destabilizing of the market economy, .....e begin to

recognize the monuments of the bourgeoisie as ruins even before they have crumbled.

Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century

Expose <of 1939>

Inl roduction

History is likeJanus; it has two faces. Whether it loolu at the put or at the prc:sc:nt, it sees the same things.

-Maxim~ Ou Camp. Pam, vol. 6, p. 315

The subject of this book is an illusion expressed by Schopenhauer in the reUaw­ing formula : to sdze the essence of history, it suffices to compare Herodotus and the morning newspaper.l What is expressed hen: is a Ceding of vertigo charac­teristic of the nineteenth century's conception of history. It corresponds to a viewpoint according to which the course of the world is an endless series of facts congealed in the form of things. The characteristic residue of this conception is what has been called the "History of Civilization," which makes an inventory, point by point. of humanity's life fonns and creations. The riches thus amassed in the aerarium of civilization henceforth appear as though identified for all time. This conception of history minimizes the fact that such riches owe not omy their existence but also their transmission to a constant effon of society-an elTon, moreover, by which these riches are strangely altered. Our investigation proposes to show how, as a consequence of this reifying representation of civilitation, the new fonns of behavior and the new economically and technologically based creations that we owe to the nineteenth century enter the universe of a phantas­magoria. These creations undergo this "illumination" not only in a theoretical manner, by an ideological transposition, but also in the immediacy of their per­ceptible presence. They are manifest as phantasmagorias. Thus appear the ar­cades-first entry in the field of iron construction; thus appear the world exhibitions, whose link to the entenairuncnt industry is significant. Also included in this order of phenomena is the experience of the £Iineur, who abandons himself to the phantasmagorias of the marketplace. Corresponding to these: phantasmagorias of the market, where people appear only as types, are the phantasmagorias of the interior, which are constituted by man's imperious need to leave the imprint of his private individual existence on the rooms he inhabits. As for the phantasmagoria of civilization itself, it found its champion in Hauss­

mann and its manifest expression in his transfonnations ofParis.-Nevertheless, the pomp and the splendor with which commodity-producing society surrounds itself, as well as its illusory sense of security, are nOt immune to dangers; the collapse of the Second Empire and the Commune of Paris remind it of that. In the same period, the most dreaded adversary of this society, Blanqui, revealed to it, in his last piece of writing, the terrifying features of this phantasmagoria. Humanity figures there as damned. Everything new it could hope for tums out to be a reality that has always been present; and this newness will be as little capable of furnishing it with a liberating solution as a new fashion is capable of rejuvenating society. Blanqui's cosmic speculation conveys this lesson: that hu­manity will be prey to a mythic anguish so long as phantasmagoria occupies a place in it.

A. Fourier, o r tbe Arcad es

I

The magic columns of these palau Show to enthusiasts from all pans, With the objects their porticos display, 1bat industry is the rival of the am.

- NoUIWQI/It 'T"ableQI/X de PQm (Puis, 1828), p. Xl

Most of the Paris arcades are built in the fifteen years following 1822. The first condition for their development is the boom in the textile trade. Magasiru de nouveoutis, the first establishments to keep large stocks of merchandise on the premises, make their appearance. They are the forerunners ofdepartment stores. TIlls is the period of which Balz.ac writes: "The great poem of display chants its stanzas ofcolor from the Church of the Madeleine to the Porte Saint-Denis." The arcades are centers of commerce in luxury items. In fitting them out, art enters the service of the merchant. Contemporaries never tire of admiring them. For a long time they remain an attraction for tourists. An Illustrated Guide to Paris says: "These arcades, a recent invention of industrial luxury, are glass-roofed, marble­paneled corridors extending through whole blocks of buildings, whose owners have joined together for such enterprises. Lining both sides of the arcade, which gets its light from above, are the most elegant shops, so that the passage is a city, a world in miniature." The arcades are the scene of the first attempts at gas lighting.

The second condition for the emergence of the arcades is the beginning of iron construction. Under the Empire, this technology was seen as a contribution to the revival of architecrure in the classical Greek sense. The architectural theorist Boetticher expresses the general view of the matter when he says that, "with regard to the art fonos of the new system, the Hellenic mode" must come to prevail. The Empire style is the style of revolutionary terrorism, for which the state is an end in itself. J ust as Napoleon failed to understand the functional

II

nature of the state as an insuument of domination by the bourgeoisie, so the architects of his time failed to understand the functional nature of iron, with which the constructive principle begins its domination of architecture. Th~ architects design SUppolU resembling Fbmpcian columns, and factories that imi­tate residential houses, just as later the firSt railroad stations will assume the look of chalets. Construction plays the role of the subconscious. Nevertheless, the concept of engineer, which dates from the revolutionary wars, starts to gain ground, and the rivalry begins between builder and decorator, Ecole Fblytech­nique and Ecole des Beaux-Arts.-For the first time since the Romans, a new artificial building material appears : iron. It will undergo an evolution whose pace will accelerate in the course of the cennny. This development enters a decisive new phase when it becomes clear that the locomotive-object of the most diverse experiments since the years 1828-1829-usefully functions only on iron rails. The rail becomes the first prefabricated iron component, the precursor of the girder. Iron is avoided in home construction but used in arcades, exhibition halls, train stations-buildings that serve transitory purposes.

It i.! easy to understand that every IIWS·type "interest" which asserts itsclfhistorically goes far beyond its real limits in the "idea" or "imagination," when it firSt comes on the scene.

- Marx and Engels, Die Mi/itt Nmiliil

The secret cue for the Fourierist utopia is the advent of machines. The phalan­stery is designed. to restore human beings to a system of relationships in which morality becomes superfiuous. Nero, in such a context, would become a more useful member of society than Fenelon. Fourier does not dream of relying on virtue for this; rather, he relies on an efficient functioning of society, whose motive forces are the passions. In the gearing of the passions, in the complex meshing of the pa.ssi()TU micanistes with the pa.s.sion cobo.liste, Fourier imagines the collective psychology as a clockwork mechanism. Fourierist hannony is the nec­essary product of this combinatory play.

Fourier introduces into the Empire's world of austere fonos an idyll colored by the style of the 1830s. He devises a system in which the products of his colorful vision and of his idiosyncratic treatment of numbers blend together. Fourier's "harmonies" are in no way akin to a mystique of numbers taken from any other tradition. They are in fact direct outcomes of his own pronouncements-lucubra­tions of his organizational imagination, which was very highly developed. Thus, he foresaw how significant meetings 'would become to the citizen. For the phalan· stery's inhabitants, the day is organized nOt around the home but in large halls sinlilar to those of the Stock Exchange, where meetings are arranged by brokers.

In the arcades, Fourier recognittd the arc.hitecrural canon of the phalanstery. TIils is what distinguishes the "empire" character of his utopia, which Fourier himself naively acknowledges: "111e societarian state will be all the more brilliant at its inception for having been so long deferred . C rttce in the age of Solon and

Pericles could already have undertaken it.", The arcades, which originally were designed to serve commercial ends, become dwelling places in Fourier. The phalanstery is a city composed of arcades. In this ville en pa.uages, the engineer's constrUction takes on a phantasmagorical character. The "city of arcades" is a dream that will Chaml the fancy of Parisians well into the second half of the cenrury. As late as 1869, Fourier's "street-galleries" provide the blueprint for Moilin's Paris en l'an 2000.' Here the city assumes a structure that makes it- with its shops and apartments-the ideal backdrop for the fueur.

Marx took a stand against Carl CrUn in order to defend Fourier and to accentuate his "colossal conception of man.") He considered Fourier the only man besides HegeJ to have revealed the essential mediocrity of the petty bour· geois. The systematic overcoming of this type in Hegel corresponds to its humor­ous annihilation in Fourier. One of the most remarkable features of the Fourierist utOpia is that it never advocated the exploitation of narure by man, an idea that became widespread in the following period. Instead, in Fourier, technology ap­pears as the spark that ignites the powder of nature. Perhaps this is the key to his strange representation of the phalanstery as propagating itself "by explosion." The later conception of man's exploitation of nature reflects the actual exploita­tion of man by the owners of the means of production. If the integration of the technological into social life failed, the fault lies in this exploitation.

B. Grandville, or the World Exhibitions

I

'b, when all the world from Paris to China Pays heed to your doctrine, 0 divine Saint-Simon, "The glorious Golden Age will be: reborn. Rivers will flow with chocolate and tea, Sheep roasted whole will frisk on the plain, And sauteed pike will swim in the Seine. Fricasseed spinach will grow on the ground, Garnished with crushed fried croutons; The trees will bring forth apple compotes, And fanners will harvest boots and coats. It will snow wine, it will rain chickens, And ducks cooked with turnips will fall from the sky.

-Langl~ a.nd Vandcrburch, lAuis-Bro"u (I k Sai"I·Sim(l"irn (Thlitrc du Palais· Royal. February 27, 1832)

WOrld exhibitions are places of pilgrimage to the commodity fetis h. "Europe is ofT LO view lhe merchandise," says Taine in 1855.6 The world exhibitions were preceded by national exhibitions of industry, the first of which took place on the C hamp de Mars in 1798. It arose from the wish "to entertain the working classes, and it becomes for thenl a festival of emancipation."1 The workers would consti­tute their first clientele. The frame ......o rk of the entertairunent industry has not yet taken shape ; the popular festival provides this. Chaptal's celebrated speech on

industry opens the 1798 exhibition.-The Saint-Simonians, who envision the industrialization of the eaM, take up the idea of world exhibitions. C hevalier, the first authority in this new field, is a student of Enfantin and editor of the Saint­Simonian newspaper i.e Globe. The Saint-Simonians anticipated the development of the global economy, but not the class struggle. Thus, we see that despite their participation in industrial and conunercia1 enterprises around the middle of the cenrury, they were helpless on all questions concerning the proletariat. ~rld exhibitions glorify the exchange value of the conunodity. They create a

framework in which its use value becomes secondary. They are a school in which the masses, forcibly excluded from consumption, are imbued with the exchange value of conunodities to the point of identifying with it: "Do not touch the items on display." ~r1d exhibitions thus provide access to a phantasmagoria which a person enters in order to be distracted. Within these divertWmlt:TIts, to which the individual abandons himself in the framework of the entertainment industry, he remains always an dement of a compact mass. This mass delights in amusement parks-with their roller coasters, their "twisters," their "caterpillars"-in an atti· tude that is pure reaction. It is thus led to that state of subjection which propa­ganda, industrial as well as political, relies on.-The enthronement of the conunodity, with its glitter of distractions, is the secret theme of Grandville's art. Whence the split between its utopian and cynical elements in his work. The subtle artifices with which it represents inanimate objects correspond to what Marx. calls the "theological niceties" of the conunodity.' The concrete expression of this is clearly found in the spiciaJiti-a category ofgoods which appears at this time in the luxuries industry. WOrld exhibitions construct a universe of spiciaJitiJ. The fantasies of Grandville achieve the same thing. They modernize the uni­verse. In his work, the ring of Sarum becomes a cast-iron balcony on which the inhabitants of Saturn take the evening air. By the same token, at world exhibi· tions, a balcony of cast·iron would represent the ring of Sarum, and people who venture out on it would find themselves carried away in a phantasmagoria where they seem to have been transformed intO inhabitants of Sarum. The literary counterpart to this graphic utopia is the work of the Fourierist savant Toussenel. Toussenel was the narural-sciences editor for a JX>pular newspaper. His zoology classifies the animal world according to the rule of fas hion. He considers woman the intemlediary between man and the animals. She is in a sense the decorator of the animal world, which, in exchange, places at her feet its plumage and its furs. "The lion likes nothing better than having its nails trimmed, provided it is a pretty girl that widds the scissors.'"

Fashion: "Madam Death! Madam Death!"

- Leopard!, ~Dialoguc between Fa.duon and Ocalh~!'

Fashion prescribes the rirual according to which the commodity fetish demands to be worshipped. Grandville extends the authority of fashion to objects of everyday use, as well as to the cosmos. In taking it to an extreme, he reveals its

narure. It couples the living body to the inorganic world. To the living, it defends the rights of the corpse. The fetishism which thus succumbs to the sex appeal of the inorganic is its vital nelVe. The fantasies of Grandville correspond to the spirit of fashion that Apollinaire later described with this image: "Any material from narure's domain can now be introduced into the composition of women's clothes. I saw a channing dress made of corks.... Steel, wool, sandstone, and files have suddenly entered the vestmentary arts.... They're doing shoes in Venetian glass and hats in Baccarat crystal."l!

C. Louis Philippe, or the Interior

I

I believe ... in my soul: the 1lUng.

-Uon Deubel, CInnnu (Paris, 1929). p. 193

Under the reign of Louis Philippe, the private individual makes his en~ into history. For the private individual, places of d...."Clling are for the first rune op-­posed to places of work. The former come to constirute the interior. Its comple· ment is the office. (For its part, the office is distinguished clearly from the shop counter, which, with its globes, wall maps, and railings, looks like a relic of the baroque forms that preceded the rooms in taday's residences.) The private indi­vidual, who in the office has to deal with realities, needs the domestic interior to sustain him in his illusions. This necessity is all the more pressing since he has no intention of grafting onto his business interests a clear perception of his social function. In the arrangement of his private surrounding!, he suppresses both of these concerns. From this derive the phantasmagorias of the interior-which, for the private individual, represents the universe. In the interior, he bring! together remote locales and memories of the past. His living room is a box in the theater

of the world. The interior is the asylum where art takes refuge. The collector proves to be

the true resident of the interior. He makes his concern the idealization of objects. To him falls the Sisyphean task of divesting things of their conunoclity character by taking possession of them. But he can bestow on them only conno~ur value, rather than use value. The collector delights in evoking a world that 15 not just distant and long gone but also better-a world in which, to be sure, h~ beings are no better provided with what they need than in the real world, but m which things are freed from the drudgery of being useful.

II

The head . On the night table, like a ranunculus,

""~.

II

III

The interior is not just the universe of the private individual; it is also his eM. Ever since the time of Louis Philippe, the bourgeois has shown a tendency to compensate for the absence of any trace of private life in the big city. He tries to do this within the four walls of his apartment. It is as ifhe had made it a point of honor not to allow the traces of his everyday objects and accessories to get lost. Indefatigably, he takes the impression of a host of objects; for his slippers and his watches, his blankets and his umbrellas, he devises coverlets and cases. He has a marked preference for velour and plush, which preserve the imprint of all con­tact. In the style characteristic of the &cond Empire, the apartment becomes a sort of cockpit. The traces of its inhabitant are molded into the interior. Hue is the origin of the detective story, which inquires into these traces and follows these tracks. Poe-with his "Philosophy of Furniture" and with his "new detectives"­becomes the first physiognomist of the domestic interior. The criminals in early detective fiction are neither gentlemen nor apaches, but simple private citizens of the middle class ("The Black Cat," "The Tell-Tale H eart," "Wtlliam Wtlson") .

This seeking for my home ... was myafBiction.... Where is­nry home? I ask and seek and have sought for it; I have not found it.

-Nicwdle, AiH Jprad! ,Qrath/I.Jtra13

The liquidation of the interior took place during the last years of the nineteenth century, in the work ofJugendstil, but it had been coming for a long time. The art of the interior was an art of genre.Jugendstil sounds the death knell of the genre. It rises up against the infatuation of genre in the name of a mol du Jude, of a perpetually open·armed aspiration. Jugendstil for the first time takes into consid­eration certain tectonic forms. It also strives to disengage them from their func­tional relations and to present them as natural constants ; it saives, in shon, to stylize them. The new elements of iron construction-especially the girder­command the attention of this "modem style." In the domain of ornamentation, it endeavors to integrate these fonus into an. Concrete puts at its disposal new potentialities for architecture. With van de VeJde, the house becomes the plastic expression of the personality. Ornament is to this house what the signature is to a painting. It exults in speaking a linear, mediumistic language in which the 80wer, symbol of vegetal life, insinuates itself into the very lines of construction. (Ibe curved line ofJugendstil appears at the same time as the title U J Fll!llrJ du mal. A SOrt of garland marks the passage from the "Flowers of Evil" to the "souls of flowers" in Odilon Redon and on to Swann's ./airt: talleya. )'4-Henceforth, as Fourier had foreseen, the true framework for the life of the private citizen must be sought increasingly in offices and commercial centers. The 6ctiona1 framewo rk for the individual's life is constituted in the private home. It is thus that The Ma.;ler Builder takes the measure ofJugendstil. The attempt by the individual to vie with tecllllology by relying on his ulller Sights leads to his downfall : the architect SohlesS kills himself by plunging from his tower. IS

D. Baudelaire, or tbe Streets of Parie

I

Everything for me becomes aUegory.

- Baudelaire. MLc CygneWl6

Baudelaire's genius, which feeds on melancholy, is an allegorical genius. With Baudelaire, Paris becomes for the first time the subject of lyric poetry. 1hls poetry of place is the opposite of all poetry of the soil The gaze which the allegorical genius turns on the city betrays, instead, a profound alienation. It is the gaze of the 8aneur, whose way of life conceals behind a beneficent mirage the anxiety of the future inhabitants ofour metropolises. The 8aneur seeks refuge in the crowd. The crowd is the veil through which the familiar city is rransfonned for the 8aneur into phantasmagoria. This phantasmagoria, in which the city appears now as a landscape, now as a room. seems later to have inspired the decor of department stores, which thus put Binerie to work for profit. In any case, department stores are the last precincts of 8anerie.

In the person of the 8!neur, the intc:lligentsia becomes acquainted with the marketplace. It surrenders itself to the market, thinking merely to look around; but in fact it is already seeking a buyer. In this intennediate stage, in which it still has patrons but is starting to bend to the demands of the market (in the guise of the feuilleton), it constirutes the bohnne. The uncertainty of its economic position corresponds to the ambiguity of its political function. The latter is manifest especially clearly in the figures of the professional conspirators, who are reauitc:d from the hohhM. Blanqui is the most remarkable representative of this class. No one else in the nineteenth cenrury had a revolutionary authority comparable to his. The image of Blanqui passes like a Bash of lightning through Baudelaire's "Litanies de Satan." Nevertheless, Baudelaire's rebellion is always that of the asocial man: it is at an impasse. The only sexual communion of his life was with a prostirute.

II

They were the same, had risen from the same hell, These centenarian twins.

-Bauddaire, MLes Sqx Vic:illanhRI7

The 8aneur plays the role of scout in the marketplace. flu such, he is also the explorer of the crowd. Within the man who abandons himself to it, the crowd inspires a sort of drunkenness, one accompanied by very specific illusions: the man 8atters himself that, on seeing a passerby swept along by the crowd, he has accurately classified him, seen straight through to the innermost recesses of his soul-all on the basis of his external appearance. Physiologies of the time abound in evidence of this singular conception. Balzac's work provides excellent examples. The typical characters seen in passersby make such an impression on

III

the senses that one cannot be surprised at the ~ultant curiosity to go beyond them and capture the special singularity of each person. But the nighunare that corresponds to the illusory perspicacity of the aforementioned physiognomist consists in seeing those distinctive traits- traits peculiar to the person-revealed to be nothing more than the elements ofa new type; so that in the finaJ analysis a person of the greatest individuality would turn out to be the exemplar of a type. TIlls points to an agonizing phantasmagoria at the heart of fiinerie. Baudelaire develops it with great vigor in "Les Sept Vieillards," a poem that deals with the seven·fold apparition of a repulsive·looking old man. TIlls individual, presented as always the same in his multiplicity, testifies to the anguish of the city dwcller who is unable to break the magic circle of the type even though he cultivates the most eccentric peculiarities. Baudelaire: describes this procession as "infernal" in appearance. But the newness for which he was on the lookout all his life consists in nothing other than this phantasmagoria of what is "always the same." (The evidence one could cite to show that this poe:m transcribes the reveries of a hashish eater in no way ""'eakeflS this interpretation.)

Ikep in the Unknown to find the new!

- Bauddain:, ~Lc \byage"ll

The key to the allegorical fonn in Baudelaire is bound up with the specific signification which the commodity acquires by virtue of its price. The singular debasement of things through their signification, something characteristic of sev· entttnth-century allegory, corresponds to the singular debasement of things through their price as commodities. TIlls degradation, to which things are subject because they can be taxed as commodities, is counterbalanced in Baudelaire by the inestimable value of novelty. La nouveauti represents that absolute which is no longer accessible to any interpretation or comparison. It becomes the ultimate entrenchment of art. The final poe:m of Le; Flnm du mal: "u Voyage." "Death, old admira.l, up anchor now."I' The final voyage of the flineur: death. Its destina· tion: the new. Newness is a quality independent of the use value of the commod· ity. It is the source of that illusion of which fashion is the tireless purveyor. The fact that art 's last line of resistance should coincide with the commodity's most advanced line of attack-this had to remain hidden from Baudelaire:.

"Spleen et ideaJ"-in the title of this first cycle of poems in UJ FleurJ du mal, the oldest loanword in the French language was joined to the most recent one.~ For Baudelaire, there is no contradiction between the two concepts. He recog· nizes in spleen the latest transfiguration of the idea.! ; the ideal seems to him the first exp~sion ofspleen. With this title, in which the supremely new is presented to the reader as something "supremely old," Baudelaire has given the liveliest foml to his concept of the modem. The linchpin of his entire theory of art is "'modem beauty," and for him the proof of modernity seems to be this: it is marked with the fatality of being one day antiquity, and it reveals this to whoever

witnesses its birth. Here we meet the quintes~nce of the unforeseen, which for Baudelaire is an ul.alienable quality of the beautiful. The face of modernity itself blasts us with its immemorial gaze. Such was the gaze of Medusa for the Greeks.

E. Hausslllntm, or tJle Barricades

I

I venerate the Beautiful, the Good, and aU thinV great; Beaurifulnalure, on which great an rests-How it enchant.! the ear and charms the: eye! I IO\-"C: spring in blossom: women and rosa.

-Baron Hauumann, DmfiMion d'Il" liqn dnJ.nt1l tI~l

Haussmann's activity is incorporated intO Napoleonic imperialism, which favon investment capital. In Paris, speculation is at its height. Haussmann's expropria· tions give rise to speculation that borders on fraud. The rulings of the Coun of Cassation, which are inspired by the bourgeois and Orleanist opposition, in· crease the financial risks of Haussmannization. Haussmann tries to shore up his dictatorship by placing Paris under an emergency regime. In 1864, in a speech before the National Assembly, he vents his hatred of the rootless urban popula· tion. TIlls population grows ever larger as a result of his projects. Rising I"C:nts drive the proletariat into the suburbs. The quartim of Paris in this way lose their distinctive physiognomy. The "'red belt" forms. Haussmarm gave himself the title of "demolition artist." He believed he had a vocation for his \'lOrk, and empha­sizes this in his memoirs. The central marketplace passes for Haussmann's most successful construction-and this is an interesting symptom. It has been said of the De de la C ite, the cradle of the city, that in the wake of Haussmann only one church, one public building, and one barracks remained. Hugo and Merimee suggest how much the transformations made by Haussmann appear to Parisians as a monwnent of Napoleonic despotism. The inhabitants of the city no longer feel at home there; they start to become conscious of the inhuman character of the metropolis. Maxime Du Camp's monumental work Paris owes its existence to this daw'uing awareness. The etchings ofMeryon (around 1850) constitute the death mask ofold Paris.

The true goal of Haussmann's projects was to secure the city against civil war. He wanted to make the erection of barricades in the streets of Paris impossible for all time. With the same end in mind, Louis Philippe had already introduced wooden paving. Nevertheless, barricades had played a considerable role in the February Revolution. Engels studied the tacties of barricade fighting. H aussmann seeks to forestall such combat in two ways. 'Widening the streets will make the erection of barricades impossible, and new streets will COiUlect the barracks in straight lines with the workers' districts. Contemporaries christened the opera­tion "strategic embdlishment."

II

The flowery rnlm of decorations, TIle chann of landscape, of architecture, And aIIlhc: effect of scenery rest $oldy on the law of perspective.

- Franz Bohle, Tlltaler'-Catu hismus (Munich), p. 74

Haussmann's ideal in city planning consisted of long straight streets opening onto broad perspectives. This ideal corresponds to the tendency-common in the nineteenth century-to ennoble technological necessities through spurious artistic ends. The temples of the bourgeoisie's spiritual and secular power were to find their apotheosis within the framework of these long streets. The perspec­tives, prior to their inauguration, were screened with canvas draperies and un­veiled like monuments; the view would then disclose a church, a train station, an equestrian statue, or some other symbol of civilization. With the Haussmanniza­cion ofParis, the phantasmagoria was rendered in stone. Though intended to en­dure in quasi-perperuity, it also reveals its brittleness. The Avenue de l'Optra - which, according to a malicious saying of the day, affords a perspective on the port~r's lodge at the Louvre-shows how unrestrained the prefect's megaJo­marna was.

III

Reveal to these depraved, o Republic, by foiling their plots, \bur great Medusa face Ring<d by "" lightning.

-Piem:: Dupont, Chanl us 'IIf1ritn

The barricade is resurrected during the Commune. It is stronger and better d~igned than ever. It stretches across the great bouJevarcis, often reaching a height of two stories, and shidds the trenches behind it. Just as the Communut Man/u fO ends the age of professional conspirators, so the Commune puts an end to the phantasmagoria that dominates the earliest aspirations of the proletariat. It dispels the illusion that the task of the proletarian revolution is to comple~ the work of '89 in close collaboration with the bourgeoisie. nus illusion had marked the period 1831-1871, from the Lyons riots to the Commune. The bourgeoisie never shared in this error. Its battle against the social rights of the proletariat dates back to the great Revolution, and converges with the philanthropic move­ment that gives it cover and that was in its heyday under Napoleon III. Under his reign, this movement's monumental work appeared: Le Play's Oullrial etJropicu [European \\brkers].

Side by side with the oven position of philanthropy, the bourgeoisie has aJways maintained the covert position ofclass struggle.n As early as 1831, in the Journal del tlibats, it acknowledged that "every manufacturer lives in his factory like jl

plantation owner among his slaves." If it was fatal for the workers' rebellions of old that no theory of revolution had directed their course, it was this absence of theory that, from another perspective, made possible their spontaneous energy and the enthusiasm with which they set about establishing a new society. TIlls enthusiasm, which reaches its peak in the Conunune, at times WOIl over to the workers' cause the best clements of the bourgeoisie, but in the end lcd the 'workers to succumb to its worst d ements. Rimbaud and Courbet took sides with the Commune. The burning of Paris is the worthy conclusion to Baron Hauss­mann's ,",,'Ork of destruction.

Conclusion

Men of the nineteenth century, the hour of our apparition5 is fixed foro.'CJ', and always brings w back the vcry same ones.

- Auguste 8lanqui, L'EI~ilipar kJ lJJlTtJ (Paris, 1872), pp. 74-75

During the Commune, Blanqui was hdd prisoner in the fon:ress of Taureau. It was there that he wrote his L'Etmli/i par leJ a.stm (Etemity via the Stars). This book completes the century's constellation of phantasmagorias with one last, cosmic phantasmagoria which implicitly comprehends the severest critique ofall the others. The ingenuous reflections of an autodidaa, which form the principal portion of this work, open the way to merciless speculations that give the tie to the author's revolutionary ,Han. The conception of the universe which Blanqui develops in this book, taking his basic premises rrom the mechanistic natural scicnces, proves to be a vision of hell. It is, moreover, the complement of that society which Blanqui, near the end of his life, was forced to admit had defeated him. The irony of this .scheme-an irony which doubtless escaped the author himself-is that the terrible indictment he pronounces against society takes the fmm ofan unqualified submission to its results. Blanqui's book presents the idea of eternaJ return ten years before <arafhullra-ul a mrulller scarcely less moving than that of Nietzsche, and with an extreme hallucinatory power.

TIlls power is anything but triumphant; it leaves, on the contrary, a reeling of oppression. Blanqui here strives to trace an image of progress that (inllllemorial antiquity parading as up-to-date novelty) rums out to be the phantasmagoria of history itself. Here is the essential passage:

The entire universe .is composed of astral systems. To create mem, nature has only a hundred simplt bodits at its disposal. Despite t.he great advantab'C it derives from these resources, and the innumerable combinations t.hat these resources afford its fecundity, the result is necessarily afin;tt number, like thal of me elements them­selves; and in order to 6lJ its expanse, nacure must repeat to infinity each of its urigif!9l combinatioru or Iy/NJ. So each heavenly body, whatever it might be, exists in infinite number in time and space, IlOI. only in {)nt of its aspects but as it .is at cadI second of its existence, from birth to death .... TIle earth ill one of these heavenly bodies. Every human being .is thus etemal at every second of his or her existence. What I write at this moment in a cell of the Fort du Tallreall I have written and shall

write throughout all eternity-at a table, with a pen, clothed as I am now, in circum­stances like these. And thus it is for everyone ... . The number of our doubles is infinite in time and space. One cannOt in good conscience demand anything m OTe.

-nlese doubles exist in Oesh and bone-indeed. in trousers and jacket, in crinoline and clugnon. They are by no means phantOJl1!l ; they are the present eternalized. Here, nonethdcs.s, lies a great drawback: there is no progress .... \lVhat we call "progress" is confined to each panicular world, and vanblhcs with it. Always and everywhere in the terresoial arena, the same drama, the same setting, on the same narrow stage-a noisy humanity infantated with its own grandeur, believing itself to be the universe and living in its prison as though in some immense realm, only to founder at an early date along with its globe. which has bome with dccpcst ~ the burden. of human arrogance. The same monotony, the same immobility, on other heavenly bodies. The universe repeats itself endlessly and paws the ground in place. In infuuty, eternity perfonru-imperturbably-the same routines.'l3

1bis resignation without hope is the last word of the great revolutionary. The century was incapable of responding to the new technological possibilities with a new social order. That is why the last word was left to the errant negotiators betv.-een old and neW who are at the heart of these phantasmagorias. The world dominated by its phantasmagorias- this, to make use of Baudelaire's tenn, is "modemity.n Bianqui's vision has the entire universe emering the modernity of which Baudelaire's seven old men are the heralds. In the end, Blanqui views novelty as an attribute of all that is under sentence ofdamnation. Likewise in Ciel et mItT" [Heaven and H ell], a vaudeville piece that slightly predates the book: in this piece the tonnents of hell figure as the latest novelty of all time, as "pains eternal and always new." The people of the nineteenth century, whom Blanqui addresses as if they were apparitions, are natives of this region.

Overview

t\. Arcades, Magasins dt NrJUutQutiJ, Sales Clerlu 3 1

B Fashion 62

C Ancient Paris, Catacomb5, Demolitions, Decline of Paris 82

o Borroom, Eternal Return 101

E H,us,n""",,,uon, s.rr;"d, Fighting 120

F lIon Construction 150

G Exhibitions, Advertising. Grandville 171

H The CoUector 203

I TIlclntcrior, ThcTracc 212

~ Baudclaire 228

K Dream City and Dream House, Dreams of the FUNre, Anthropological Nihilism, Jung 388

L Dream House, Museum, Spa 405

M TIle Flancur 416

N On the Theory of Knowlcdgt, Theory of Progress 456

o Prostitution, Gambling 489

p 1hc Strtcts of Paris 516

q Panorama 527

R Mirron 537

S Paintjng,Ju~ndst.il, No...dty 543

T Modes of Lighting 562

U Saint-Simon, Railroads 571

V Conspiracies, Compagnonnagt! 603

'" Fourier 620 X Marx 651

Y Photography 671

Z The Don, The Automaton 693

a Social Movement 698

b Daumier 740

C

d Literary History, Hugo 744

e I g The Stock. Exchange, Economic

Hiuory 779 h

I Reproduction Technology, Lithography 786

k The Commune 788

I The Seine, The Oldest Paris 196

JD Idleness 800

D

o P Anthropological Materialism,

History of Sects 807

q

r Ecole Polyteclmique 818

•• .u

' . '

A [Arcades, Magasins de Nouveaules, Sales Clerks1

The: magic columns ohhe5e palaces Show [0 the amateur on aU sides, In the: objecu their porticos display, TItat industry i.'J die rival or the arts.

_MChanson nouveUe,ft Ciled in NouIXa ux rahlraux dt Paris, Oil ObKTVll ­h"tm.J sur Its m«urs t l ujagtJ tkJ Parisims au rommrnumrol du XlX' s;jcu (ParU, 1828), vol. 1, p. 27

For sale the bodies, the voices, the tremendous unquestionable wealth, what will ne\~r be sold.

-Rimbaud1

"In speaking of the inner boulevards," says the JIluJtrated Guide to Paris, a com­plete picture of the city on the Seine and its environs from the year 1852, "we have made mention again and again of the arcades which open onto them. These arcades, a recent invention of industrial luxury, arc: glass-roofed, marble-paneled corridors extending through whole blocks of buildings, whose owners have joined together for such enterprises. Lining both sides of these corridors, which get their light from above, arc: the most elegant shops, so that the arcade is a city, a world in miniarure oFlaneur 0, in which customers will find everything they need. During sudden rainshowers, the arcades are a place of refuge for the unprepared, to whom they offer a secure, if restricted, promenade-one from which the merchants also benefit." 0 "'bther 0

This passage is the locus classicus for the presentation of the arcades; for not only do the divagations on the 8aneur and the weather develop out of it, but, also, what there is to be said about the construction of the arcades, in an eco­nomic and architectural vein, would have a place here. [AI ,I)

Nallle, of mag asins (Ie 1I0U Vetlllles; La Fille d · HOllncuc. La Vcslule, Le Page Incon­stant , I.e Masque de Fer <The Iroll Mask >. Le Pdit Chapcron Houge <LittJe Uetl Riding Hood >, Petite Nanette. La ChaumiCr.:: allemande <The German Cottage), Au Mumelouk , Le Coin {Ie In Rue < On the S I n.'t: l corner )-IIU lll e~ thut mostly come frOlll liuccessfu l vUUllt:villcs. 0 Mythology 0 A glover : Au Ci-Devlln! J cune Homme. A confectioner: Aux Armcs de WertlH!c.

"Tim nUIllC or the jeweler sltl nds over the shop door in large i,I'«id letrer. - inla id with finc illlilUlion gems." Eduanl Kroloff, Scllil<lerllllgetl (uUI Puru ( I-I amburg, 1839). vol. 2, p. 73. " In I.hc Galeric W:ro-Dodat, I.herc i ~ a grocery store; above its door, one reads IIlc inscription; ;Gllstronomie Cosmopoli te.' The individual char­acters of the sign are formed . in comic fashion , from SlIilH:S, pheasanu, harel. antlers, lobsters . fi sh . bird killneYI. a nd so forth ." Kroloff, Scllil<lerungell (llUi

Ptlri•• vol. 2 .IJ. 75. 0 Grandville 0 [A1.21

As business increased , the proprietor would purchase stock fOT a week and , to

make room for the goods being stored, would withdraw 10 the en tresol. In this way, the boutique became a magaJin. [AI ,31

It was the time in which Balzac could write: "The great poem ofdisplay chants its stanzas of colo r fro m the C hurch of the Madeleine to the Pone Saint·Denis." Le Diahle Ii Paris (Paris, 1846), vol. 2, p . 91 (Balzac, "Les Boulevards de Paris").

[AI ,' )

"'fhe da y Ihe won! . pecinlty was discovered by Her Majesty Intlustry, queen of France li nt! of neighboring regiolls: on that day, it is said, Mercury, . pecial god of

merehallts alld of several other social 'pecialtie" knocked three time8 with his ciuluccul 011 the front of the Stock Exchange and swore by the beard of Proserpine

that the wortl was fllle with him ." 0 Mythology 0 The word is used initially, how· ever, only for luxury itcllis. La Grande Ville: NOUIJe(1Il Tableml de Paru (Pa ris, (844), vol. 2, p . 57 (Marc f'our nier, " Les Specialih~s pariil iennes"). [AI,5]

"T he narrow I trt.-cts surrounding the Opera and the hazartlli to which pedestrianl

were exposcd on emcrging frolll tlus theater, which is always besieged by ca rr iage8. gave a group of speculators in 1821 the idea of u8ing lome of the st.ructures sepa­

r ating the new theater from the boulevard . I This enterprise, a sou rce of riche8 for its originators, WilS li t the same time of great benefit to the public. I By way of a

small , lIarrow covered arcade built of wood , one had , in fact , di l"C(: t access, with all the security of the O,.era's vestibule, to these gallerie8, and from there to the

houlevard.... Ahove the entablature of Doric pilasters dividing the shops rise two floors of apartments , anti above the apa rtment!J-rulining the length of the galleries-reigns all enurmolls g1ass-panetl roof. " J . A. Dulaure, HiMoire phy­. it/lle, civile el morllie de Pu ri. (Ielmi., 1821 jllJqll '(I nO$j our. (Puris, 1835). vol. 2, pp .28- 29 . [AI ,6)

Until 1870, the cAr ri llgc ruled Ihe stn..'CU. On t.he narrow sidewalks the PC(!t:~ trian Will cxtrcmely crumpet!' 111111 ilO ~Irolling look place principally in Ille arcade!!, which off,'fj· tI prot e.· tion frum bllli weather li nd from the traffic. "Our lurgcr stn...' ts HIlII our willer ~ i . l cwHlk8 a rc suitetlto the sweel fl iincrie that ftlr our father s wa$ impo8~ible cxcept in the :trcatles." 0 l-1ant:ur 0 Edmond Ueaurepairc, Puri. d 'Mer et d 'ulljolird'llIli : l,.t. CI, roflilJlle de. rile. (Paris, 1900), p . 61. [Ala . I]

Names of arcades: Pau age des Panorillllils, Pa8liage Vero-Dodat , Passage dll Desir (leading in ea rlier d aYI 10 II house of iU repute). Punge Colbert , Pauage Vivi­eline, Passage du Pont. Neuf, Pallage du Caire , Passage de la Reunion, Panage de J'O,.er a , Passage de la Trinile, Passage dll Cheva l. Blanc, Passage Pressiere <Bes­sieres?>, Pauage du Bois de Boulogue, Piluage Grosse-tete. (The Passage dee Panoramas was known at lirst as the Pan age Mirel.) [Ala,2]

The Passage Vero-Dada t (built between the Rue de Bouloy and the Rue Grenelle­Saint-Honore) "owes its na me to two rich pork butchers, i\feuieurs Ver o and Dodat, who in 1823 undertook iu construction together with that of the adjace.nt

buildings-an immense developmcnt . This led IIOmeone at the time to describe thi8 arcade a8 a ' lovely work of art franletl by two neighborhoods. ,,, J . A. Dula ure,

lliltoire physique, civile et momie de Pari! depuil 1821 j wqu 'o no.jours (Paris, 1835), vol. 2 , p . 34. [Ala,3]

The Passage Vera-Dod at had marble flooring. The actress Hacbellived there for a

while. [Ala,4)

No. 26, Galerie Colbert : "There, in the guise of a female glover, shone a beauty that was approachable but that, in the matter of youth, attached importance

only to its own; she required her favoritel to supply her with the linery from which she hOI.w to make a fortune . ... This young and beautiful woman under g1aSi was called ' the Ab80lute'; but phil080ph y would ha ve wasted its time pursu­

ing her. Her maid was the one who 80ld the gloves; 8he wanted it that way." 0 DaDs oProstitutes 0 <Charles> Lefeuve, u. Ancienne. lJ1oisoru de Pam, vol. 4 (Paris, 1875), p . 70 . [Ala,S)

Cour du Commer ce: " Here (using sheep) the Srs t experiments were conducted with the r;uilIotine; its inve.ntor lived at that time on the Cour du Commerce and

the Rue de I'Ancienue-Comedie." Le.feuve, Les Ancienne. lJ1auoru de Pam, vol. 4 , p . 148. [Ala,6)

' 'The Passage du Caire ,t where the main business is lithogra phic printing, must

ha\'e decked itself out ill lightl when Napoleoll III abolished the stamp duty 011 Commercial cir cula rs; this emuncipation made the arcade rich , and it showed its appreciation with eltlH:nditlires for bcautjlicatioll . Up to that point , when it rained , II1nbrcllA8 had been neelled in its gallerics , which ill several plAces lacked glass covering. It Lefeuve, Les Ancien"es MlIi.ons de P«ru, vol. 2, p . 233. 0 Drea m Houses 0 Weather 0 (Egyptian ornamentatiun). [Al a. 71

Impasse Ma uOOrt . former ly d ' Amboise. Around 1756, at Nos. 4-6, a IJoisoner resided wilh her two assistants . AU three were found dead one morning-killed through inhalation of loxic fUlll cs. [Ala,8)

Shops in the Passage Vbo-Dodat. Counesy of the Musee Camavalet, Paris. PhOto copyright o PhOtOth~ue des Mustes de la Ville de Paris. See Ala,4.

Years of reckless financial speculation under Louis XVlII. With the dramatic signage of the magasiru de nouueautis, art enters the service of the businessman.

[A l a,9)

"After t.he Pu nge de Panoramas , which went back to the year 1800 and which had an esta blished reputation in society, there was. by way of example. the gallery that was opened in 1826 by the butchen Vero and Dodat and that was pictured in t.he 1832 (jthograph by Arnout. After 1800 we must go all the wa y to 1822 to meet with a new arcade: it is between this date and 1834 that the majority of these l ingular pal8agewaya are constnJCled. The most important of them are grouped in

Glass roo~ and iron girders, Passage VivicIUlC. Photographer unknown. Collection of Joharul Fnw.ridl Gein; courtesy Prestel Verlag, Munich. See Ala,2.

TIle Passage des Panoramas. Watercolor by an unknown artist, ca. 18 10. Counc.sy of Agcnce Giraudon. Sec M ,I .

an area bounded by the Rue Croix-des· Petitl.Cbamps to the south , the Rue de la Grange·Bateliere to the north, the Boulevard de Sebastopol 10 the eaSI, and the Rue Ventadour 10 the west ." Mal"1:e1 Poete , Une vie de cite (Pam. 1925), pp . 373­374. (Ala, IO]

Shops in the Pal8age des Panoramas: Restaurant Veron, reading room, music shop, Marquis, wine merebanu, hosier, haberdashen. tailon. bootmakera, ho-­siers. book.shops, caricaturist, Theiitre des Varietes. Compared with this, the Pas. sage Vivienne was the "solid" arcade. There. one found no luxury shops. 0 Dream Houses: arcade as nave with aide chalKls. 0 (M ,l ]

People associated the "genius of the J acobins with the genius of the industrials," but they also attributed to Louis Philippe the saying: "God be praised, and my shops too." The arcades as temples of commodity capital. (A2,2]

The newest Paris al"1:ade , on the Champs·Elysoos , built by an American pearl king; no longer in businel8. 0 Decline 0 (A2,3]

"Toward th~ end of the ancien regime, there were attempts to establish bazaar--like shops and fixed· price stores in Paris. Some large magwiIU de nouveoutU--euch as Le Diable Boitew;, Lea Dew; Magotl, Le Petit Ma telot, Pygmalion-were founded during the Restoration and during the reign of Louis Philippe; but these were husinenes of an inferior sort compared to today's establishments . The era of the department stores da tes, in fact, only from the Second Empire. They have undergone a great deal of developmenl aince 1870. and they continue to develop. " [(mile> Levasseur, Hutoire du commerce de la France. vol. 2 (Paris, 1912), p. "9. [A2.4]

Arcades as origin of department stores? Which of the magasiru named above Wett located in arcades? [M,S]

The regime ofspecialties furnishes also-this said in passing-the historical-mate­rialist key to the 80urislUng (if not the inception) of genre painting in the rortics of the previous cemury. With the growing interest of the bourgeoisie in matters ofan, this type ofpainting diversified; but in confonnity with the meager artistic appreciation initially displayed by this class, it did so in terms of the content, in terms of the objects represented. There appeared historical scenes, animal stud­ies, scenes of childhood, scenes from the life of monks, the life of the family, the life of the village- all as sharply defined genres. 0 Photography 0 (A2,6]

The in8uence of commercial affairs on Lautreamont and Rimbaud should be looked into! (A2,7]

"Arlolher cha racteristic deriving ducHy rrom the Dire<: lor y [presumably until around 1830??] would be the lightncu or rabrics; on even the coMest day~, olle was

lieen only rarely in furs or warm overcoats. At the rilik of losing their skin , women ciotilctl themselvcs us though the harshness of winter no longer existed , as though nuture II ad limldcnly htlCn tl'unsfonned into an eternal paratlilie." <John) G rand ­Ca l·teret, us Efig(lIIces de ia loiieft e (Paris) . p. xxxh'. [A2.8]

In other respeCts as well, the theater in those days provided the vocabulary for articles of fashion. H ats a la Tarare, a la Theodore, it la Figaro, a la Grande­Pretresse, ::\ la IphigCnie, a la Calpren ade, ::\ la Victoire. The same niaiserie that seeks in ballet the origin of the real betrays itself when-around 1830-a news'

paper takes the name u Sylphe. 0 Fashion 0 [A2,9]

Alexandre Dumas at a dinner purt y given by Princess Mathilde. The verse is

aimed at Napoleon lH .

In their impcrial splendor, The uncle anrlnephew are Cllual: The uncle sei7.c~1 the capitals, The nephew 8ci<l:e8 our capital.

Icy silence fo llowed . Reportc(1 in Memoires rlu cornIe fiorace de Viel-Castel5l1r Ie regne de Nnpo/eon Ill , vol. 2 (Paris, 1883), p . 185. [A2, IOj

" The cOlliisse b"uanllllccd the ongoing life of the Stock Exchange. Here there was

never closing time; tlu:re was almost never night. When the Cafe Tortoni filially closet! its tloors, the columll of stock jobbers would head across the adjacent

boulcvards a mi mea nder up and down there, collecting in front of thc Passage de l'Opera." Julius Hodcnberg, PlJris bei Sonnenschein wltl LmnpenUcht (Leipzig,

1867), p. 97. [A2 ,ll j

IA2, !2]Speculation in railroad s tocks under Louis PhiliplH!·

" Of the same extraction , furthermore [thai is, from the house of Hothschild], iJl

the amazingly e!olluent Mires, who necds only to speak in order to convince his cr editors that losses are profits- but whose name , after the scandalous trial

against him , was noncthelus ohliterated from the Passage l\lires, which thereupon bt-"1:amc the Passage Ilcs Princes (with the famous Ilining rOOIllS of Petcrs restau­rant)." Hot/cnbcrg, PtJris bei S01lnenschein und L«IIIpen/ichl (Leipzig, 1867),

[A2a,l j p. 98.

Cry of the vendors of stock-exchange lists on the sh'eel: In thc cvenl of a ri~e in pl'ices, "ni~e in the stock market! " In Ihe cvenl uf a fa ll. -'Va l'ialions ill the stock

market!" Tile tcrm " fall " wus forhilldell hy the police. [A2.a.2]

In its importance for the affairs of the couli.!.!" the Passage d e l'Opera is compara­ble to the Kranzlcrecke. Speculator's argot "in the period preceding the outbreak of the Gcnna.n war [of 1866]: the 3-percent intercst was Q.llcd Afph07lJille; the

land credit, Ie gros Erne.!t; the Italian revenue, k paul.!1"e VICtor; the credit for movables, k petit Julu." In Rodenberg (Leipzig, 1867>, p , 100. [A2a,3]

Range of a stockbroker 's fee: between 2,000,000 (si,> and 1,400,000 francs. [A2a,4j

" The arcades, nea rly all of which date from the Restoration. "" Theodore Muret , /.. 'HiMOire par k theatre (Paris, 1865), vol. 2, p. 300. [A2a,S)

Some details concerning Avant, pendant, e l «pres <Before, During, and After>, by Scribe and Rougemont. Premier on June 28, 1828. The first part of the trilogy

represents the society of the ancien regime, the second part depicts the Reign of Terror, and the third takes place in the society of the Restoration JH!riod. The main character, the General, has in peacetime bl!i:ome an industrialis t and indeed

a great manufacturer. "Her e manufacturing replaces, at the highest level, the field worked by the soldier-laborer, The praises of industry, no less than the praises of warriorJ and Mureates, wer e sung by Restoration vaudeville, The bourgeois class,

with its various levelli, was placed opposite the class of Dohles: the fortune ac­quired by work was opposed to ancient heraldry, to the turrets of the old manor

house. This Third Estate, having become the dominant power, reeeived in turD its flatt erers ." Theodore Muret, L 'Histoire par I.e theatre, vol. 2, p . 306. [A2a,6j

The Galeries de Bois, " which disappeared in 1828-1829 to make room for the

Galerie d ' Orieans, were made up of a triple line of shops that could hard1y be called luxurious, There were two parallel lanes covered by canvas and plaDks,

with a few gJass panes to le t the daylight in. Here one walked quite liimply on the packed earth , which downpours sometimes transformed into mud, Yet people came from all over to crowd into this place, which was nothing short of mag­

nificent , and stroll between the rows of shops that would seem like mere booths compared to those that have come after them. These shops were occupied chiefly by two industries, each having its own appeal. There were, first , a great many

milliners, who worked on large stools facing outward, without even a window to separate them; and their spirited expressions were, for many strollers, no small part of the place's attraction. And then the Galeries de Bois were the ceuter of the new book trade." Theodore Muret, L 'Histoire par Ie theatre, vol. 2, pp . 225--226.

[A2a,7]

Julius Hodenberg on the snlall reading room in the Passage de l' Opera: ';What a cheerful air this small, half-darkened room has in my memory, wilh its high book­shelves, its green tables, its red-haired gar,<on (a great lover of Looks. who was

always reading noveb illsteltd of bringing them to others), its German newspapers, whieh every morn.ing gladdened Ihe heart of the German abroad (all except tile Cologne paper, which on average made an appearance only once in ten days). 8uI

wilen there is any ncws in Paris, it is here thai one can receive it. Softly whispcr ell (fur the redhead keeps a sharp lookout to make sure that Ileither he nor other

readers will be dis turhed b y this), it I)DUe~ from lips to ear, paslles almost imlM!r. (·t'p tihly f rOIll pen to pape r. and finally from wriling del!k to nearby lellerhox. The good (la me till IJllrflflll ha~ II fri elldly ~milc for 11 11 . a lU! pupers alUl enveiolH!H for .·orrc~pollde llu . The early mail is digpatehed . Cologn e DIUJ Augslmrg have their news; and now- it is noolltime!- to the tavern ." Rodcnbc r,;. Puris bei Sonnen­

5clleill llrul Lampell/icill (Leipzig, IS(7), pp. 6-7. [A2a,8j

" The I'uuage t!u Caire is highly reminiscent , 011 a smaller sca le, of the Passage du

Saumon , which in the IJasl existed on the Rue Montmartre, 0 11 the site of the present-d ay Rue Bllchullmont. " PIIIII L.eaullllld , " Vieux Pa ris," Mercure de Fnlllce (October 15. 19"27), p. 503. [A3, l !

" Shops on the old modd , devoted 10 tralles fOli lld nowllere d se, surmounted by a sma U, old· fa shiOIlt..'11 meuanine with windows tha t ellch bea r a number, 0 11 an

esculcilt..'O Il , COrreSI)omlillg 10 a particular shop . From time to time, a doorway giving 01110 a corridor; at Ihe elld of the corridor. a small ~ t airway Icadillg to these

mezzanines. Near the knob of one of the,.e d oors, this handwritten !!ign :

The worker next door would 1M! obliged if. ill dOijing the door.

YOIl refrainc(1 from 81alllming it. IA3~]

Another s ib'll is cited ill the same place (U:autaud , " Vieux Paris," Mercure de

f' rclllce [1927] , pp . 502-503):

ANGELA

21111H OOf, to the right IA3)]

Old name for d,'pa l·tment slol·es : dock! (I bOIl marcile-that i8, " discount ducks."

<Sigfrieth Git..-dioll , /lfluen i,l Fmnl.-reicJl <l...e ipzig and Berlin, 1928), p. 31. IA3,4]

Evolutioll o f the dep artlllent s tore fro m the shop that was housed in arcades. Principle of the department store: "The Boors foml a single space. They can be taken in, so to speak, 'at a glance.'" Giedion, Bauen in Frankreich, p . 34. [A3,5!

Giedion shows (in Bauen in Frankreich, p . 35) how the axiom, "\\~lcome the crowd and keep il seduccd n (&ie/lu d l'il1l/ustrie, 143 (1925J, p. 6), leads to corrupt architectural practices in the construction of the department store Au Printemps (1881 - 1889). Function o f commodity capital! [A3 .6!

"' Even womeu, who were forbidden 10 enter the Stock Exchange, allsemhletl at the door in o nlcr 10 glea n sOllie indications uf ma rket price~ allli to relay their orders lu brokers through tile iron gr it ting. " 1.-£1 'fnlll s/orlllfllioll de PariJ 50118 Ie Scco /ul

f~mpire (a lilhor8 l)oCle . CIOlizot , lI t'nriot) dlari8. 1910). on the occasion of the I'xllihitioll uf tilt' lilll·a ry and the historica l work,. of the ci ty of Pa ris, p . 66.

IA3, ' ]

-\<\e have no specially"-lhis is what the well·known deaJer in secondhand goods, Fremin, "the man with lhe head of gray," had written on the signboard

advertis ing his wares in the Place des Abbesses. Here, in antique bric-a·brac, reemerges the old physiognomy of trade !.hat, ill the first d ecades of the p~ous century, began to be supplanted by the rule o r the spicia/ili . This "superior scrap--ya J"d n was called Au Philosopht by its proprietor. What a demonstration and

demolition of s toicism ! O n his p lacard were the words : "Maidens, do not dally u nder the Icaves!n And: "Purchase nothing by moonlighl." [A3,8!

E"idcntly people smoked in the a rcades at a tinle when it was not yet eustonlary 10

slIIoke in the s treet . " I IIlust say a word here about life ill the arcades, favored hllunl of stroller!! 1I lid smokers, theater of operations for every killd of snlal! husineu. In each a rcade Ihere is a t leas t one cleaning establishment . In a saloll

t.hllt is as elega ntly fu rnished 8 S its intClided use permits, gentlemen sit upon high ~ tool s a nd comfortably peruse a new~paper while someone busily hrushes the dirt off their clothing II l1d boots. II ~'erdinand VOli Gall . PlIri$ IHid Jeine Salom, vol. 2 ~Oldcnhurg , 1845), PI). 22-23. [A3,9!

A first wintel· gardclI- a g1aue.i-in space with fl ower beds. esp alier s. and foun ­

lains , in pa rt ulltlerground~n the spot where , in the garden of t.he Palais-Royal in 1864 (ami tod ay 3 S well?). the reservoir was located . Laill out in 1788. [A3,lO)

" It is at the cnd of the Restoration thai we see the first magtlsins de noutJellute.: Les Vepres Siciliellllc8, Le Solitaire . La Fille Mal Gardee, Le Solds t Laboureur. 1,,(:8 Deux l\1Hgo t~, Lc Petit SlIinl-Thomas, Le Gagne·Denier <P enllY Winllingn."

<LucicIU Duhech alii! <PierreHr Espezel. lIisloire d e PariJ (Pa ris. 1926), p. 360. [A3.Il!

' ·In 1820 .. . the Pau age Viullct and the Pa§sagc tic,. Deux Pavilions were opened. TlIt~s(" a rtlltle8 wen ' allIong the Ilovdties of thcir tlay. The result of p rivate initia ­

li\"I·. they w,' re co\·ercd galler i,'s housing ~hol's thut fa shion Illude prO"perolls . T he /II" SI flltnous was Ihe Passage lie,. Panoru mas. wllil ,lt fl ourished from 1823 to 183 1. ·Un Stuulays. · ohst n 't..'1IMuu et. 0 111' ,,·,·nt en ma ul' ' to t.he Panora mas or d s(' to

tilt' I,uul"va rds: It W !18 II lso prh'ate initiative Ihllt crell tl'ti , somllwhat hap· hlIZ!t/"(ll y. tile housing llevdopnl1'nlS knowlJ as cile,. the shol· t S lree t ~ or dead end~ hu itt Ht s"ar~i expl' lI iit' ],y a ~y lllli l'a t e or prop(·rty o,,"n,'rs.·· Luciell Dubeeh a nd I'i,·rrc II· E~pt'zd . lIi!/oire tic " flriJ (Paris. 1926). pp. 355-356. [AJa.l !

In 1825 . opening of the "Pa88ag~. Dauphine, Suucede, Choiseul" auti of the Cite

- Herger t:. ;' 111 1827 ... the Passage8 Colbert , Crun ol , de I'lnduSlric .... 1828 saw the oll,enillg ... of Ihe Pa881lgCIJ Brady and de8 GraviUiers alltlthe l)eginnillji\:8 of

the Gale ric d 'Orieans a l the Palai ~-Roya l , which replaced the WO<.)j ll~1I galleries thai 11 10111 IlIIrncd dowli that year.... Dubech li nd ,fEsl>t:zd , lI i.uoire cle Paris . pp. 357-358. [A3a,2)

" The allccilor of the depa rtment slores, La Ville d e Puris, apl>t:u rcll lit 174 Rue Montmartre in 1843:' Dubech alld d ' Espezel, Ili.uoire de Pari$, p. 389. [A3a,3)

" Rainshowcn a lilloy me, 80 I g U\'e one the slip in a ll a rcade. There a re a great

man y of these g1uss-covercd walkwa ys, which often c ross through the blocks of

buildings and make several hranehings, thlls affording welcome shortcllts. Uere and there they a re constructed with great elegance, alltl in bad weather or aft er dark , wilen they are lit up br ight as day, they offer promenades-and \'ery popu­lar they are-past rows of gli tter ing sho"s." Eduard De\-rient , Briefe au.s Pa ris

(Berlin , I8<W), p. 34. [A3a,4]

Rue-gtllerie.-"T he 5lreel-8(1ilery ... is the m08t important feature of a Ph alan­steryand ... calillot be cOllceh 'ed of in civili7.alioll.... Street-galleries ... are heatetl in winter and ventila ted in summer.... The street-gallery. or continuow peri.style, extends along Ihe second II tOry.... Those who have seen the galler y of the Louvre lIIay take it as a 1II(Hlel ror the street-gallery in Harmony." E. Silber­ling, DicliQlllltlire tie sociologie plwlmulerielllUl War is. 1911), p . 386; citing <Charlen Fourier, Theorie de I'lIlIile Iltliverselle (1822), p . 462, and Le NOlLveau Monde illtlll.slriel el socieltlire (1829), "p . 69, 125 , 272. In adilition: Culerie.­"AU portiolls or the central cdHice C8 11 be Iraverlled by meall t or a ""ide gallery which rllns along the second fl oor .... Thus, e\'erythulg is linketl by 8 seriet of pastageways which ar e shellercd , elegant , a nd comrortahle in winter thanks to the help or heaten allli \'entilators," E, Silberling, DicliofUlaire. pp, 197- 198; citing Fourier, 'fh eorie lIIixte, 011 5/JeClllllt ive, et sYlltl,e5e rOlllilliere de r/luociution. p . 14.-' [A3a,5]

The Passage du Caire adjoining the rormer Cour de8 Miracles. Built in I i99 on the site or the old ga rden of the COllvellt or the Daughten orCod. [A3a,6]

Trade and traffic are the two components of the street. Now, in the arcades the second of these has effectively died out: the traffic there is rudimentary. The arcade is a street of lascivious commerce only; it is whoUy adapted to arousing desires, Because in this s[teet the juices slow to a standstill, the conunodity proliferates along the margins and elUers into falUas tic combinations. like the tissue in tumors.-The Haneur sabotages the traffic. Moreover, he is no buyer. He is merchandise, [A3a.7]

For the first time in history, with the establishment ofdepartment stores, consum­ers begin to consider themselves a mass, (Earlier it was only scarcity which taught them that.) Hence, the circus·like and theatrical clement of conunerce is quite extraordinariJy heightened, [M,l]

With the appearance of mass·produced anides, the concept ofspecialty arises. Its relation to the concept oforiginali ty remains to be explored, 1A4,2)

" 1 grant that husmeu at the Pubis- Royal has had il8 da y; but I believe tha t this should be attributed uot to the absence or streetwalkers but to the erection of new a rcades, allilto the enlargement and rerurbishing or several others, I will mention the Passages de l' Opera, du Gra nd-Cerf, dll Saulllon, de Vero-D(Hlat, Delorme, de Choiseul , and des Panoramas." E F. A. Beraud , Le5 f"ille5 pltbfuJlle~ de Pari.s et Eo. police qui le5 regit (Paris and I..cipzig, 1839), VI) I. I , P, 205. [A4,3]

" I do not know lfbusines8 at the Palais-Royal has really sufrered rrom the absence of femme5 tie debauche; but what is certain is that public d«ency there has im­proved enormously .. , , It seems to me, furthermore, that respet:table women now willingly do their shopping ill the shops of the galleries , , . ; this has to be an ad vantage for the merchallts. For when the Palais-n oyal was invaded by a swarm or practically nude prostitutetl, the gue or the crowd was tumed towa rd them and the peo"le who enjoyed this llpet: tacle were never the oneil who patronized the iocal butinelllle8. Some were already ruined by their ilisorderly life, while other l, yield­ing to the allure orlibertinism, had no thought then or purchasing any goods, even necessities. I believe I can affirm , .. that, during those times of inordinate toler­ance, several shops at the Palnis-Royal were closed , a nd in other s buyer s were rare. Thus, busines8 ilid nol at all prosper there, and it would be more accurate to say that the stagnation or hllsine811 at that time was owing rather to the free cir cu­lation or Ihe ftlles publique.s than to their absence, which today has brought back into the galleries and the garden of this palace lIumerous strollen, who are fa r nlore ravorable to busineu than pr08titutes and libertinell." F. F. A. 8 eraud , Le5 Fi/les publiques tie Pari5 (Paris and I..cipzig, 1839), vol. 1, pp. 207- 209, [A4,4]

The care. are fill ed With gourmeu, with 8moke ....; T he thealen are Ilacked With cheerfuI 8~ta ton .

The a ru dcB are 8warminl! With I!lIwken. with enthusiast8, Ami pickpockel-f wriggle Uchind the flineur•.

Ennery II lId I..cmoine, Paris hI nuit , cited in H , Gourllon de Genoui.llac. 1£5 Re­f ruin.s de la rue lie 1830 a 1870 (Pa ris . 1879). PI), 46-47.-'1'0 be cOllipa red with Baudelaire's "Crcpuscule ti ll -foir." lA4a. l]

" And those who cannot pay for ... a shelter ? They deep wherever they filul a place, in passage~. arcades, in corners where Ihe police and the oWllers lellve them IIl1diSHlrlled. ·· F'riedrieh Engel", Die Ltlge der (lrlJeitcmien KltlS se in Eng /mid , 2nd cd. (Leipzig. 1848), p . 46 (" I)ie grossen Stii{lte").5 [A4a .2]

" III all the shops, like II uniform , the oak countel' is adOl'ned with counterfeit coins, in every kind of melal and in ever y formal , merciles~ l y nailed in place like Lirds of prey 011 a door- unimpeachable evidence of the proprietor 's scrupulous

hOllesty." Nadar, QlIllllcl j 'et(li$ photogmphe (Paris ( 1900) , p . 294 C"1830 et enl'i­rons"). [A4a,3]

Fotlrier 0 11 the s treet-galleries: "To speud a winter 's da y in a Phalanstcry, to visit

all parts of it without ex posure to lilt: e1t:mellls, to go to the theater and the opera in light clothes and colored shoes without worrying about the mud and the cold,

would he a charm so novel tlial it alone would snffice to make our cities and castles St..'C1II detestable, If the Pllalanstery wer e put to civilized uses , the lIIer e conven­

ience of its sheltered, heated , and ventilated passageways wouJd make il enor­mously ,·aluable. b Its propel'ly value . .. would be double that of another huilding

its s ize." E. Poisson , Fourier [Anthology] (Paris, 1932), p, 144. [A4a,4)

" The stn:e t-gll llerieli ar e u mode of internal cOlUmtlu.ication which would alone be sufflcicnt to inspire disdain for the p alaces and great cities of civilization.... The king of France is one of thc leading mona rchs of civilization ; he d oes nol even have

a porch in his Tuilcries palace. The king, the quccn , Ihe royal famil y, when they

get into or out of their carriages, are forced 10 get as wet as a ny lH! tty hourgt:ois who summons a cab befol'c Ius shop. Doubtless the king will have on hand , in Ihe event of rain, a good lIlany foolmcn and courtier s to hold an uillb rella for him . .. ;

hut he will still he lacking a porch 0 1' a roof that wouM shelter his party.... Let us descrihe the sll't..oe l-galleries which a l'e one of the mosl char ming and precious

features of a Palace j)f Ha rmony .... The Phalanx has 11 0 OUlside streets or open road wllYs exposell to the elements. All portions of the central edifi ce can be tra­

l'ersed b y mea ns of a wide galler y which r uns along the second floo r of the whole building. At each extremit y of this spacious corritlor there a re elevated passages,

sUI'Porte{1 by COIUlIIIIS, and also attractive ulUler ground passages which connect all the pal·ts tlf Ihe Phalanx and the adjoining builtlings. Thus, ever ything is linked hy 11 series of passageways which a re sheltered , elegllllt , ami comfortable in winter

tlmnks to the hell' of heaters alltl \·entilators.... The street-galler y, or contil/uous peristyle, extends alollg the second stOI')'. It could not be piliced O ll tile ground fl oor, s ince the lower par i of the huilding will be tr llversetl by ca lTi llge en­trances.... T he street-galler ies of a Phalanx wimlliiong just one side of tim cell­tl'al ed ifice ami s tl'etch to the elltl of elldl of its willgs. All of thesc wiu j9> eOlltllin a tlouble row of 1'001118, Thus , 011" row of n XJIIIS looks Oll t upon the fields and gur­tl"ns. a nd the ot her looks outupOIl the street-galler y. '1'1... stl'L't: t-gallt:r y. then . will be 11'1'1;" Slot' i" s high witll will{lows on olle side .... The kitchens 11 1111 some of tl .. :

puhlic han... will be located on the ground Roor. There will also be trap doors in the Roors of the dining rooms on the second story. Thus, the tables may be set in the kitchells below and simply raised through the trap doors when it is time to eat. These Irap d oon will be particularly nseful during festivities, such as the visils of traveling caravans and legions, when there will he too man y people to eat in the ordinar y dining rooms. Then double rows of tables will be set in the street-galler­ies, alld the food will be passed up from the kitchen . I The principal public halls should not be si tuated on the ground floor. There are two r eaSOns for this. The first is that the patriarchs and children , who have difficulty climbing stairs, should be lodged in the lower parts of the building. The second is Ihat the children should be kept in isolation from the nonindustrial activities of Ihe adults." Poisson , Fourier [AnthologyJ(Paris, 1932), Pl" 139-144.7 (AS)

Yes, JHlrbleu ! You know the power of Tibet . Implacable enemy of proud innocence, Hardly does it appear than it carries away The bookkeeper's wife and the burgher's daughter, The 8tern prude and the frigid coquette: It signals the victory of lovers; For fashion tolerate8 no usistance, And not to have it puts one to shame. Its fabric. hraving the current bon mot, Softens in its folds Ihe arrows of ridicule; Seeing it . you think of a magicaltaliJJman: It braces the spirits and subjugates the heart; For it 10 appear is already a triumph, ill coming a cont[Uest; It reign~ U contlueror, as If()vereign, as mUleI'; And trealing iu quiver as a hurden quite useleu, Love has fashioned its handeau of cashmere.

Edouard [d'Anglemont] , Le Cuchemire, one-act comedy in verse, performed for

the first time in Paris at the Theatre Royal de l' Odeon , on December 16, 1826 (Paris, 1827) , p. 30 . [A5a,l)

Delvau on Chodruc-Duclos: " Under the reign of Louis P hilippe , who owed him nothing, he ... did what he had done under the reign of Charles X, who in fa ct owed him something.... His bones took more time to 1'0 1 Ihan his name took to erase itself from the memory of men ." AUred Delvau , Les Lions dlt jour (Paris, 1867), pp . 2&-29. [A5a.2)

" I t was IIOt until after the expedition to Egypt ,~ when l)CUple in France gave thought to expanding the u se of precious cashmere fabric, that a womun , Greek by hirth , introduced it to Paris. M. Ternaux ... conceived the admirable project of raising Hindustani goats in France. Since then , ... there h ave been plcnty of workers to train and trades to establish , in order for us to compete successfull y against prod ucts renowned through so llIany centuries! Our manufaetllf't:rS arc

beginning to triumph ... over women'~ prej udice against French shawls.... We have managed to muke wOlllen rorgct ror a moment the ridiculous rabric-d esigns or the Hindus by h uppil y reproducing the vividness and brillia nt harmony or the fl O""ers roulIIl in our own ga rdens. There is a book in wbich alltheae interestillg ~ubjects are discussed both knowledgea bly and elegantly. L'lIi$,oire de, ,chail$ , by l\1 . Rey. though written ror the shawl manufacturers or Paris, is guaranteetl to ca ptivate women .... This book, together with its author's magnificent manufac­tured goods, will undoubtedly help to dissipate French people's infatuation with

the work or roreigners. M. Rey, manuracturer or shawls made or wool, casbmere, etc . ... has br ought Ollt several cashmeres ranging in price (rom 170 to 500 (rancs. We owe to hinl , umong other improvements , ... tbe graceful im.itation o( native­.5

1 grown fl owers in 1>lace or the bizarre palms of the Orient . Our praise would not be t:{lual to the benefits he has bestowed , ... nor could it render the high honor that

f this litteruteur-manwactllrer d eserves for his long r esearch and his talents. We

must be conlent merely to name him." Chenoue and H. D., Notice lur l'eXp6!ilion de, proolliu eie l'induMrie el deJ urU qui a lieu aDouai en 1827 (Douai , 1827), .. pp.24-25. [M ,l ]

Mter 1850: " It is durillg these years that the department stores are crealed : Au Bon l\1urciui, Lc Louvre, La HeUe J ardiniere. Total sales ror Au Bon Marche in

1852 were only 450,000 rrancs; hy 1869 they had risen to 21 miUion ." Gisela

.' reulIIl . LeI Ph otog rapllie <III point de lIue !ociologique (manuscript, pp . 85-86); citing Lavisse. l1i! toire de France. [A6,2]

"The printers ... were able to appropriate, at the end o(tbe eighteenth century, a

vast area: ... the Passage du Caire and its environs.... But with the extension o( the bOllndaries o( l:>aris, Ilrinters ... were dispersed 10 aU parts o( the city .... Alas! A glUI or printers! Today workers corrupted by the spirit of speculation

ought to remembe r thai . .. between the Rue Saint-Denill a nd the Cour des a.fir­acle~ there s tiU exists a long. smoke-filled gallery where their true household gods

lie (orgotten." Edoua rd Foucaud , Pa ru inventellr (Paris, 1844). p . 154. [A6,3]

Descriptioll o( the Passage !lu Saumon , " which , by way of three stolle steps, ol)Cnml onto the Rue l\1onlorgueil. It was a lIa rrow corridor decorated with pilas­ters supporting a ridged gla ss roof, which was littered with garbage thrown (rom

ncighhOl'iug houses. At the ent rance. the signboard-a till salmon indicating the mlli ll (·hllructel'is tic or till' place: lhe air was filled with the II lIIell o( fish ... and also the smell or ga rlic. It was here, ultove all , that those a rriving in Iluris (rom Ihe south of fo'runce would urrungt: to meet ... , Through the doors or the shop8, one "pie(1 (hl~k y alcoves where sometimes II piece or mahogany rurniture, the cla8sic furniture or the periOlI. would ma nage to catch a ray or ligll! . Further 0 11 , a Slllall IJa r hazy wil h the smoke of tobllcco pipes; a shop selling prO(luCIS rrolll the colonies 111111 emittin!, II CllriOll il frllgra llce of exotic J>lant~, spices, lind rruits; a ballroom 01H!1I ror (Iuucing on Sundays a nd workduy eveniugB; flllllU y the reudillg room or

A branch or La BelleJardiniere in Marseilles. From u Month illUJIri, March 28, 1863. See A6,2.

Sieur Ceccherini. who offered to patrons his newspapers and his books." J . Lucas­Dubreton , L'AJJaire Alibaud. Oil Loui!-Philippe troque (1836; rpt. Paris, 1927). PI' · 114-115. [A6a,l ]

On the occasion o( disturbances associated with the hurial o( General Lamanlue 011 June 5, 1832 , the Passage du Sallllloll was the scene o( a battle waged on barricades, in which 200 worker s confronted the troops. [A6a.2]

" Martin : Business, you see, sir, ... is the ruler or tile world!- DeJgena u: 1 am or your opinion, Monsieur Martin , hul the ruler alone is nol enough; there mllst be suhjects. And that is where painting, sculpture, mllsic come in ... .- M(lrti'l : A liltle or thai i ~ necessary. surely • ... olul ... I myselr have encouraged the a rts. Why, in my last establishment , the Ca fe de France, I hu{1 lIIa ny paintings on allegorical subjects .... Whal is 1II0re, I engaged mlls i ciO Il ~ for the evenings .. Finally, ir Imay in vile YOlilo accompany lIIe ... ,you will see under my peris tyle Iwo ver y la rge. scan tily attired statues. each wit.h a light fixture 011 ils head.- DeJ­gerlUU: A light fi xture?-Murtill: That is my idea ur sculpture: it mllst serve some Jlurpose .... All those statues with a ll arm or a leg ill tile air- what a re tbey good

for, sinee they've had no pipe installed to carry gael ... What are they good for?"Theodore Barriere. Les Parisiens, produced at the Theatre du Vaudeville on De­cember 28, 1854 (Paris. 1855). p . 26. [The play is eel in 1839.} [A6a3]

There WaR a Pa8sage du Desir. <See Ala.2.) [A6a,4]

Chodruc.Duclos--a aupernumerary at the Palais·Royal. He was a royalist. anopponent of the Vendee, and bad grounds for complaining of ingratitude underCharlea X. He proteAted by appearing publicly in rags and letting hia beard grow.

{Ma,5]

Apropoa of an engraving that picturea a ahopfront in the Pallage Vero-Dodat:"One cannot praise this arrangement too highly-the purity of its lines; the pictu....esque and brilliant ef£~t produced by the pelight globes . which are. placed be­tween the capitall of the two double column. bordering each shop; and finally theshop partitions. which are eet off by reflecting plate glall... Cabinet de.tl Enampe.t(in the Bibliotheque Nationale, PariS). (A7,I]

At No. 32 Pauage Brady there WaR a dry·c1earungeetablishment , Maison Donnier .It waa aamouS) for its "giant workrooms" and its " numerous pertlonnel. " A con­temporary engraving showe the two-nory building crowned by small mansard.;female workertl in great numbert are visible through the windows; from tbe ceil­ings hangs the linen . [A7,2]

Engraving from the Empire: TM Dance of fM Shawl among the Three Sulla~.Cabinet des Estampes. [A7,3]

Sketch and floor plan of the arcade at 36 Rue "auteville, in black, blue, and pink,from the year 1856. on. stamped paper. A hotel attached to the arcade i. like-­wise represented. In boldface: " Property for lease." Cabinet des Estampes.

[A','[

The firSt department stores appear to be modeled on oriental bazaars. Fromengravings one sees that, at least around 1880, it was the fashion to cover withtapestries the balustrades of the staircases leading to the atrium. For example, inthe stOrt called City of Saint-Denis. Cabinet des Estampes. (A7,S]

"The Pau age de I'Opera . with ita two galleries. the Galerie de I'Horloge and theCalerie du Barometre.... The opening of the Opera on the Rue Le Peletier. in1821. brought this arcade into vogue, and in 1825 the ducheue de Berry came in The Passage de I'~ra,))enon to inaugurate a •Europama' in the ealerie du Barometre.... The grisetle.tl

1822-1823. Courtesy of the Music Camavalet, Pam. Photo copyrightt) Photothcquc des MUKes de la Ville de Pam. See A7,6.of the Restoration danced in the Idalia Hall . built in the basement. Later. a cafe

called the Divan de POpera was established in the arcade.... Also to be found in the Pauage de POpera waa the anna manufacturer Caron. the music puiJJjsher

Lithograph by Opitz., 1814. Counesy oftbe Strttt scene in front of me Passage des Panoramas· Bibliotbeque Nacionale de France. See A7,7.

U t and finaUy the perfume shop of the Opera.... M.arguen e . the p alltry chef Ro e • . . hevetu-which is to say. manu­

. th e wae Lemonnler. artute en c .. p ulIn ad<Iibon.... er . . d f __.1 items made of hair. a

I ' f reliquanee an un."dkfa clurer of hall ere nes , ~ J83O-J 879(Panl~ 1930) , pp . I4-16 . d ' An l te, La Vie et le monde du bouleva , {A7,6]

"The Pauage del Panoramas, 80 named in memory of the two l)anOramas that etood on either li tle of itll entranceway and lhal disappea red in 1831." Pa ul d 'Anl te, La Vie et Ie mOllde tlu boulevard (Parie), p. 14. [A7,7]

T he beautiIuJ apotheosis of the " marvel of the Indian Ihawl," in the section on

Indiall art in Michc.let 's Bible de l'hwtltwite (Pa ris, 1864). [A7a,l]

And Jehuda ben tb lery, In her view, would hal'e been honored Quite enough by being kept in Any pretty box of cardboard

With lOme very Bwanky Chineee ArllbeBIIU6 to decorale ii , Like a bonbon box from Marquis In the Pa8U!;e Panorama.

Heinrich Heine , Hebrauche Melodien , " J ehuda bell Halevy," part 4, in Ro­man::ero, book 3 (cited in a letter from Wiesengrund). ' [A7a,2)

Signboa rds. Mter the rehue style came a vogue for literary and military aUwionl. " If an erUI)tion of the hilltop of Montmartre happened to awallow up Paril , al

Vesuvius swaUowed up Pompeii, olle would be able to reconstruct from our I~" boardl, after fifteen hundrml years, the history of our military triumph, and of our literature." Victor Fournel, Ce qu 'on 110il datU Ie$ rue, de Po";" (Pam, 1858), p. 286 ("Enseignes et affiches"). [A7a,3]

Chaptal, in his speech on protecting brand names in industry : "Let us not asswne that the oonswner will be adept, when making a purchase, at distinguish­ing the degrees of quality of a material. No, gentlemen, the consumer cannot appreciate these degrees ; he judges only according to his senses. Do the eye or the touch suffice to enable one to pronounce on the fastness of colors, or to detenn.ine with precision the degree of fineness of a material, the nature and quality of its manufacture?" ~ean-Antoine-Claude) Chaptal, Rapport au nom d'une commission .spicitJlt! charget! dt! l 't!xamt!71 du projd dt! loj rt!latifaux a/tiration.s t!l JUp/JOSitioIU dt! nonu .sur It!J produjt.s fabn"qui.s [Chambre des Pairs de France, ses­sion of July 17, 1824], p. 5.-The importance of good professional standing is magnified in proportion as consumer know-how becomes more specialized.

[A7a,4]

" What shall I suy 1I0W of that couliue which , lIot con lent with ha rboring a two­hour illegal sessioll 0 1 the Stock Excha nge. spawned once again nOllong ago, in the open air, two demonstrations IJCr day on Ihe Boulevard des ltalien8, acr Ol8 from the POsluge de l' Operu. where five or 8ix hUllflrcl1 market 8lJCculators, forming a compact mass, follo",'oo dumsily in Ihe wake of lome forl Y unlicensed brokers, aU the while 8peaking in low voices like eOllspirator8, ...·hile Iwlice office ... prodded

them from behiml to g.: t them to move on , as one prods fat , t ired sheeplH:ing letlto the slaughterhoulie.·' 1'11. J . Ducos (de Condrill ), COmmellt on .fe rnille (i III BOline (Paris , 1858), p . 19 . [A7a.5]

II was at 27 1 Rue Saint-Martin , in the l'assage du Cheval l{ouge, thul Lucenaire commined his murders. [A7a,6]

[A7a,7]

From a prospectus: '1'0 the inhabitants of the Rues Beauregard , Bourbon-Ville­neuve, du Caire, and de la Cour des Miracles .. , . A plan for two covered arcades

running from the Place du Caire to the Rue Beauregard , cnding directly in front of the Rue Sainte-BarlH:, and linking the Rue Bourbon-Villeneuve with the Rue

lIauteville, , .. CentJemen. for some time now we ha\'e been concerned abou t the future of this neighborhood, and it I'ainij us to see that properties so close to the

boulevard carry a value so far helow what they ought to have . This s tate of affairs would change if lilies of communication were opened. Sinee it is iml)t)ssiblc to

constroclnew streets in this area, due to the great unevenness of the ground , and since the only workable plan is tile one we have the honor of lIubmitting to you

here, we bope, CentJemen , that in your capacity as ownerll ... you will in turn honor us with YOllr cooperation and affiliation .... Every partner will be retluired

to pay an installment of 5 frllncs on each 2S0-franc share in the future company. As soon as a capital sum of 3,000 francs is reali;,;ed , this provisional subscription

will bec:ome final--uid sum being judged at p resent sumcienl. .. , I'aris, this 20th of October. 1847." Prillted prospectus inviting suhscriptions. (A8,I)

" In the Passage ChoiseuJ , 1'11 , Comte, ' Physician to the King,' presents his cele­brated troupe of child actors extruorclinaire& in the interval between two magic

shows ill which he himself performs." J .-L. C roze, " Quelques spectacles d e Paris pendant I'ete de 1835" (Le Temp.f, Augu8l22, 1935). (A8,2)

"'At this turning point in history, the llarisian shopkeelH!r makes two discoveries

that re\'olutionize the ....orld of lu nOlweaute: the display of goods and tile male employee. The display, which lead s him to deck out his sllOp from Iloor to ceiling

and to sacrifice three hundred yards of material to garlalld his fa\,atl e (jke a flag­shil); and the male employee. ""ho replaces the seduction of man h y WOlllall­

something conceivetl by the shopkeepers of the a ncien regilll~with the selluctioll of womall by lIIall , which is psychologically more ustute , Together with these cOllies the fuc ell price, the kno ....n allli nOllnegotiuble cost. " H, Clouzol a nd n.-II . Valeflll i , Le Paris de "'/AJ Comedic Iwmuine"; Hllizll c et .fCS jOllrniU(!lIrS (Ila ris, 1926) ,

PI', 31- 32 ("MagasiIl8 lie nouvl:uutcs" ). [A8,3)

" ' Ilell a flllI8 usin de nOIlVelJllleS rent.:tlthe splice formerly oct'upicd by !!etzel. the ctlitor of '~(j Comedill IUUlmillll , Buh:ac wrote: "TI/f~ IIwlHw Comet' )' !mil yicitlcd to

the comedy of ca.d IlJlCres. It (Clou:r,ot and ValclIsi, Le Paris de " 'AJ Comedie hit­

mCiine, ,0 p . 37.) {A8,4]

Passage dll Commerce-Saillt -Arl(lre: a reading rOUIII. [A8a.l ]

"Once the sociali ~ t go\'er'lIIl1cnt had "Ileome the !egilimute owner of 1111 the hOll8CS or Paris, it handed them over to the architectll with the ortler ... to establish .f freet-gllilerie.f . .. , Tbe architects accompli.shed the mission enlrusted to them as \\'ell as could be I!llpected . On the sccond story of e\'ery hou se, they took all the rooms that facetl the streel and demolished the intervellillg partitions; they thell

openetl up large bays in the dividing walls, tllereb y obtaining street-galleries that Ilad the height and width of an ordinary room a nd that occupied the entire Icngth

of a block of buildings. III the newer (1IUlrtiers. where neighboring houses have their fl oors at approxima tely the stille height , the galleries could be joined to­gether on a fairl y evcn level. ... But on older streets .. , the floors had to be

carefully raised or 10wcl'ed , and often the builders had to resign themselves to giving the floor a r ather steel' s lant . or brea king it up with stairs. When aU the

blocks of houses were thus traver sed b y galleries occupying ... their second story. it remained only to connect these isolated sections to olle another in order to constitute a network ... embracing the whole city. This was easily done by erect­

ing covered walkways across every s treet , . , . Walkways of the same sort , but much longer, were likewise put up over the various boulevards, over the squares,

and over the bridgeg that cross the Seine, so tha t in the cnd ... a person could u roll through the entire city without e\'er being exposed to the elements .... All SOOIl as the Parisians had got a taste of the lIew galleries, they lost all desire to set

root in the streets of old- which , they often said , were fit only for dogs." TOllY

Moilill , Pam en l'an 2000 (paris , 1869), I'P. 9-11. [A8a,2]

"The second floor cont ains the street-galleries. , , . Along the lellgth of the great a\'enucs, . , . they form street-salons .... The other, much less spacious gaUeriea

are decorated more mooeslly, They have been resened for retail businesses that here display their merchandise in sllch a way that passer sby circulate no longer in front of the shops but in their interior," Ton)' Moilin. "(lris en l'an 2000 (Paris.

1869), pp. 15-16 ("Maisons-modeles" ), (A8a,3]

Sales clerks: " There are al lclI8t 20,000 ill Paris .... A great numbe r of sales clerks ha \'e bcell etlucated in the classics, .. ; olle even finds alllollg them painters /.I nd lI rehitects ullaffiliuted with ully workshop , who u~e a great Ileal of their knowlellge .. , of these two branches of arl in eunstructing displays, in Ilcterlllining the d esign of new items, in tl ire<:ting tile creation of fa shions." Pierre Larouue , Grund Dic­tiOn/wire univer.fe! du XIX' siecie, \ ' 0 1. 3 (Paris. 1867). p . 150 (a rticle on "Cali­l'Ot" ) , [A9, 1)

'-Why tli,l the author of Btlllies de mocu rs u ~Shl(lies of Mallncrs) choose 10 pre­Sellt , in a work of fiction , lifelike porlra its of the notables or hi ;; day? Doubtleu for

j

his own amo,ement fir" of aU .... This expla ins the descriptio"S_ For the direct ci tatiOIlS, a nother reason must be found-and we see none better than his unmis­takable aim of providing Imblicily. Balzac is one of the fir81 10 have divined the

power of the IIclverti&ement and, above aU, the disgui8ed advertisement . In lho8e

days•... the newspapers were unaware of such power .... At the very most,

around midnight . 8 S workers were fin ishing up the layout . advertising writers might slip in at the bottom of a column 80m e lines on Pite de Regnault or Brazilian Blend. The newspaper advertisement 8S such was unknown . More unknown still wal a proceu 88 ingenioul 81 citation in a novel. ... The tradesmen Darned by Balzac ... are clearly hi, own.... No one understood better than the author of Ce,ar Birolleau the unlimited potential of publicity.... To confirm this, one need

only look a t the epithe ts ... he attaches to his manufacturers and their products.

Shamelessly he dubs them : the renowned Victorine; Plaisir, an iUwtriow hair­

dresser ; Staub, the mOlt celebrated tailor of his age; Gay, a/amow haberdasher

... on the Rue de la Michodie.re (even giving the address!); ... ' the cuisine of the

Rocher de Cancale, ... the premier restaurant in Paris ... , which is to 8ay. in the

" entire world .... H. Clouzot and R.-H . Valenti, Le Paris de "w Comedie hu­maine": Ba~ac et JeJ!oltrnuJeur, (Paris, 1926), pp . 7-9 and 177-179. IA9,2)

The Passage vero-Dodat connects the Rue Croix-d es-Pe til8-Champs with the Rue

Jean-lacquel-Rouneau . In the latter , a r ound 1840, Cabet held his meetings in his rooms . We get an idea of the tone of these gatherings from Martin Nadaud's

Memoires de Leonard, ancien gar-;on mo-;on: " He was still holding in his hand the

towel and razor he had jUl t been using. He seemed filled with joy at seeing us

l'eslJectably a ttired , with a seriOUI air: 'Ah , Messieu rs,' he said (he did no t say

'Citizens'), ' uyour adversaries could only see you now! You would dilarm their

criticisms. Your dress and your bearing are those of well-bred men ...' Cited in

Charles Benois t , " L ' Homme de 1848," part 2, Revue deJ deux mondeJ (February

I , 1914), PI)' 64I--642.-h was characte ristic of Cabet to believe that workers

need not busy themselves with writing. IA9,3)

S tred-salons: "The largest and most favorably aituated among these (street­

galle rie8] were tastefully decorated and l umptuous ly furni shed. The waUl and

ceilings wer e covered with .. . rare marble, gilding, ... mirror s, and paintinga.

The windows were adorned with splendid hangings and with curtain8 embroide red

in marvelous pattem8. Chairs, fauteuils, 1I0fa s ... offe red comfortable seating to

tired strollers. Finally, there were a rtis tically designed objects, antique cabi­

nets, .. . glan cases full of curiosities, ... porcelain vases containing fresh flow ­

ers, a (IUariumll full of live fish , a nd aviaries inhabited by r a re birds. These

completed the decor a tion of the st reet-galleries, which lit up the evening with ...

gilt candelabra8 and crySlaJ lamps. The government had wanted the st reets be­longing 10 I.he people of Paris to surpasll in magnificence the drawing rooml of the

most powerful sovereigns.... Firs t thing in the morning, the s treet-ga llc ries are lurned over to a ttendants who air them out, sweep them carefully, bru8h , dust , a nd polish the furniture , and everywhere impose the mosl scrupulous c1eanlinen. Then , depending on the seallon , the windowil are e ither opened or closed , 8.nd

either a fire i8 1il or the blinds urc lowered.... BelwL'C1i nine and len o'clock Ihi8

cleaning is nil cOlUple le(l . alld ,,"s~ersby, unlilthen (ew li nd far be lwL"e Il .l.oegili to nppenr ill grea le r numbers . I<: utl'llllce to th l.\ galll.\ ri l.\~ i ~ strictly fo l'i)idde ll 10 IIny­

o lle who is dirty o r 10 carrie rs of hellvy 10u{ls; smoking ami spitting lire likewise

p rohihited he re." Tony Moilin. H./riJ en I'an 2000 (PliriS, 1869). pp. 26-29 ("As­

pect des rues-ga lcricH"). [A9a, I)

Tlltl magcuills de nOlwealites owe their ex istence 10 the frct,.'<lom of trade esta b­

lislu!tl by Napoleon I . "Of those establishmenls, famous in 18 17. which gave them­

sdn:s n ll ,nes like La Fille Mal Ca rdt':e. Le Iliahle Boitem.:: , Le l\1us«ue d e Fer, or

Les Deux l\I agots, 110t Olle remains. Many of those which rcplaced them under

Louis Philippe also fo undered la te r on-Jik~l La Belle Fermicre II l1d La Cha u8&ee

d·Anlin . Or else they were 80ld a t lillIe profit- like I..e Coill de Rue and Le Pauvre

Oiahle." G. d 'Avenel , "Le Me.:aniSlau: de la vie modernc." part I : " Les Grands

]\l ag1l8ills," ReVile dell deux "Wildes (luly 15, 1894), p . 334. [A9a,2)

Tile office of Philipon '& weekly La Caricatllre was in the Passage Vero-Dodat. [A9a,3]

Passage liu Caire. Erected aft e r 'apoleon's return from Egypt . Contain8 l ome

e \'ocations of Egypt in Ihe relief~phinx-Iike heads over the e lltra llce, among

ot he r things. "The II rca(les a re sad , gloomy, lind always intersecting in a mallncr

disagreeable to the eye.. . They seem ... destined to house lithographers' stu­

(lios and binders' 8hops, as the adjoining s treet iii destined for the manufacture of

st raw ha lS; pedestrians genera lly avoid them ." Elie Berthet, " Rue e l Passage dll

Caire," PlIriJ chez loi (Paris ~ 1854~) , p . 362. (A 10,1]

" In 1798 and 1799 , the Egyptian campaign lent frigiltful iml)Ortance to the fashion

for sllawll . Some generals in the expeditiona ry army, taking advantage of the

proximit y of India, sent hOllle shawls ... o( cashmerc to their wives and lady

fri ends.... From the ll on , the disealie that might be called calihmere fever took on

.sign ifica nt prol)Ortiolls. It began to spread during the Consulate, grew greate r

Ulu le r the Empir e. beca me giga lltic (III r ing tiw HestOl'lltion , reached colossai llize

under the July Monurchy, alul hali finally assumed Sphillx-like dimensions since

Ihe February Revolution of 18<18.'- Po riJ eire; soi ( I'uris). p . 139 (A. Durand,

"Cllii les-Caclicmircs illd i clI ~ e l fran~ais"). Conlains an intcr\'iew with M. Mar­

ti ll , 39 Ru l.\ Richclicu , proprich.r of a stOI'C culled Thc 111(lia Il5; repurts thul 51111wl8

which cu r lier were pri l'~'11 be twt'e ll 1,500 II lul 2,000 (rulU's ('a n 11 0 "" he hought (or

800 10 1.000 fr unts. [A IO.2)

From UrIlZiCI', GlI hricl , a nd l)umcl'sa ll , l ..ell l~flu(/geiJ ct It'll rues. vH udeville ill Olle

acl , p rcsclltc{1 (or t ile firs t timc. ill Pa r is. li t the Thcii tl'c lies Varic tcs 0 11 MIII'(:h 7,

1827 (Paris, I827).- Beginlling of a sung by the sharehulder Dulingol:

For the llrelld efl. I form Con tinual refrains of thHnk.:

In the r.UlIllfl Delorme Lutece arbi trates the difference8: "'The affair is settled . Genies of light , hea rkenI've Jlut .. hundred Iho" ,"nll f rllllc•. (1'". 5-6) 10 my voice. ' (At this 1lI0mcnt the wllOle ga ller y is l! IItJdenly illuminated b y gas­" I heRr they WD III 10 roof aU the Sireel! of Puns wilh glass . Thai will make for

ligll!. )" (I" 3 1). A ballet of streeu ami arcades conclmles the vaudeville. [Al Oa, I] lovely hothouses; we wiU live in them like melolls" (p. 19). [AlO.3} " I 110 not at all hcsitate to wrilll-as monstrous liS this llIay seem to serious writers

on a rl- that it was the salc$ clerk who laul1chetl lithograph y.... Condemned toFrom Girard . De! Tombeaux, ou De "'nfluence de! irutitutioru funebres .mT Ie, imita tions of Ruphad, to Briseises by RegnlluJt . it wouM IHlrliaps have died; themoeurs (Parill. 1801): "The new Punge du Caire, lIear the Rue Saint.Denis, ... sales d erk saved il ." Hcnri Bouchot , La LitllOgrffphie (Paris ( 1895», pp . 50--51.is paved in pa rt wilh (uner a r y slones, on which the Gothic inscriptions and the [All ,l ]emblenlS have nol yet been effaced." The author ",;,heli 10 draw altelltion here tothe decline of piety. Cited in Edouard Four nier, Chroniques et lkgendes des rues In the 1'a88~ge Viviennede Pari.1 (Paris. 18(4). p. 154. lA10,4] She told me: ""I'm from Vienna:·

Alltl , he added : ~ llil·e with my uncle,Brazier, Gabr iel, and Dumenan , Le, Prusoges e' Ie, rues. OIL La Gue rre decwree,

.. The hrother of l~a lJalva udeville in one acl , per(ornu!tl (or the fi rs t time. in Paris, at the Theatre del I take care of hie furuncle­Variele8 on March 7, 1827 (Paris, 1827).-The party of a rcade8-adver saries is It h88 ils charms. thi. fale:·composed of M. Duperron , umbrella merchant; !'tIme. Duhelder, wife of a carriage I promised to meet the Ilamselagain

provider ; M. Mouffetard . hailer ; M. Bla ncmanteau . mer chant a nd manufacturer In the Panage Honne-Nouvelle:o( clogs; and Mme. Dubac. rentier--each one coming (rom a different part of !Jul in the l'anage Bradytown . M. Dulingot . who has bought stock in the arcade8. has championed their I waited in vain. '\cause. His lawyer is M. Pour; that of his opponents, M. Contre. In the second to

And there )·ou have it : arcade amouN!last (fourteenth) 8cene, M. Contre ap pears at the head of a column o( streets,which are decked with banner s proclaiming their names. Among them are the Rue Na rcisse Lebeau . cited by l..eon-Paul Fargue. "Cafes de Paris," part 2 (in Vu , 9,aux Ours. Rue Ber gere. Rue du Croin ant , Rue du Puits-Qui-Parle, Rue du no. 4 16 (Ma rch 4, 1936)]. [AII ,2]Grand-Hurleur. Likewise in the next scene--a procession of arcades with theirbanner s: Passage du Saumon , Passage de I'Ancre. Passage du Gr and-Cen , Pas­sage du Pont-New . Passage de l' OI.era. Pauage du Panorama <lie>. In the follow­

"'There seems no reaSOll , in particular, at the first and IlIOSt literal glance, why the illg scene, the last (sixteenth), Lutece l ! emerges from the bowels of the earth, at

story should be called aft er the Old Curiosity Shop . Only two of the charactershave a nything to do with such a shop, and they leave it for ever in the fi rs t fewfi rs t in the guise of an old woman. I.n her presence, M. Contre takes up the defen~ pages.... But when we feel the situation wilh llIore fidelity we realize that this titleof the streets against the a rcades. " One hundred forty -four arcade8 open thell" is something in the lIature of a key to the whole Dickens romance. His tales alwaysmouths wide to devour our customers, to siphon off the eve.... ris ing Aow of our started from some splendid h.int in the streets. Ami shops, per haps the most poeti­crowds. both active and idle. And you want us stret! ts of Paris to ignore this clear

infringement of our ancient rights! No . we demand ... the interdiction of our one cal of all things. often set his fa ncy galloping. Ever)' shop , ill fa cl , was 10 him thedoor of romance. Among all the huge serial schemes ... it is a matter or wonderhUlldred fort y-four opponents and. in addition , fifteen million. fi ve hundred thou­

sand francs in damages and interest" (p . 29). The argument by!'tt. Pour in favor of that he never s tarted an endless periodica l called tile The Street. and divided itinto shops. lie could have written an exquisite r omance called The Buker 's Shop ;the arcades takes lhe form of ver se. An extract : another called TIl e CI, emis t $ Shop ; another called Til e Oil 51101), to keel' companyWe whom they would bani!h--we are nlore than u&tful . with The Old Curiosit), Shop ." G. K. Chcsterlon . DickenJ. tra ns. Laurent andHave we not, by vi rtue of our cheerful upect. Martin-Dupont (paris, 1927), I'p . 82--83 .'3 [AII ,3]Encouraged all of Pam in the fashion

Of hnaan, thollf! maru 110 famou! in the Eut? ·'One may womlcl· to what extent Four ier himself helievClI ill his fantasies. In hisAnd what are the1lf! wall. the crowd admiree? manuscr ipli he 50meti111e~ complains of critic" wllO ta ke literally what is mea nt asTheile ornamcnU. the&t column. above all? fi gurative, and who insislllloreover 0 11 s l)t:aking of his '"Iudicil whims.' There mayYOII'd think YOll were in Athene; and thi' temple have lHlt!n at Icast II modicum of deliherale charlnta llism al work in 11 11 this-allI. erecled to commerce by good lu te. (I'p. 29--(0) attempt to launcll hi. system by mea nS of the tactic. of commercial advertising,

wnu:h had begun to develop." F. Armand and R. Ma ublanc. Fourier (Paris, 1937),vol. l . p . 158. 0 Exhibitions 0 (Alla,l)

Proudhou's confe88ion near the end of his life (in his book De ill j utllice"--com­pare with Fourier 's vieion of the phala llstery): " It has been nece88ary for me to beconle civili1.oo. But need I approve? The little bit of civilizing I've rt!(!eiveddisgusts me.... I hate houses of more than one stor y, houses in which, by contrastwith the social hierarchy, the meek are raised on h i~h while tile ~reat are &euledncar the groun d." Cited in Armand Cuvillier, /ltar:e el ProuclllOn: Ala lumiere (/u /ltarxUme. vol. 2, part I (Pari8, 1937), p. 211 . [Al l a,2]

B1an«ui: "' I wore,' he says, ' the first tricolored cockade of 1830, made by Ma­dame Bodin in the Passage du COmmerce. ", Gustave Geffroy, L'Etiferme (Parie,1897), p . 2,10. [Alla,3]

Baudelaire can 8till write of "a book as dauling as an Indian handkerchief or shawl." Baudelaire, L 'Art r omantiqllC (Parie), p . 192 ("Pierre Dupont") . 1 ~

[A lla,4]

The Crauu t Collection poueues a beautiful reproduction of the Passage desPanoramas from 1808. Al80 found there: a p ro8pe<:lue for a bootblacking shop , inwhich it ie a que8tion mainly of Puss in Boots. [Al i a,S)

Baudelaire to his mothcr on December 25 , 1861, concerning all altempt to pawn ashawl: " I wae told that , with the approach of New Year'e Day, there was a glut of cashmeres in the atoree, and that they were trying to d.ist:ourage the public frombr inging any more in. " Charles Baudelaire, i..eUreJ ti , a mere (Paris, 1932),~m, ~II~

"Our epoch will be the link between the age of isolated fo rces rich in oripnalcreativene88 and that of the uniform but leveling force which gives monotony to itsproducts, casting them in ma88Ci, and following out one unifying idea-the ulti­mate expression of social communities." U. de Balzac, L '/Uwtre Gaudu$art. cd.Calma nn-Levy (Pa ris, 1837), p. l. 1~ [Al la,7)

Sales at Au Bon Marc.he, in the years 1852 to 1863, rose from 450,000 to7 million francs. The rise in profits could have been considerably less. "Highturnover and small profits" was at that time a new principle, one that accordedwith the two dominant forces in operation: the multitude of purchasers and themass ofgoods. In 1852, Boucicaut allied himself with Vidau, the proprietor of AuBon Marche, the magaJill tk lI(JuueauliJ. "The originality consisted in sellingguaranteed merchandise at discount prices. Items, first of all, were marked with

Au Bon Marche department store in Paris. \r\bodcut, ca. 1880. See A12,1. fixed prices, another bold innovacion which did away with bargaining and with'process sales'-that is to say, with gauging the price of an article to the physiog­nomy of the buyer; then the 'return' was instituted, allowing the customer .to

cancel his purchase at will; and, finally, employees were paid almost entirely by - conunission on sales. These were the constitutive elements of the new organiza­tion." George d~vend, "Le Mecanisme de la vie modeme: Les Grands Maga­sins," Revue de; tkux mow;, 124 (Paris, 1894), pp.335-336. [AI2 ,t]

The gain in time realittd for the retail business by the abolition of bargaining may have played a role initially in the calrulations ofdepartment Stores. [A 12,2)

A chapter, "Shawls, Cashmeres," in BOTne', lndwtrie-Au"teUung im Louvre <Ex.hihition of Industry in the Louvre), Ludwig Borne, Ge.ommelte Schriften

(Hamburg a nd Frankfurt am Main , 1862), vol. 3, p. 260. [A12,3!

The physiognomy of the arcade emerges with Baudelaire in II lentence al the beginning of "Le J oueur genereux": " It seemed to me odd that I could bave passed this enchanting haunt so often without suspecting that here was the entrance."

<Baudelaire. Oeuvres, ed. Y.-G. Le Dantec (Paris. 1931).) vol. I, p . 456. 11 (A12,4]

Specifics of the department store: the OlSlOmers perceive themselves as a mass ; they are confronted with an assortment of goods; they take in an the floors at a glance; they pay fixed prices ; they can make exchanges. (A12 ,5]

" In those parts of the city where the theaters and public walks ... are located,

where therefore the majority of foreigner s live and wander, there ie hardly a building without a shop. It takes only a minute, only a step, for the forces of

a tt raction to gather ; a minute later, a . tep further on , and the passerby i.e . tanding bef ore a different shop .... One's attention i.e spirited away .. though by violence.

alld one has no choice but to stand there and remain looking up until it returns. The name of the shopkeeper, the name of his merchandise. inecribed a dozen times

011 placards that hang on the d oors and above the windows. beckon from all , ides; the exterior of the archway resembles the eJ.:ercise book of a schoolboy who writes

the few words of a paradigm over and over. FabriCi are not laid out in samples but are hung before door and window in completely unroUed bolts. Often they are

attached high up on the third story and reach down in sundry folds all the way to the pa\'emenl. The shoemaker has painted different-colored shoes, ranged in rows

like battalions, across the entire fa~ade of his building. The sign for the locksmiths is a six-foot-high gold-plated key; the giant gates of heaven could require no larger.

On the hosiers' shops are painted white stockings four yards high, and they will startle you in the da rk when they loom like ghosts .... But foot and eye are arrested in a 1I0bier and more channing fashion by the paintings displayed before many storefr onts.... T hese paintings are, not infrequently, true worka of art. a llli if they were to ha ng in the Louvre, they would inspire in connoi88eur. at least pleasure if not a,lmiration.... The shop of a wigmaker i. adorned with It picture Ihili. 10 be sure, is poorly exec:uted but distinguished by an amusing conception . Crown Prince Absalom hangs by his hair from a tree and i. pierced by the lance of all enemy. Underneath runs the "erse: ' Her e you ace Absalom in. his hopes quite

debunked , I Had he worn a peruke. he'd not be defuDct.' Another ... picture. representing a village maiden a. she kneels to receive a garland of rosell-token of her virtue--from the hands of a chevalier, ornamcnt8 the door of II milliner'. shop." Ludwig Burne. Schiidenlflsen «u.s Pr.lri.s ( 1822 "lid 1823), ch . 6 ("Die Laden" (Shops»), in Ge.s(lmmelte Schriften (Hamburg and Frankfurt am Main ,

1862), vol. 3. pp . 46-49. IAI2a)

On Baudelaire's "religious intoxication of great cities":" the department stores arc: temples consecrated to this intoxication. (AI3]

B [Fashion}

Fashion: Madam Death! Madam Death!

-Giacomo Leopardi, "Dialogue: bctwccn Fashion and Death~I

Nothing dies; all is transfonncd.

-Honor.! de Balz.ac., /tnsitJ, JujelJ,.JTar;r-ts (Paris. 1910). p. 46

And boredom IS the grating before which the courtesan teases death. [Bl .l ] DEnnui D

Similarity of the arcades to the indoor arenas in which one learned to ride a bicycle. In these halls the figure of the woman assumed its most seductive as~: as cyclist. 'TItat is how she appears on contemporary posters. Cheret the pamttt of this feminine pulchritude. The costume of the cyclist, as an early and uncon­sciow prefiguration of sportswear, corresponds to the dream proto~ that, a little before or a lilde later, are at work in the factory or the automobile. Just as the first factory buildings cling to the uaditional form of the residential dwelling, and just as the first automobile chassis imitate carriages. so in the clothing of the cyclist the sporting expression still wresdes with the inherited pattern ofdegance. and the fruit of this souggle is the grim sadistic touch which made this ideal image of elegance so incomparably provocative to the male world in those days. oDream Houses 0 [Bl,2}

" In these year . [around 1880). not only does the RenainaDee fashion begin to do mischief, but on the other side a new intel"e8t in sport.-above all , in equelitrian sport8-arises among women , and together thelie two tendencieli exert an influenee on fashion from quite differeDt directions. The attempt to ~oncile these senti­ments dividing the female sou) yieldli results that . in the years 1882-1885, an: original if not always beautiful. To improve matters, dreu deliigners simp)jfy and take in the waill ali much as pon ihie, while allowing the likirt an amp)jtude all the more rococo." 70 Jahre deutJche Mode (1925), pp. 84-87 . [BI ,3)

Here fashion has opened the bwiness of dialectical exchan between wom~ and ware between ure and the corpse. The clerk, death, tall and

loutish, measures the century by the yard, ~rves a& mannequin himself to save costs, and manages single-handedly the liquidation that in French is called rivolu­lion. For fashion was never an . other than the of the mot! cadaver, rovocation of death throu the woman and bitter colloquy with deca w

pertd between shrill bursts of mechanical laughter. t IS as on. And that is w y S e changes so quickly; she titillates death and is already something differ­em, something new, as he casts about to crush her. For a hundred years she holds her own against him. Now, 6nalJy, she is on the point ofquitting the fidd . But he erectS on the banks of a new Lethe, which rolls its asphalt Stream through arcades, the annature of the whores as a battle memorial. 0 Revolution 0 Love 0

[Bl ._]

SquareR, 0 squa re in Pari., infinite 8howplace, where the modi8le Madame Lamort

windt a nd bind. lhe mile.. way. of the world, IhOle endJeq ribbon" to ever-new creationa of how, (rill , flower, cockade. a nd (ruit-

R. M. Rilke. Duineser Elegien (Leipzig, 1923). p. 23.2 [B1.5]

" Nothing has a place of itli own , save fashion appoints that place." L'Esprit d 'Al­phon&e Karr; <Pen&ees extraites de ses oeuvres completes) (Paris, 1877), p. 129. " If a woman of taste, while undre'8ing a t night , ahould find hef'llclf con. tituted in reality ali 8he ha. pretended to be during the day, I like to think she'd be discov­ered next morning drowned in her own teaf'll." A1phon.e Kan, cited in F. Th . Vischer, Mode urld Zynismw (Stuttgart, 1879), pp. 106-107. [Bl ,6)

With Karr, there appears a rationalist theory of fashion that is closely related to th~ rationalist theory of the origin of religions. The motive for instituting long skirts, for example, he conceives to be the interest certain women would have had in concealing an un.J.oveI.y <fOOb. Or he denounces, as the origin of certain types of hats and certain hairstyles, the wish to compensate for thin hair. (Bl ,7)

Who still knows, nowadays, where it was that in the last decade of the previow century women would offer to men their most seductive aspect, the most inti­mate promise of their figure? 10 the asphalted indoor arenas where people learned to ride bicycles. The woman as cyclist competes with the cabaret singer for the place of honor on posters, and gives to fashion its most daring line.

[B1.S]

For. ~e ~hilosopher, the most interesting thing about fashion is its extraordinary anlJopalJons. It is wdl known that art will often- for example, in picrures-pre­cede the perceptible rnlity by years. It was possible to see streets or rooms that s~one in all sorts of fiery colors long before technology, by means of illuminated Signs and other arrangements, actually set them under such a light. Moreover, the sensitivity of the individual artist to what is coming certainly far exceeds that

of the grande dame. Yet fashion is in much steadier, much more precise contact with the coming thing, thanks to the incomparable nose which the feminine collective has for what lies waiting in the future. Each season brings, in its newest creations, various secret signals of things to come. Whoever understands how to read these semaphores would know in advance not only about new cum:nts in the arts but also about new legal codes, wars, and revolutions.s-Here, surely, lies the greatest chann of fashion, but also the difficulty of making the charming fruitful. [B1a,1)

"Whether you translate Russian fairy tales, Swedish family sagas, or English picaresque novels-you will always come back in the end, when it is a question of setting the tone for the masses, to France, not because it is always the truth but because it will always be the fashion." <Karl> Gutzkow, Briefi aus Paris, vol. 2 <Leipzig, 1842~ , pp. 227-228. Each time, what sets the tone is without doubt the newest, but only where it emerges in the medium of the oldest, the longest past, the most ingrained. nus spectacle, the unique sdf-construction of the newest in the medium of what has been, makes for the true dialectical theater of fashion. Only as such, as the grandiose representation of this dialectic, can one appreciate the singular books ofGrandville, which created a sensation toward the middle of the cenrury. When Grandville presents a new fan as the "fan of Iris" and his drawing suggests a rainbow, or when the Milky Way appears as an avenue illuminated at night by gaslamps, or when "the moon (a self-portrait)" reposes on fashionable velvet cushions instead of on clouds'-at such moments we first come to see that it is precise.1y in this century, the most parched and imagination­starved, that the collective dream energy of a society has taken refuge with redoubled vehemence in the mute impenetrable nebula of fashion, where the undentanding cannot follow. Fashion is the predecessor-no, the eternal dep­uty-ofSUITealism. [Bla,2]

A pair of lasciviou8 engravings by Charles Vernier entitled A Weddins on Wheels­showing the departure and the return. The bicycle offered UD8U8pe<:ted ponibili­tie8 for the depiction of the raised skirt. [Bla,3)

A definitive perspective on fashion follows solely from the consideration that to each generation the one inunediately preceding it seems the most radical anti­aphrodisiac imaginable. In this judgment it is not so far wrong as might be supposed. Every fashion is to some extent a bitter satire on love; all sexual perversities are suggested in every fashion by the most ruthless means ; every fashion is filled with secret resistances to love. It is worthwhile reflecting on the following observation by Grand-Carteret, superficial though it is: "It is in scenes from the amorous life that one may in fact perceive the full ridiculousness of certain fashions. Aren't men and women grotesque in these gesrures and atti­rudes- in the rufted forelock (already extravagant in itself), in the top hat and the nipped-waisted frockcoat, in the shawl, in the grande; pamela;, in the dainty fabric boots?" Thus, the confrontation with the fashions of previow: generations is a

I.e Pont des planetes (Interplanetary Bridge). Engraving by Grandville, 1844. See Bla,2.

matter of far greater importance than we ordinarily suppose. And one of the most significant aspects of historical cosruming is that-above all, in the thea­ter-it undertakes such a confrontation. Beyond the theater, the question of cosrume reaches deep into the life of art and poetry, where fashion is at once preserved and overcome. [Bla,4]

A kindred problem arose with the advent of new velocities, which gave life an altered rhythm. 1bis lauer, too, was first ttied out, as it were, in a spirit of play. The loop-the-loop carne on the scene, and Parisians seized on this entertainment with a frenzy. A chronicler notes around 1810 that a lady squandered 75 francs in one evening at the Pare de Montsouris, where at that time you could ride those looping cars. The new tempo of life is often announced in the most unforeseen ways. For example, in posters. "These images of a day or an hour, bleached by the elements, charcoa1ed by urchins, scorched by the sun-although others are sometimes collected even before they have dried-symbolize to a higher degree even than the newspapers the sudden, shock-filled, mulrifonn life that carries us away." Maurice Talmeyr, La GIlt du sang (Paris, 1901), p. 269.ln the early days of the poster, there was as yet no law to regulate the posting of bills or to provide protection for posters and indeed from posters; so one could wake up somc mOrning to find one's window placarded. From time inunemorial this enigmatic need for sensation has found satisfaction in fashion. But in its grolUld it will be reached at last only by theological inquiry, for such inquiry bespeaks a dcep affective attitude toward historica1 process on the part of the human being. It is tempting to connect this need for sensation to one of the seven deadly sins, and it is not surprising that a chronicler adds apocalyptic prophecies to this connection

and foretdls a time when people will have been blinded by the effects of too

much dectric light and maddened by the tempo of news reporting. FromJacques [B2, I)

Fabien, Paris ~ J()1Igt: (Paris, 1863).

"On October 4, 1856, the Gymnasium Theater preM:nted a play entitled Lu Toi­

lette, Tapagcwes <The Flashy Dressers>. It waa the heyday of the crinoline, and

puffed-out women were in fashion. The actres. playing the leading role, bavin&

gra. ped the satirical intentions of the author, wore a drell whOM: skirt, exagger·

ated by design , bad a fullnell that wa. comical and almolt rimculoUi. The day

after opening night, . he wa. a.ked by more than twenty fine lamea to lend her

drell8 as a model, and eight day. later the crinoline had doubled in . ize." Maxime [B2,2)

Du Camp, PoriA , vol. 6 <Paris, 1875~ , p. 192.

" Fashion is the recherche-the always vain, often ridiculous, sometimea danger­

ous que.t- for a superior ideal beauty." Du Camp, PoriA, vol. 6, p. 294. [B2,3)

The epigraph from Balzac is well suited to unfolding the temporality of hell : to

shol'ling how this time does not recognize death, and how fashion mocks death;

how the acccleration of traffic and the tempo of news reporting (which conditions

the quick succession of newspaper editions) aim at eliminating all discontinuities

and sudden ends; and how death as caesura belongs together with all the straight Du h., d'ude~m.iI"ll.t~u. 'tllli.j.,u.

lines of divine temporality.-\\Ue there fashions m antiquity? Or did the Fashionable courtesans wearing . lin Lith[B2,4) caption reads' "LaW f the .J_cr:no cs. ~ph by Honoli Daumier, 1855. 'The

"authority of the frame '" preclude them? . es 0 ucm·monde, but havmg no demi·skiru." See 82,2.

"She was everybody's contemporary." <MarccJ.) Jouhandeau, Prudence Haute·

dtaume (Paris, 1927), p. 129. To be con/emporaiM de tout k monJe-that is the Aknit 'ca rf-a brightly striped mufBer- worn also, in muted colors, by men.

keenest and most secret satisfaction that fashion can offer a woman. [B2,5) [B2a,4)

~ Th. Vischer on the men'. fashion of wide sleeves that faUbelow the wrist: " What

An emblem of the power of fashion over the city of Paris : "I have purchased a "" ~ have here are no longer arms but the rudiments of winp Slumps of penguin

map of Paris printed on a pocket handkerchief." Guttkow, Briefi aus Pam, vol. 1 :ng, s, .6. h fins. The movement of these shapelen .ppendage~ resembles the ~s.

[B2a,l )d.eipzig, 1842), p. 82. cu abon&-the sliding jerkin ddling--or a fool or simpleton ." Vischer,

" V; .. . ,g, pa [B2a,5J

erniinftlge Gedanken fiber die jet%ige Mode," p. 111 .

AprOI)Ol of the medical discull8ion concerning the crinoline: Some people thought

to justify its use , together with that of the petticoat, by noting " the agreeable and ~rtant political critique of fashion from the standpoint of the bourgeois:

••Iutary coolnell which the limb. enjoyed underneath.... Among doctors, [how. en the author of these reasonable opinions first saw bo--l: .

• cu Ulng a traIn, a ever, ] it is acknowledged that this celebrated coolneas hal already led to chi1.ls , and young . th

was I ~weann~ e new~t st>:le of shin collar, he honestJy thought that he

these have occa. ioned the unfortunately premature end of a . ituation which it was ooking at a pnest; for this white band encircles the neck at the same height

the original purpose of the crinoline to conceal" F. Th . Vucher, Krituche Gange.

b"', th",e we1J .kno~~llar of the Catholic cleric, and moreover the longsmock was

new series, no. 3 (Stuttgart , 1861), p. 100: "Vernilnftige Gedanken tiber die jetzi~ . On recogruzmg a 'ayman in the , 'hi h 'a " " very atest,a5 on, e urunediately under·stood all tha[B2a,2) .

Mode" <Reasonable Opinions on Current FashionS). t this shirt collar Signifies: '0 for us eve"'''h;~g ~_ _ .,,_'glSone­, ., ..... , , _·-., .......co rd . cI~co au m uded ! ~d why not? Should we clamor for enlightenment like

It waf "madne.. for the French fashions of the Revolution and the First Empire to ;0Ie you~? Is ~ot hi~y more distinguished than the leveling effected by a

mimic Greek proportions with clothing cut and . eWD in the modern manner." hallow sptntualliberalJon, which in the end always aims at disturbing the pleas.

[B2a,3) ure of refined people?'-It may be added that . l. :_ U " .Vischer, " Vernllnftige Gedanken tiber diejeta~ Mode," p. 99. uu:. co ar, m tracmg a neat little

line around the neck, gives its wearer the agreeable air of someone freshly be­headed, which accords so well with the character of the blaX." To this is joined the violent reaction against purple. Vucher, "Vemiinfcige Gedanken fiber die jetzige Mode," p. 112. [B2a,6)

On the reaction of 1850-1860: ' '1'0 8how one'8 color! ia considered ridiculous; to be strict is looked on as childish. In . uch a aituation, how could dress not beeome equally colorless, flabby, and, at the aame time, narrow?" Vi.cher, p. 117. He thUI bringw the crinoline into relation with that fortified "'imperialism whicb . preads out and puff. up exactly like its image here, and which, al the last and stron~t

expression of the reflux of all the tendencies of the year 1848, &ettlel its dominion like a hoop skirt over all 88pet!ts, good and bad, justified and unjustified. of the revolution" (p. 119). [B2a,7)

"At bottom, the.e thinp are l imultaneou. ly free and unfree. It i. a twilight zone where necessity and humor interpenetrate .... The more fantastic a form, the more intensely the clear and ironic consciousness worka by the side of tbe servile will. And this consciousnen guarantees that the foUy will not la8l; the more con­sciousness grow., the nearer comes the time when it acts, when it turns to deed, when it throws off the fetters." Viacher. pp . 122-123. [B2a,8)

One of the most important texts for elucidating the eccentric., revolutionary, and surrealist possibilities of fashion-a text, above all, which establishes thereby the connection of Surrealism to Grandville and others-is the section on fashion in Apollinaire's PoUe assassini (Paris, 1927), pp. 74ff.6 [B2a,9)

How fashion takes its cue from everything: Programs for evening clothes ap- ...... peared, as if for the newest symphonic mwic. In 1901, in Paris, Victor Prouvt: exhibited a formal gown with the title, "Riverbank in Spring." [823,10]

Hallmark of the period's fashions : to intimate a body that never knows full nakedness. [83 ,1 )

"'Around 1890 peol)le discover that . ilk i. no longer the most elegant matefal for street clothes; henceforth it is aUotted the previously unknown function of linin,. rrom 1870 to 1890, clothing is extraordinarily expensive. and changes in fa shion are accordingly limited in many C88es to prudent alterations by which new appa rel can be derived from remodeling the old ." 70 Jahre deutsche Mode (1925), p. 71.

[83 ,2)

" 1873 ...• when the giant skirt. that Itretched over cushions attached to the derriere, with their gathered draperies. theiTI)leated frilil. their embroidery, and their ribbons. seem to have iS8ued lesl from the workshop of a tailor than from

that of an upholsterer." J . W. Samlon, Die Fraue,.mode tier Cegenwar, (Berlin and Cologne, 1921), ,)p . 8-9. [B3,3J

No inlfllonalizing so unsettling as that of the ephemera and the fashionable (onus preserved for w in the wax museum. And whoever has once seen her must, like Andre Bremn, lose his heart to the female 6gun= in the Musee Grevin who adjwts her garter in the comer of a loge. <Breton,> Na4Ja <Paris, 1928), p. 199.1 [83,4]

"The flower trimmings of large white lilies or water liliel with stems of ru.h, which look so charming in any coiffu re . unintentionaUy remind one of delicate, gently fl oating sylphids and naiades. Just so, tbe fiery brunette cannot adorn her&elf more delightfully than with fruit braided in graceful little branche~bernes . red currants, even bunches of grapes mingled with ivy and flowering graS8e8-<lr than with long vivid red velvet fucbsias, whose leave., red-veined and a. thouch tinged IoVith dew, form a crown; also at her dispo. al is the very lovely coctw 'pecio&w, \'li th its long white filaments. In general, the flowers cho.en for decorating the hai.r are quite large; we saw one such headdreu of very picturel que a nd beautiful white roses entwined with large pansies and ivy branches, or rather bouchs. Tbe ar. rangement of the gnarled and tendriled branches wal so felicitous that it seemed nature itself had lent a hand-long brancheti bearing budl and long stems . wayed at the sides IoVith the . lightest motion." Der Bazar, third year (Berlin, 1857), p . 11 (Veronika von C., " Die Mode"). [83 ,5)

The impression of the old·fashioned can arise only where, in a certain way, reference is made to the most topical. If the beginnings of modem architecture to 'some extent lie in the arcades, their antiquated effect on the present generation has exact1y the same significance as the anciquated effect of a father on his son.

[83,6)

In my fonnulation : '"'The eternal is in any case far more the ruffie on a dress than some idea."· 0 Dialectical Image 0 [83,7)

In fetishism, sex. does away with the boundaries separating the organic world from the inorganic. C lothing and jewelry are its allies. It is as much at home with what is dead as it is with living Hesh. The lauer, moreover, shows it the way to establish itself in the fanner. Hair is a frontier region lying between the tv.ro kingdoms of sexus. Something different is disclosed in the drunkenness of pas­sion: the landscapes of the body. These are already no longer animated, yet are still accessible to the eye, which, of course, depends increasingly on touch and smell to be its guides through these realms of death. Not seldom in the dream, however, the re are swelling breasts that, like the earth, are all apparded in woods and rocks, and gazes have sent their life to the bottom of glassy lakes that slumber in the valleys. These landscapes are traversed by paths which lead

~:w~ inl,O the world of the inorganic. Fashion itself is only anomer medium- entlcmg It still more deeply into the universe of matter. [83,8]

'''Thi, year,' laid ~ri'tOU8e, ' (u lJions are bizar re and common, simple Bnd fu ll of fantasy. Any material from nature', domain can 110100' be introduced into the com­position of women ', clothes. J 8aw a channing dress made of ~o,k A· . . . . " 8.... lllaJor designer 18 thinking about launching tailor-made outfiu made of old bookhindings done in calf.... Fish hones are being worn a 101 on hals. One often sees delicious yo~ng girls dreued like pilgrims of Saint Jametl of Coml)olIlella; their outfits. as is fitung, are studded with coquille! Saint-Jacques. Steel, wool, sandstone, and files have suddenly entered the vestmentary arts.... Feathen now decorate not only hata b,ut shoes, and gloves; and next year they'll be 0 11 umbrellas. They're doing shoos 10 Venetian glass and hats in Baccarat crystal. ... I forgot to tell you that last Wednesday I saw on the bouleva rds on old dowager dressed in mirrors stuck to fabri c. The effec: t was sumptuous in the sunlight . You 'd have thought it was a gold mine out for a walk. Later it starled raining and the lady looked like a silver mine.... Fashion is becoming practical aDd no longer looks down on anything. It ennobles everything. It does for materials what the Romantics did for words. 'tt Guillaume Apollinaire, Le Poete anau ine, new editiOn (Paris, 1927), pp . 75-77.~

(B3a,l ]

A caricaturisl--eirca 1867-representll the frame of a hoop slUrt as a cage in which a girl imprisons hens and a parrot . See Louis Sonolet , La Vie parnumne sow I.e Second Empire (Paris, 1929), p . 245. (B3a,2]

" It was bathing in the sea ... that struck the first blow agaillst the 80lemll and cumbersome crinoline. " Louis Sonolet , La Vie pariJienne JOW Ie Second Empire (Paris, 1929), p . 247. (B3a,3]

"Fashion ~nsists ~nly ~ atremes. Inasmuch as it seeks the atremes by narure, there re~ for It nothing more, when it has abandoned some particular form, than to glVe Itself to the opposite form." 70 Jahre deutJche Mode (1925), p. 51. Its uttermost atremes: frivolity and death. (B3a,4]

" We took the crinoline to be the , ymbol of the Second Empire in France-of itll ~verblown lie • • i18 hollow and purse-proud impudence. It toppled ... , but ... J~st be~ore the fall of the Empire, the Pari8ian world had time to indu lge a nother ' Ide of Its temperament in women's fashions , and the Republic did not disdain to follow ils lead ." F. Th. Vischer, Mode lind Cynumw (SIuttgart, 1879), p . 6. Tile new fashion to which Vischer alludes is explained : "The dress is cut tliagonally across the body and stretched over ... the belly" hI . 6). A little later he sl)Ca ks of the women thus a ttired as " naked in their clothes" (p. 8). [B3a.5J

Friedell explains, with regard to women , " that the history of their drcu sllOws surprisingly few variations. It is not milch more thall a regu lar r.otation of 11 few

quickly altering, but also quickly n::insta ted, nuance!: the length of the train , the height of the coiffure , the shonness of the sleeves , the fuLLlen of the skin , the placement of the nediline and of the waist. Even radical revolutions Like the boy­i.sh haireul8 fa shionable today are only the 'eternal return of the same.'" Egon Friedell , Kuilrlrgelchichle l/er Neu:.eil. vol. 3 (Munich, 1931), p . 88. Women 's fa shions are thus distinguished , according to the author, from the more diverse a nd more categorical fashions for mCII . (B4,I]

"Of all the promises made by <Etienne> Cabet'e novel Voyage en l earie <Voyage to learia>, at least one has been realized . Cabet had in fact tried to prove in the novel, '>'hich contains his system, that the communist state of the future could admit no product of the imagination and could suffer no change in its institutions. He had therefore balllled from l caria all fashion- particularly the capricious prienes8ea of fa shiOll , the modistes---as well as goldsmiths and all other professioll' that serve luxury, and had demanded that dress, uteruils, alld the like should never be altered ." S i~lIlUnd Engliinder, Gelchichte der jr-an:ol u chen A.rbeiter­Auociationen (Hamburg, 1864), vol. 2, pp. 165--166. [B4,2]

In 1828 the first perfonnance of La Muette fit Portia' took place. IO lt is an undulat­ing musical atravaganza, an opera made of draperies, which rise and subside over the words. It must have had its success at a time when drapery was begin· ning its triumphal procession (at first, in fashion, as Turkish shawls). 'Ibis revolt, whose premier task is to protect the king from its own effect, appears as a prdude to that of 1830-10 a revolution that was indeed no more than drapery covering a slight reshuffie in the ruling circles. [B4,3]

Does fashion die (as in Russia, for example) because it can no longer keep up the tenlpo-at least in certain fields? [B4,41

Grandville's works are nue cosmogonies of fashion. Pan of his oeuvre could be entitled "The Snuggle of Fashion with Narurc:." Comparison between Hogarth and Grandville. Grandville and Lautr6unont.-What is the significance of the hypertrophy of captions in Grandville? [B4.5]

" Fashion ... is a witness, hut a witness to the histor y of the great world only, for in C\'ery country ... the poor people have fa shionl al little as they have a history, Il llt! their ideas , their tastes, even their lives barely change. Without doubt.... IJuhlic lire is hcginning to penetrate the poorer households. but it will take time." Eugene Montrue, Le XIX' Jiecle veell par deuxjra"{lliJ (Paris). p. 241 . [84 ,6]

The foUowi.ng remark makes it possible to recognize how fashion functions as camou8age for quite specific interests of the ruling class. "Rulers have a great aversion to violent changes. They want everything to Stay the same- if possible, for a thousand years. If possible, the moon should stand still and the sun move no farther in itS course. Then no one would get hungry any more and want

dinner. And when the rulers have fired their sho t, the adversary should no longer be pennitted to fire ; their own shot should be the last." Ben oit Brttht, "FUnf Schwierigkeiten beim Schreiben der Wahrheit," Urum: Zeit, 8, nos. 2-3 (paris,] Basel, Prague, April 1935), p. 32. (B4a,I)

J!• MacOrlan , who emphslu es the analogies to Su r realism in Grandville', work,

draws attention in lhi, connet: tion to the work of Walt Dislley. OD which he com­

menta: " It ie Dot in lhe leall t morbid . In \hi, it diver~1 from the hUDIor of Grand­ville. which alwaYI bore within itself the leed, of death." <Pierre> MacOrlan , "Gr andville Ie precurHeur," Aru et metier. graphique., 44 (December 15, 1934),

<po 24 >, (B4a,2)

"The presentation of a large couture collection lasts two to three hours. Each time in accord with the tempo to which the models are accustomed. At the close. a veiled bride traditionally appears." Helen G rund, Vom ~jen der Mode (Mu­nich : Privately printed, 1935), p. 19. In this practice, fashion makes reference to propriety while serving notice that it does not stand still before it. [B4a,3}

A contemporary fashion and its significance. In the spring of 1935, something new appeared in women's fashions : medium-sized embossed metal plaquettes, which were worn on jumpers or overcoats and which displayed the initial 1etters of the bearer's firs t name. Fashion thus profited from the vogue for badges which had arisen among men in the wake of the patrio tic leagues. O n the other hand, the progressive restrictions on the private sphere: are here given expression. The name-and, to be sure, the first name-of persons unknown is published on a lapel. That it becomes easier thereby to make the acquaintance of a stranger is of secondary imponance. [B4a,41

"The creaton of fashions ... like to frequent society and ext ract from its grand doin~ an imprel8ion of the whole; they take part in its a rtistic life, are present at

premieres and exhibitions, and read the books that make a sensation . In other words, they are inspired by the ... ferment ... which the b usy prescnt day can

offer. But since no prelCnt moment is ever full y cut off from the past , the lalter also will offer a tt ractions to the creator, ... though only that which harmonizes with

the r eigning tone can be used . The toque tipped forward over the forehead , a style we owe to the Ma net exhibition , demonstrates q uite simply our new readiness to

confront the end of the previous century." Helen Grund . Vom WeJen de r Mode.

~ U ~~

On the publicity wa r between the f&8h ion house a nd the fashion columnists: "The fashion writer 's task is made easier by the fact that our wishe8 coincide. Yet it ill made more difficult by the fact that no newspalH!r or magall ine may rega rd as new what another has already published . From this dilemm~, we a nd t.he fashion writer a re saved only by the photogr apher! and de8igneril. who manage through the pose and lighting to bring out different aspecU of a single p iece?f clothing. The

most important magazine. ... have their own photo , tudios, which ar e equipped with all the latesl technical and artill tic r efinementi! , and which employ highly talented 81)CCialized photogr apllers .... But the publication of these documelltt it not pennilted until the customer ha, made her choice, and tllat mean. usuaUy (our to six weeks after the initial . howing. T he reason for thi. measure?_The woman

who appear s in society wearing these new clothes will her.elf oot be denied the effect of surpri.e." Helen Grund . Vom WeJen der Mode , pp. 21-22. [85,11

According to the summa ry of the firt t six issue., the magnine publi. hed by Stephane MaUarme. La Dernikre MO<k (Paris, 1874), contains "a delightful .por. til'e sketch , the result of a conversation with the ma rvelou. naturalist Towsenel." Reproduction of thi8 . umma r y in Mino,aure, 2. no. 6 (Winter 1935) <p . 27).

[115,21

A biological theory of fa. hion that taket iti! cue from the evolution of the zebra to the hor se, as described in the abridged Brehm (p. 771): 11 "This evolution spanned

millions of yean.... The tendency in horses it toward the cr eation of a first-<:Iau runner and courier.... The mrut ancient of the existing animal types have con­

spicuously llriped coati! . Now, it is very remarkahle that the external stripes of the Ilebra display a certain cor respondence to the arrangement of the ribs and the

vertebra inside. One can auo determine very clearly the arrangement of these parte from the uniq ue striping on the upper foreleg and upper hind leg. What do these stripet signify? A protective function can he ruled out .... The stripes have

been ... p reser ved detpite their 'purpose:leuneu and even unsuitablene88,' and therefor e they must ... have a particula r significance. bn' t it likely that we are dealing here with outward stimuli for internal responses, such as would be espe­

cially active during the mating season? What can th.it theory contribute to our

theme? Something of fundamental importance, I believe.-Ever since humanity passed frOm nakedneu to clothing, 'senseless and nonsent ical ' fa shion has played the role of wise nature.... And insofar as fashion in iu mutatiOOt ... p re.cribes

a constant revision of all elemenu of the figure, ... it ordains for the woman a continual p reoccupa tion with her beauty." Helen Grund , Vom WeJen der Mode. PI'· 7-8. [115,31

At the Parit world exhibition of 1900 there was a Palais du Costume, in which wax dolls arr anged before a painted backdrop displayed the costumes of various peo­ples a nd the fashions of variout ages. (B5a,l)

"Out 88 for U8, we see ... around us ... the effects of confusion and waste inflicted I, y the disordered movement of the world today. Art know. no compromise with hurr y. Our idealt a re good for ten years! The ancient and excelleut relia nce on the judgment of IJOs teri ty has been stupidly replaced by the ridiculous superstition of 1/ovel,y. which assignt the most illusor y ends to our enterpr ises. condemning them to the creation of what is most perit haLle. of wha t must be perit hable by its nature: I.he sensation of newness.... Now, ever ything to be seen here has Lt!ell

enjoyed, hal char"led a nd delighted through the centuriel, and the whole glory of it ca lmly tell l u~: ' I AM NOTIIING NEW. Time may weU spoil the material in which I exist ; hili for "0 10llg as il lloes nol de!!troy me, I cannot be deltroyed by the indifference or COli tempt of ally mall worthy of the name." Paul Valery, " Pream­hule" (preface 10 the catalogue of t.he exhibition " Italian Art from Cimabue to Tiepolo," at the Petit Palais, 1935), pp . iv, vii.': [B5a,2)

"The ascendancy of the bourgeoi!!ie work!! a change in women's wear. Clothing and

hair8lyles ta ke on added dimension!! ... ; , houlders are enlarged by leg-of-mutton deeves, a nd ... it wal not long before the old hoop-petticoats came back intO favor

and fuU skirts were the thing. Women, thus accoutered , appeared destined for a !iedent ary Iife---famil y Iife-since their manner of dress had about it nothing that cowd ever IlUggest or &eem to further the idea of movement . It was just the opposite

with the advent of the Second Empire: family ties grew slack , and an ever-incr eas­ing luxnry corrupted morall to such an extent that it became difficult to distin­

guish an honest woman from a courtesan on the basil of clothing alone. "~eminine attire had thus been transformed from head to toe.... Hoop skirts went the way

of the accentuated rear. Everything that could keep women from remaining seated was encouraged ; anything that could have impeded their walking wal avoided.

They wore their hair and their clothes as though they wer e to be viewed in proftle. For the profile is the silhouette of !!omeone ... who passes, who is about to vanish

from our sight . Orcss became an image of the rapid movement that carries away the world ." Charles Blanc, "Considerations sur Ie vetement del femmes" (Institut

de Fra nce. October 25, 1872), pp . 12- 13. [B5a,3]

" In order to grasp the essence of contemporary fashion , one need not recur to motives of an individual nature, such as ... the desire for change, the sense of

beauty, tile panion for dressing up , the drive to confono. Oouht1eu such motive. have, at various times, ... played a part ... in the creation of clothet.... Never­theless, fal hion , as we understand it today, has 110 individual motives but only a

social motive, a nd it is an accurate perception of this social motive that detenoinea the fun a ppreciation of fa shion 's essence. This motive is the effort to distingui.!! h

the higher classes of society fronl the lower, or more eSIJeciaUy from the middle classel.... Fashion is the ha rrier--continuaUy raised anew because continually

torn down-by which the fa shionahle world seeks to segregate itself from the middle region of society; it is the mad pursuit of that clan vanity through which a

single phenomcnon endlcssly repe ats itself: the endeavor of one group to establish a lead , ho",·ever minimal . over its pursuers, and the ellIleavor of the other group to make III' the llistallce by immcdiately adopting the newest fa shions of the leaders. Tbe characteristic features of contemporary fa shion a rc thus explained: ahove all , it l origins ill tilt: upper circles and its imitation in the middle strata of society. Fa~hion moves from top to 1,0110111 , not vice versa .... All attcmpt by the middle c1a8se~ to introduce a new fa shion ","oultl ... never succeed , though Ilothing would suit the "Pller cla sscs l.letter than to see the former ",;tli t.heir own set of fa shiolll. ([Note:] Whi.:h does nut detcr them fro m looking for new d esign.!! in the sewer of

the Parisian deoti-monde and bringing out fashionB that clearly bear the mark of their unseemly origins, III Fr. Vi.cher ... has pointed out ill his ... widely cen­sured but , to my mind , ... highly meritoriou. essay on fashion.) 1:lence the UII­

ceasing variation of fll8bioll . No sooner have the middle classes adopted a newly introduced fll8hion than it ... 10lCa its value for the upper classes .... Thus. novelty is the indispensable condition for aU fa shion .... The duration of a fa sh­ion is inversely proportional to the swiftnen of its diffusion; the ephemer ality of

fashion. has increased in our day all the means for their diffusion have expanded via our perfected cODllDuniu tiona techniques.... The social motive referred to above explains, fi.naUy, the third cha racteril tic feature of contemporary fa shion : its . .. tyranny. Fal hion comprisel the outward criterion for judging whether or

not one ' belongs in polite aociety. ' Whoever does not r epudiate it ahogether must go along, even where he ... firmly refu.!!eJ Jome new development.... With this , a judgment is passed on fashion .... H the clane. that are weak and foolith enough to imitate it were to gain a sense of tbeir own proper worth•.. . it would be aU up

with fa shion, and beauty could once again aSBume the position it has had with aU those peoples who . . . did not feel the need to accentuate class differences through

clothing or, where this occurred, were lenswle enough to respect them." Rudolph von Jhering, Der Zweck im Recht. vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1883), pp. 234--238 .IJ

(B6; 86a,I)

On the epoch of Napoleon III : " Making money becomes the object of an almost sensual fervor, and love becomes a financial concern . In the age of French Roman­

ticism, the erotic ideal was the working girl who gives herself; now it is the tart who sells herself.... A hoydenish nuance came into fa shion : ladies wore coUars and cravats, over-coala , dresses cut like tailcoatl, ... jackets a1.11 Zouave. dolmans,

walking sticks, monocles. Loud, harshly contrasting colors are preferred-for the coiffure as weU: fiery red hair i. very popular.... The paragon of fa shion is the

grande dame who playa the cocotte." Egon FriedeU. Kulturgeschichte der Nerueit, vol. 3 (Munich , 1931), p . 203 . The " plebeian character" of thill fal hion represents , for the author, an "invasion ... from below" by the nouveaux riches.

(B6a.2)

"Cotton fabri ca replace brocades and satim , ... and before long, thanks to ... the r evolutionary spirit, the dreu of the lower classes becomes more seemly and

agreeable to the eye." Edouard Foucaud, PU,.U inventeu,.; Physiologie de l'i,ld"s­trk/ram.aue (Paris, 1844), p . 64 (referring to the Revolution of 1789). (B6a,3)

An assemhlage which, on closer inspection , proves to he composed entirely of pieces of clothing together with anorted dolls' head •. Caption: " OoUs on chain ,

mannequins with fal se neckl, fal se hair, fal se attractions-voila Longchamp! " Cabinet des Euaml)es. [86a,4)

" If, in 1829. we were to enter the shops of Odisle. we would find a multitude of diverse fabrics; Japanese, Alhambresque, coarse oriental , 8tocoline, meotide,

s ilcnian , zin'loliue , Chinese Dagazinkoff, , .. With the Revolution of 1830, .. , the <"<1111' 1 offashiOIl had cl'o~8ed Ihe Seine and the ChaUlIlIce d 'A.Jllin hall replaced the IlI'iSlocrlltie fllubo ll rg." Paul,J"Arisle, La Vie e l k mOflt/e <lit boulevard, 1830­J87Q< Pa ris. 1930). p , 227 , (B6a,5]

"T he well-to-do bourgeois. as u fri end of order, pays his suppliers ut least once a

y,'u r ; hul tile man or rashion , Ihe so-called lion , pay& his tailor e \'e ry ten years, if

he pays him at all ," Adu Tage in Pa riJ (Paris, July 1855), p . 125. [B7,1]

" It i ~ I who iu\'cnted licl. At present , the lorgnoll has replace<1 them, , .. TIle tic

illvlJ lvcs dosing the eye with a (:e rt uin movement of the lIIouth uud a certain Inove­

IIIt'nl of tilt' coal . , .. Tile ruet' of an elegant man should a lways have. , . something

irrit uted and convuls ive abollt it . One can attribute these fa cial agi tations either to

a natllral satanism , to the fever of the p assions, or filially to a nything one likes!'

l'uriJ-Viueur. by the authorl! of the memoirs of BilbO<IIU!t [Taxile Delord] (Paris.

18!J4). "" . 25-26. [B7,2]

"The vogue for buying one's .....a rdrobe in London took hold only among men ; the

fll ~hio ll II1110ng wOlllen . even foreigners, has always been to be outfitted in Paris."

Chudes SeignoLos . l1istoire sillcer e de ia natiolljra1l(iaiJe (Puris. 1932), p. 402.

IB7,' 1

Mar celin , the founder of UI Vie PariJJienne, has set forth " the four ages of the

crinoline." [B7,4}

The crinoline i5 " tile ulIlIlistakalJle sym.hol of reaction on the part of an imperial­

ism tlmt spreads out and pUff8 "I) ... , and that ... sellles its dominion like a hoop

skirt o\'\' r ull aspt.'CU, good ali(I Lud , justified and unjustified , of the revolu­

tion , . , , It st:erned II caprice of the moment , and it hus established itself as the

\' lIIhlelil of u pel·iod . like the Second of December."1-' F. Th . Vischer, cited in

£ 111131'11 Fuchs, Die Kurikutllr der europaischell Vijlker (Mullich <1921» , vol. 2,

1" 156. (B7,5J

In the t'a d y 18<lOs . there is a nucleus of modistes on the nue Vivienne . (B7,6)

Sirnmcl calls attention to the fact that "the inventions of fashion at the present time are increasingly incorporated into the objective situation of labor in the economy . . , . Nowhere docs an article first appear and then becomc a fashion; rathcr, articles are imroduced for the express purpose of becoming fashions." '111C contrast put forward in the last sentence may be conelated, to a certain extent, with that bctween the feudal and bourgeois eras. Georg Sinmlel, PhilruQ­phiJdu: Kullur (Leipzig, 191 1), p. 34 ("Die Mode'V ) (B7,7J

Sillln".1 I' '' pluin!! " wh y WulIIl' lI ill ,;em·ral ar e Ihe s ta u,l\chc~ t adherents or fa sh­

ion . , , , Specifi ca ll y: rrom tlw wt'ukllr"ss of the SOCillll lO!Oi tioll to w.hich women ha ve

been condenllled for the greater pari or history derive8 their intimate relation with

all thai i5 'elitluctle. '" GeorgSimmel, PhiloJophische Kli/tur(Leipzig, 1911). p. 47 (" Die Mode") .'" (B7,8]

The following analysis of fashion incidentally throws a light on the significance of the trips that "''Crt fashionable among the bourgeoisie during the second half of the century. "The accent of attractions builds from their substantial center- to their inception and their end. 'Ibis begins with the most trifling symptoms, such as the ... switch from a cigar to a cigarette; it is fully manifest in the passion for traveling, which, with its strong accentuations of departure and arrival, sets the life of the year vibrating as fully as possible in several short periods. The ... tempo of modem life bespeaks not only the yearning for quick changes in the qualitative content of life, but also the force of the formal attraction of the bound­ary-of inception and end." Georg Simmel, Philruophisdu Xulfur (Leipzig, 1911), p.4-1 ("Die Mode")." [B7a,1]

Simmel asseru tha t "'fashions differ for different claS&e&--the fashions of the up­

per stratum of socie ty are never identical with those of the lower; in fact , they are

aballlloned by the former as soon as the latter prepares to appropriate them."

Georg Simmel, PIu'1050phiJche Kuhur (Leipzig, 1911). p . 32 ("Die Mode")."

[87.,2]

The qwck changing of fashion means " that fuhion l can no longer be so ex.pensive

... a. they were in earuer times.... A peculiar circle ... arises here: the more an

article becomes subject to rapid change!l of fa shion , the greater the demand for

cheap products of its ki.nd ; and the cheaper they become. the more they invite

consumers and constrain producers to a quick change of fashion." Georg Simmel,

PhilosophiJche Kultur (Leipzig, 1911). pp. 58-59 ("Die Mode").'~ {B7a,3]

Fuchs 0 11 Jhering's analysis of fashion: " It must, .. be reiterated that the concern

ror segrega ting the classes is only one cause of the frequent variation in fu hione,

and lhat a second ca use--the private-capitalis t mode of production, which in the

interesu of its profit margin mUSI continually multiply the possibilitie8 of lum­

o\'er- is of equal importance. This cause has escaped Jhering entirely, as hu •

third : the fun ction of erotic stimulation in fa shion , which operatetl most effectively

when the erotic attractions of the man or the woman . ppear in ever new set­

tillgs. ., Friedrich Vischer, who wrote about fashion, .. twenty years before

Jhcring, did not yet recognize. in the genesis of fashion , the tendencies at work to

keel' the clan cs divitled ; . .. on the other hand, he was fully aware of the erotic

problellls or tlreu. ,. Eliuanl .' uchs, lllUJ lrierfe SiftengeJchichte 110m !tfiuelailer bis zlI r Ce,genlUurt : DaJ biirgerliche Zeilailer. enlarged edition (Munich <l926?». PI'· 53-54. [B7a,4]

Eduard Fuchs ( Illll.slrierfe Sitlen,geJchichle lI()m Mitlelaller bis ::ur Gegenwart:

DaJ biirgerliche Zeila iler, enla rged ed ., "" . 56-57) cite&--without reference&--a

remark by F. T h . Vifu::her, according to which the gray of men ', clothing ,ymbol. ize, the " utterly blase" character of the masculine world , its d ullneu IIIItI inertia.

[BS.I[

"One of the l urest and moU deplorable symptollll of that weakne88 and frivo lity of character which marked the Romantic age was the childu h and fa tal notion of rejecting the deepest undentandin~ of technical procedures, ... the cOQlcioul ly 8Ul tained and orderly carryin~ through of a work . . . -aU for the l a ke of the

l pontaneous impulses of the individual sensibility. The idea of creatin~ works of laltin~ value lost foree and ~ave way, in most minds, to the del ire to astonish; art was condemned to a whole series of b reaka witb the past . There arose a n automatic

audacity, which became as obligatory as tradition had been . Finally, that switch­in~-at high frequency--of the tastes of a given public, which il called Fashion,

replaced with iu e8&ential changeableness the old habit of slowly formin~ uyles, schools, and reputations . To say that Fashion took over the destinies of the fine arn is as much a8 to say that commercial interests were creeping in." Paul Valery,

P ieces sur l'art (Paria), pp. 187-188 (..Autour de Corot"). to (88,2]

''The great and fundamental revolution has been in cotton prints. It has rt!quired

the combined efforts of science and art to force r ebellioul and ungrateful cotton fabrics to undergo every d ay so many brilliant transformation l and to I pread

them everywhere within tbe reach oftbe poor. Every woman used to wea r a hlue or black dreu that she kept for ten yean without walhing. for fear it might tear to

pieces. But now her husband , a poor worker, coven her with a robe of Hower a for the price of a day ', labor , AU the women of the people who display an iris of a

thousand colon on our promenadel were formerly in mourning." J . Michelet, Le Peuple (Paris, 1846), pp. 80--81.21 (B8,3]

" It il no lon~er art , al in earlier times , hut the clothing husw eaa that furnishes the

prototype of the modem man and woman. . .. Mannequinl become the model for imitation , and the soul becomes the image of the body. " Henri Pollea, " L'Art du commerce," Vendredi. ( 12~ (February 1937). Compare tics and English faahions

for men. [88,4J

"One can estimate that, in Harmony. the changes in fu hion . .. and the impe rfec::­

tions in manufacturing would occasion an aoouaiiosl of 500 francs per pe rson , since even the poor eU of Harmonians haa a wardrobe of c10thea for every sea· SOil .•.• As fa r as clothing and furniture ar e concerned , ... Harmony . . . aims

for infinite variety with the least poslihle consumption.. . . The excellence of the products of societa ry industry .. . entail perfection (or euch and every manufac' tured object . so that furniture and clothing ... become eternal. " (Fouric r. ~ cited ill Arnllmd and Maubhm c, Fourier (Paris , 1937), vol. 2 , pp . 196 , 198. [B8a.1J

"This tal te for modernity is devel0IJed to such an extent that Baudelaire. like Balzac, extends it to the most lrifting details of fa shioll and dre88. Both writers

study theae thinp in themselves and turn them into moral and philosophical ques­tions, for thele thinp repres.ent immediate r eality in iu keenest, most aggreuive, and perhapa most irritating gW8C. but alao al it is mOlt generally experienced." [Note:} " Besides, for Ba udelaire . these matters link up with hil important theory of dandyism, wher e it is a question , precis.ely, of mor ality and modernity." Roger CaiDoil , " Paris, mythe moderne," Nouveik Revuefrarn;aue, 25, no. 284 (May 1, 1937), p. 692. [B8a,2]

"Sensational event! The belle, damu, one fine day, decide to puff up the derriere. Quick , by the thousands, hoop factoriea! ... But what is a aimple refilU!menl on illustrioul coccyxes? A trumpery, no more.... 'Away with the rump! Long live crinolines! ' And suddenly the civilized world turns to the production of ambula.

tory bells. Why haa the fair sex forgotten the delighu of hand bells? ... It u not enough to keep one's place; you must make some noise down there. ... The quar.

tier Breda and the Faubour~ Saint-Gennain are rivals in piety, no leu than in plasters a nd chignons. They might as well take the church aa their model! At

vespers, the organ and the clergy ta ke tUrDa intoning a verse from the Psalms. Tbe fine ladies wilh their little bells could follow this example, words and tintinnabula_

tion by turna spurring on the conver sation." A. Blanqui, CrilUJue 'ociale (Paris, 1885), vol. I , pp. 83--84 ("Le Luxe,,).- uLe Luxe" is a polemic against the luxury­

goods industry. (B8a,3]

Each generation experiences the fashions of the one i.mmediatdy preceding it as the most radical antiaphrodisiac imaginable. In this judgment it is not 50 far off the mark as might be: supposed. Every fashion is to some extent a bitter satire on love; in every fashion, perversities are suggested by the most ruthless means. ~v~ry fashion stands in opposition to the organic. Every fashion couples the livmg body to the inorganic world. To the living, fashion defends the rights of the corpse. The fetishism that succumbs to the sex appeal of the inorganic is its vital nervt. (B9,l ]

Where they impinge on the present moment, birth and death-the former tJu:ough natural circumstances, the latter through social ones-considerably reo SlOct the field of play for fashion. This State of affairs is properly elucidated through two parallel circumstances. The first concerns birth, and shows the nanual engendering of life "overcome" <a'!/gehobem by novelty in the realm of fashion. The second circumstance concerns death: it appears in fashion as no less "overcome," and precisely through the sex appeal of the inorganic, which is something generated by fashion. [B9,2]

~e detailing of feminine beauties so dear to the poetry of the Baroque, a process ~ which each single part is exalted through a trope, secretly Ii.nks up with the unage of the corpse. This parceling out of feminine beauty into its noteworthy COnstituents resembles a dissection, and the popular comparisons of bodily pans to alabaster, snow, prtciow stones, or other (mostly inorganic) foonations makes

the same point. (Such d ismemberment occurs also m Baudelaire : "Lc: Beau Navirc:.") [B9.3)

Lipps on the somber c~s t of men's clothing: He thinks th at "our general aversion to bright colors, especiall y in dothillg for men, evinces very clearly an oft -Doted peculiarity of our character. Gray is all theory; green-and not only green but abo red , yellow, blue--is the golden tree of life.:: In our predilection for the varioul 81H~de8 of gray ... running to black, we find an unmistakable social reAtttion of our tendency to privilege the theory of the formation of intellect above aU else. Even the beautiful we ca n no longer just enjoy; rather, ... we must fi rst subject it to criticism, with the consequence that ... our spiritual life bttomcs ever more cool and colorless.'" Theodor Lipps, "Ober die Symbolik unserer KJeidung," Nord und Sud, 33 (Breslau and Berlin, 1885), p . 352. [B9,4]

Fashions are a collective medicament for the ravages of oblivion. The more short­lived a period, the more: susceptible it is to fashion. Compare: K2a,3. (B9a,I]

Foeillon on the phantasmagoria of fa shion: "Most often ... it creates hybrid!; it imposes on the human being the profile of an animal. ... • "ashion thus invents an artificial humanity which is lIot the passive decoration of a formal environment , but that very environment itself. Such a humanity- by turns heraldic, theatrical, fantastical , a rchitectural- takes, as its ruling pri.nciple , the poetics of ornament, and what it caUs 'line' ... i8 l)Crhal)s but a subtle compromise between a certain physiological canon . .. aud imaginative design .'" Henri Focillon , Vre des forme, (Puris, (934), p. 4 1.:3 [89a,2)

There is hardly another article of dress that can give expression to such divergent erotic tendencies, and that has so much latitude to disguise them, as a woman's hat. Whereas the meaning of male headgear in its sphere (the political) is strictly tied to a few rigid pattcrns, the shades of erotic meaning in a woman's hat are virtually incalculable. It is not so much the various possibilities of symbolic reference to the sexual organs that is chieBy of interest here. More surprising is what a hat can say about the rest of the outfit. H <elen) Grund has made the ingenious suggestion that the bOtulet, which is contemporaneous with the crino­line, actually provides men with directions for managing the latter. The wide brim of the botulet is turned up-thereby demonstrating how the crinoline must be turned up in order to make sexual access to the woman easier for the man.

[B1O,1)

For the females of the species homo Japims-at the earliest conceivable period of its existence-the horizontal positioning of the body must have had the greatest advantages. It made pregnancy easier for them, as can be deduced from the back-bracing girdles and trusses to which pregnant women today have recourse. Proceeding from this consideration, one may perhaps venture to ask : Mightn't walking erect, in general, have appeared earlier in men than in.women? In that

case, the woman would have been the four-footed companion of the man, as the dog or cat is today. And it seems only a step from this conception to the idea that the frontal encounter of the two partners in coitus would have been originally a kind of perversion; and perhaps it was by way of this deviance that the " 'oman would have begun to walk upright. (See note in the essay "Eduard Fuchs: Der Sammler und der Historiker.,,)21 [BIO,2]

" It would ... be interesting to trace the effects exerted by this disllOsition 10

upright posture on the structure and function of the rest of the body. There is no doubt that aU the particulars of an organic entity are held together in intimate cohesion, but with the present sta te of our scientifiC knowledge we must maintain that the extraordinary influences ascribed herewith to standing upright canllot in fact be proved .... No significant repercu88ion can be demonstrated for the "rue· lure and function of the inner organa, and Herder's hypotheses-according to which aU force. would react differently in the upright posture, and the blood ltimulate the nerves differently-forfeit aU credibility as 800n as they are referred 10 differences manifestly important for behavior." Hermann Lotze, Mikroko,trIo. (Leipzig, 1858), vol. 2, p . 9O. !S (BIOa,I]

A passage from a cosmetics prospectus, characteristic of the fashions of the Second Empire. The manufacturer recommends "a cosmetic ... by means of which ladies, if they 80 desire, can pve their complexion the gloss of rose taffeta ." Cited in Ludwig Borne, Cesommelte Schnften (Hamburg and Frankfurt am Alain , 1862), vol. 3, p. 282 ("Die Industrie·AussteUung im Louvre"). (510a,2)

[Ancient Paris, Catacombs, Demolitions,

Decline of Paris]

Easy die way that leads into Avt:mw.

_Vrrgil '

Even the automobiles have an air of antiquity here.

-Guillaume ApoLIinaire2

How gratings- as allegories-have their place in hell. In the Passage VivielUlC, sculptures over the main entrance representing allegories ofcommerce. [CI ,I]

Surrealism was born in an arcade. And under the protection of what muses! lel ,2]

The father of Surrealism was Dada; its mother was an arcade. Dada, when the twO first mel, was already old. At the cnd of 1919, Aragon and Breton, out of antipathy to Montpamasse and Mon~, transferred the site of their meet­ings with friends to a cafe in the Passage de 1'0pera. Construction of the Boule­vard H aussmaml brought about the demise of the Passage de 1'000ra. Louis Aragon devoted 135 pages to this arcade; in the sum of these three digits hides lhe number nine-the number of muses who bestowed their gifts on the new­

born Surrealism. They are named Luna, CoUlltesS Geschwitz, Kate Greenaway, Mors, Cleo de Merode, Dulcinea, Libido, Baby CaduOl, and Friederike Kemp­ner. (Instead ofCountess Geschwiu: 1ipsc?)3 IC I ,3]

Cashici' as Danuc. leI ,. ]

Pallsa nia,. ,1I·o.ilu;C(i his topography of Grt.'ct:tl around ,\ .0. 200. al a lillltl whcll the "1I1t s ilo', aluilllllllYoll,cr JI1OI1I1IlU'nU had bcgullto full into ruin . IC I ,S]

rew things in the history of humanity arc as well knO\Vll to us as the history of Paris. lens of thousands of volumes are dedicated solely to the investigation of

this tiny spot on the earth's surface. Authentic guides to the antiquities of the old Roman city-Lutetia Parisorum- appear as early as the sixteenth cenrury. The catalogue of the imperial library, printed during the reign of Napoleon III, con· tains nearly a hundttd pages under the rubrie "Paris," and this collection is far from complete. Many of the main thoroughfares have their own special litera· ture, and we possess written accounts of thousands of the most inconspicuous houses. In a beautiful nun of phrase, Hugo von Hofmannsthal called <this city) "a landscape built of pure life." And at work in the attraction it exercises on people is the kind of beauty that is proper to great landscapes-more precisely, to volcanic landscapes. Paris is a counterpart in the social order to what 'ksuvius is in the geographic order: a menacing, hazardous massif, an ever-active hotbed of revolution. But just as the slopes of Vesuvius, thanks to the layers of lava that cover them, have been transfonned into paradisal orchards, so the lava of revolu­tions provides uniquely fertile ground for the blossoming of art, festivity, fashion. oFasruon 0 (C I,6]

Balzac has secured the mythic constirution of his world through precise topa­grapruc contours. Paris is the breeding ground of his mythology-Paris with its two or three great bankers (Nucingen, du Tillet), Paris with its great physician Horace Bianchon, with its entrepreneur cesar Birotteau, with its four or five great cocottes, with its usurer Gobseck, with its sundry advocates and soldiers. But above all-and ~ see this again and again-it is from the same streets and comers, the same little rooms and recesses, that the figures of this world step into the light. What else can this mean but that topography is the ground plan of this mythic space of tradition <Tradi/ionsraum>, as it is ofevery such space, and that it can become indeed its key-just as it was the key to Greece for PawarUas, and just as the history and siruation of the Paris arcades are to become the key for the underworld of this century, into which Paris has sunk. [Cl ,7]

To construct the city topograpruca1ly-tenfold and a hundredfold-from out of its arcades and its gateways, its cemeteries and bordellos, its railroad stations and its ... , just as formerly it was defined by its churches and its markets. And the more secret, more deeply embedded figures of the city: murders and rebellions, the bloody knots in the network of the streets, lairs of love, and conflagrations. oFJaneur 0 [C l ,S]

Couldn't an exciting film be made from the map of Paris? From the unfolding of its various aspects in temporal succession? From the compression of a cenruries­long movement of streets, boulevards, arcades, and squares into the space of half an hour? And does the Bineur do anything different? 0 Flineur 0 [Cl ,9]

' '1'wo 8teps from the Palais-Royal, between thtl Cour des FontaintlS and the Rue Neuve-d~.Bons-Enfants , there i, II dark a nd tortuous Little arcade adorned by II public scribe and a greengrocer. It could resemLie the cave of Cacu8 or or Tro­

phonius, but it could l1 t!ver resemble an arcade--even with soot! will and gu lighliug." (A]fn:d) Delvau . Le, Denolu de Parit (Paris, 1860), PI" 105-106.

(C h , l]

One knew of places in ancient G~ece whe~ the way led down into the under­·world. Our waking existence likewise is a land which, at cenain hidden points, leads down into the undernrorld-a land full of inconspicuous places from which dreams arise. All day long, suspecting nothing, we pass them by, but no sooner has sleep come than we are eagerly groping our way back to lose ourselves in the dark corridors. By day, the labyrinth of urban dwellings resembles conscious· ness; the arcades (which are galleries leading into the city's past) issue unre­marked onto the stret:ts. At night, however, under the tenebrous mass of the houses, their denser darkness protrudes like a threat, and the nocturnal pedes­trian hurries past-unless, that is, we have emboldened him to rum into the narrow lane.

But another system of galleries runs underground through Paris: the Metro, whe~ at dusk glowing red lights point the way into the undetworld of names. Combat, Elysee, Georges V, Etienne Marcel, Solferino, Invalides, Vaugirard­they have all thrown off the hwniliating fetters of street or square, and here in the lightning·scored, whistle-resounding darkness are transfonned into misshapen sewer gods, catacomb fairies. This labyrinth harbors in its interior not one but a dozen blind raging bulls, into whose jaws not one Theban virgin once a year but thousands of anemic young c:mssmakers and drowsy clerks every morning must hurl themselves. 0 Street Names 0 H ere, underground, nothing more of the colli· sion, the intersection, of names-that which aboveground fonus the linguistic network of the city. He~ each name dwdls alone; hell is its demesne. Amer, Picon, Dubonnet are guardians of the threshold. (Cla,2)

" Doesn ' t every quartier have il.s true apogee some time before it is full y built up? At Ihal point it. planet detlcri.bes a curve iii! it draw. near businesses, fir&( the large

and then the small . So long as the street is still somewhat new, it belongs to the. common IH!Ople ; it gets clear of them only when it is smiled on by fashion. Without naming price., the interes ted parties dispute among themselves for the right. to

the small housel and the apartments, but only so long as the beautifuJ women , the ones with the r adia nt degance that adornl not only the lalon but the whole house and even the I treet , continue to hold their receptions. And should the lady become

a pedestrian , sht! will want some shops. and often the street must pay not a litlle for acceding 100 quickly 10 thiH WiHh . Courtyards are made sDlaUer, and many are entirely done aWIlY wilh ; Ihe houses draw closer logether. In the eud . there come. a New Yellr'. Day whcn it is considered bad form to have such an address 011 one'. vis iting ca rd . By tllcn t1u~ majority of tenants are businesses only, and the gateways of the neighborhood no longer have lIIuch to 10ije if now Illld again they furnish asylulII for one of the slIlaU IradeSIH!Ople whose misera ble 8Ialls have replaced t.hc shop~ .'· <Charles) Lcfeuve, Le, Anciennes Maitons de Paris 'OIU Napoleon /II (Parisll lltl Urus~e18. 1873), vol. I , p . 482.~ D Fashion 0 [Cla,3]

Ie is a sad testimony to the underdeveloped amour-propre of most of the great European cities that so very few of them-at any rate, none of the German cities-have anything like the handy, minutely detailed, and durable map that exists for Paris. I refer to the excellent publication by Taride, with its twenty-two maps ofall the Parisian arro"disstmenlJ and the parks ofBoulogne and Vmcennes. Whoever has stood on a street comer of a strange city in bad weather and had to deal with one oftho~ large paper maps- which at every gust swell up like a sail rip at the edges, and soon are no more than a little heap of dirty colored soa~ with which one tonnents oneself as with the pieces of a puzzle- learns from the srudy of the PIa" Tande what a city map can ~. People whose imagination does not wake at the perusal of such a ttxt, people who would not rather dream of their Paris experiences over a map than over photos or travel notes, are beyond help. [CIa,4]

Paris is built over a system of caverns from which the din of Metro and railroad mounts to the surface, and in which every passing onmibus or truck sets up a prolonged echo. And this great tedUlological system of tunnels and thorough­fares interconnects with the ancicnt vaults, the limestone quarries, the grottoes and catacombs which, since the early Middle Ages, have time and again ~en reente~d and traversed. Even today, for the price of two francs , one can buy a ticket of admission to this most nocrumaJ Paris, so much less expensive and less hazardous than the Paris of the upper world. The Middle Ages saw it diffe~ntly. Sources tell us that there we~ clever persons who now and again, after exacting a considerable sum and a vow of silcnce, undertook to guide their fellow citizens underground and show them the Devil in his infernal majesty. A financial ven­tu~ far less risky for the swindled than for the swindlers : Must not the church have considered a spurious manifestation of the Devil as tantamount to blas­phemy? In other ways, too, this subtemmean city had its uses, for those who knew their way around it. Its streets CUt through the great CUStoms barrier with whi~ the F~ers General had secured their right to receive duties on impons, and m the sIXteenth and eighteenth cenruries smuggling operations went on for the most part bdow ground. we know also that in times of public commotion mysterious rumors traveled vcry quickly via the catacombs, to say nothing of the prophetic spirits and fortunctellers duly qualified to pronounce upon thcm. On the day after Louis XVI Bed Paris, the ~volutionary goverrunent issued bills ordering a thorough ~arch of these passages. And a few years later a rumor SUddenly spread through thc population that certain areas of town were about to

-~ ~. I )

1'0 I'ecollstrllc t tht! city ulso from its jotlfCIine, <spr ings, wells). "Some streets hllve preserve!1 these ill II llmC, although ti le most cclehrata l among them , the Puits d 'Amollr <Well of Love), whidl was located not far from the marktltplace 0 11 th t! Hue de III Trllauder ie, hll il ht:clI drie!l , fiJl ed up, and smoothed over wit hout a trace r!' lIIaining. l'lenee, there is hardly an ything lefl of the echoing wells ,.,hieh pro­vided a name for Ihe Hue du Puits-qui-Pllrlt: . or of til t! weUs ,,·hiGh Ille taliller

Adam-I'Hennitc h ad dug in I.he quartier Saint-Victor. We ha ve known the Rues de

- Pllil8· Maliconseil . du Puil~-de-Fer. du Puita·du-Chs llilre, dll Puils·Certain , du BOIl-Puiu , and fin ally the Rue dll Puil8, which, after heing the Rue dll Bout-du­Monde, became the l.mpa88c Saint-Claude-Montmartre. T he marketplace wells, the buckel-drawn wells. the water carners li Te aU giving way 10 the public weUI, and our children , who will easily d raw waler even on the top Ooon of the tallest buildings in Paris. will be amazed that we have preserved for 80 long these primi­tive meallS of supplying olle of humankind ', most imper ious needs." Maxime <ill

Camp , Paris: Ses orgam!l. se!jonctionIJ et 10 vie (Paris, 1875), vol. 5 . 1). 263. [C' ,')

A different topography, not architectonic but anthropocc=ntric in conception, could show us all at once, and in its true light, the most muted quarrier: the isolated fo urteenth ammdis.ument. 1bat, at any rate, is how Jules Janin already saw it a hundred years ago. If you were hom into that neighborhood, you could lead the most animated and audacious life without ever having to leave it. For in it are found , one after another, all the buildings of public misery, o f proletarian indigence, in unbroken succession : the birthing clinic, the orphanage, the hospi­tal (the famous Sante), and finally the great Paris jail with its scaffold. At night, one sees o n the narrow unobtrusive benches-not, of course, the comfortable ones found in the squares-men stretched out asleep as if in the waiting room of a way station in the course of this terrible journey. [C2,3}

There are arcruteaonic emblems o f commerce: steps lead to the apothecary, whereas the cigar shop has taken possession of the comer. The business world knows to make use o f the threshold. In from of the arcade, the skating rink, the swimming pool, the railroad platfonn, stands the tutelary of the threshold: a hen that automatically lays tin eggs containing bonbons. Next to the hen, an autO­mated fo rruneteller-an apparatus for stamping our names automatically on a tin band, which fixes our fate to our collar. [C2,4)

In old Paris, there were executions (ror examl)le, by hanging) in the open street . [C' ,5)

Rodenberg SIH:aks or the "stygian existence" of certain worthless securitie8---8uch as shares in the Mires fund- which are sold by the "small-time crooks" of tbe Stock Exchange in the hOIH: or a " rulure resur~tion brought to pass by the day's market (I uotation,." Julius RodenlH:C!h Pa n.. be; SonnenJchein lind Lampenlicht (Berlin , 1867), PI" 102- 103. [C2a,1)

Conservative tendency of Parisian life: as late as 1867, an entrepreneur conceived lhe plan of having fivc hundred sedan chairs circulate throughout the city.

[C2a,2J

Concerning the mythological topography of Paris : the character giv~n it by its gates. Important is their duality: border gates and triumphal arches. Mystery of

the boundary stone wlUch, although located in the heart of the city, once marked the point at which it ended.- On the other hand, the Arc de Triomphe, which today has become a traffic island. Out of the field of experience proper to the threshold evolved the gateway that transfonns whoever passes under its arch. The Roman victory arch makes the returning general a conquering hero. (Ab­surdity o f the relief o n the inner wall of the arch? A classicist misunderstanding?)

IC2a,3]

The gallery that leads to the M o thers5 is made o f wood. Likewise, in the 1arge­scale n:novatiorlS of the urban .scene, wood plays a constant though ever­shifting role: amid the modem traffic, it fashions, in the wooden palings and in the wooden planking over open sUbStructiOrlS, the image of its rustic prdlistory. DIron D [C2a,4]

..It is the obscurely rising dream of northerly , treet! in a big city-not only Pari" perhaps, but al, o Berlin and the largely unknown London--obscurely rising, in a rainless twilight that is nOnethele88 damp. The streets grow narrow a nd the houses right and lert draw closer to~ether; ultimately it becomes an arcade with grimy , hop windows , a gallery or glass. To the right and left : Are those dirty bi81ros, with waitresse, lurking in black-and-white , ilk blouses? It stink, of cheap wine. Or i, it the garish vestibule or a bordello? As I ad vance a IittJe further. however, I see on both sides smaU , ummer-green doon and the rustic window shutten they caU volets. Sitting there. little old ladies are spinning, and through the windows hy the somewhat rigid flowering plant , 88 though in a country garden, I see a rair-skinned young lady in a gracious apartment , and , he sings: 'Someone i, 'pinnin~

silk .... '" Franz Hes,el, manuscript . Compare Strindberg, "The Pilot', Trials .... [C2a,5]

AI the entrance, a mailbox: last opportunity to make some sign to the world one is leaving. [C2a,6]

Underground sightseeing in the sewen. Preferred route: Ch il telet- Madeleine. [C2a.7J

"1'he ruins of the Church and of the a ristocracy, or reudalism, of the l\liddle Ages, are sublime-they fill the wide-eyed victors of today with admiration. But the ruins of Ihe bourgeoisie will be a n ignoble detrilu, or pa' ieboard , "laster, and coloring. ,. (Honore de Balzac and other authors,> Le Diable aI'liru (Paris, 1845), vol. 2 , p . 18 (Balzac, "Ce qui w sparail de Paris"). 0 CoUector 0 (C2a,8)

... All this, in our eyes, is what the arcades are. And they were nothing ofall this. "It is only today, when the pickaxe menaces them, that they have at last become the true sanauaries o f a cult of the ephemeral, the ghosdy landscape o f damnable pleasures and professions. Places that yesterday were incomprehensible, and that tomorrow will never know." Louis Aragon, u Paysan tk Pari; (Paris, 1926), p . 19.'D CoUeClor O [C2a,9]

Sudden past of a city: windows lit up in expectation of Christmas shine as though their lights have been burning since 1880. [C2a,lO)

The dream- it is the earth in which the find is made that testifies to the primal history of the nineteenth century. 0 Dream 0 [Cl a, ll )

Reasons for the decline of the arcades : widened sidewalks, dectric light, ban on prostitution, culture of the open air. [C2a,121 .~

1 ] The rebirth of the archaic drama of the Greeks in the booths of the trade fair.

111e prefect of police allows only dialogue on this stage. "1b.i.s third character is mute, by order of Monsieur the Prefect of Police, who pennits only dialogue in theaters designated as nonresident." Gerard de Nerval, u Cabaret dt fa M'm: $aguet (Paris <1927)), pp. 259- 260 ("Lc Boulevard du Temple autrefois et

1 aujourd'hui"). [C3, I)

AI.. the entrance to the arcade, a mailbox: a last opportunity to make some sign to ] the world one is leaving. [ca,l )

'" The city is only apparently homogeneous. Even its name takes on a different sound from one district to the next. Nowhere, unless perhaps in dreams, can the phenomenon of the boundary be experienced in a more originary way than in cities. To know them means to understand those lines that, running alongside railroad crossings and across privately owned lots, within the park and along the riverbank, function as limits; it means to know these confines, together with the enclaves of the various districts. As threshold, the boundary stn=tches across streets; a new precinct begins like a step into the void-as though one had unexpectedly cleared a low step on a flight of stairs. [ca ,3)

AI.. the entrance to the arcade, to the skating rink, to the pub, to the tennis coon: proa/eJ. The hen that lays the golden praline-eggs, the machine that stampS our names on nameplates and the other machine that weighs us (the modem gnathi ;eau/on),' slot machines, the mechanical fortuneteller- these guard the threshold. They are generally found, it is worth noting, neither on the inside nor ttuly in the open. They protect and mark the transitions ; and when one seeks out a little greenery on a Sunday afternoon, one is turning to these mysterious pena/(J as well. 0 Dream House 0 Love 0 [ca,4)

The despotic terror of the hand bell, the terror that reigns throughout the apart­ment, derives its force no Jess from the magic of the threshold . Some things shrill as they are about to cross a threshold. But it is strange how the ringing becomes melancholy, like a knell, when it heralds departure-as in the Kaiserpanorama, when it starts up with the slight tremor of the receding image and announces another to come. 0 Dream House 0 Love a [C3,5]

These galeways-the entrances 10 the arcades-are thresholds. No stone step serves to mark them . But this marking is accomplished by the expectant poSture of the handful of people. Tightly measured paces reflect the fact, altogether unknowingly, that a decision lies ahead. aDrean} House 0 Love 0 [C3 ,6)

Other cour ts of miracles besides the one in the Passage du Caire that is celebra ted ill Notre-Dame de Pari, <The Hunchback of Notre Dame.) " In the old Pa ris neigh­Iw rhood of the Ma ra is, on the Rue des Tour neUee, a re the Passage and the Cour ~ I cs Miracles. T here were other cour, des mirack, on the Rue Saint-Denis, the Rue

,III Bac, the nue de Nellilly, the Rue des Coquilles, the Rue de Ia Jussienne, the Rue Saint-Nicaise , a nd the promontory of Saint-Roch." <Emile de) Labedolliere lIiJtoire <cles environs ) du nOlw cau Paris (Paris <l86]?)), p . 31. [The bihlicai pU$sages aft er which these courl8 were named : Isaiah 26.~5 and 27 .J [ca,7)

In reference to H au8smann 's successes with the water supply and the drainage of

Puris: " T he poct8 would say tllat lIau8Smann was inspired more by the divinities below than by the gods above ." Lucien Dllbech and Pier re d ' Espezel, lIistoire de I'a ru (Pari8, 1926), p . 'US. [C3,S)

Metro. "A great many of the stations have been given absurd names. T he worst

seems to belong to the one at the corner of the Rue 8reguet and the Rue Saint­Sabin , which ul timately joined together, in the abbr eviation ' Un!guet-Sabin,' the na me of a watchmaker and the name of a saint. " Duhech and d ' Espezcl, lIu toire cle Pam , p . 463. [C3,9)

\\bod an archaic element in street construction : wooden barricades. [GJ,IO]

June lnsurr(!(: tion . " Most of the prisoners were transferred via the qua rries a nd subter r a nean paS8age8 which are located under the forts of Pa ris, and which are so extensive Ihat haU the population of the eity could be con tained tbere. T he cold in

these underground cor r idors is 80 intense that many had to run continually or move Iheir a rms about 10 keep from freezing, and no one d aretllo lie down on the

col ~ 1 stones ... . The prisoners gave all the passages na mes of Pari8 streets, and whenever Ihey met one another, they exchanged addresses." Englander, <Ceschichte tier fnlllzosuchen Arbeiter-Anociationen (Hamburg, ISM)), vol. 2, pp .3 14-3 15. [C3a,IJ

'"T he Pa ris stone <llIa r ric8 are ull illlerconnecteti. ... 1.11 se"er al places p iUa rs have heen SCI up so that the roof docs not ca ve in. III other places tile wl1 l1 ~ have bt.'ell reinforced . T he ..e Wil lis fo rm IOllg pa88ages under Ihe eartb , Ijke n arro",' s treeU. On 8e" cr al of them. at the end , numbers have been inscribed to p re"enl wrong 1l1l'1I ~, bill witllollt a guide olle is not ... likely to vcnture into these exhau~ tc tl Scums of limeslone ... if one docs not wish .. . to risk Sla rva tiOIl ."-" The legend according to which olle can scc the s tars by da y from tin: IlI llnela of the Paris <llI arries"' originated in an old mille shaft " thai was coveretl over on tilt: sur face hy

II etollc slab in which there is II small hole some six millimetcn in diameter.

- Through lhill hole, the dayLighl llhincs into the gloom below like II pule s la r." J . F. Benzcnberg. Briefe gClIchriebe fl auf eine r Reise noch Pam (Dortmund . 1805), vol. 1, 1'11 .207-208. (C3a,2]

" A thing which 8oJOked and clacked on the Seine, making the noisc of II 8wunming dog, wenl and came heneuth the wind ows of the Thileries, from the Pont Royal to the Pont Louis XV; il was a pi~e of mechanism of no great value, a l ort of toy, the daydream of II visionary. a Utopia- a steamboat . The Parisians looked upon the usele8B thing with indifference," Victor Hugo, Les Miserable., part I ,' cited in Nada r, Quondj'elois photographe (Paris d90(b), p . 280. [eJa,3)

"As if an enchanter or II stage manager, at the first peal of the whistle from the fi rs t locomotive, gave a signal to aU thiugs to awake and ta ke flight ." Nadar. Quand j'etais photoS rcll,he (Paris). p. 281 . [C3a,4]

Characteristic is the birth of one of the great documentary works on Paris­namely, Maxime Du Camp's Paris: &J {JTganeJ, m fanctioru et sa vie dam Ifl seconde moitie du XIX' siecieJ in six volumes (Paris, 1893-1896). About this book, the catalogue of a secondhand bookshop says: "It is of great interest for its documentation. which is as exact as it is minute. Du Camp, in fact, has not been averse to trying his hand at all sorts of jobs-performing the role of omnibus conductor, street sweeper, and sewerman- in order to gather materials for his book. His tenacity has won him the nickname 'Prefect of the Seine in partibwJ '

and it was not irrelevant to his elevation to the office of senator." Paul Bourget describes the genesis of the book in his "Discours academique du 13 juin 1895: Succession aMaxime Du Camp" (Antlzologie de l'Acadimie Frallfdue [Paris, 1921J, vol. 2, pp. 191- 193). In 1862. recounts Bourget, after experiencing problems with his vision, Du Camp went to see the optician Seaitan, who prescribed a pair of spectacles for farsightedness . Here is Du Camp: "Age has gotten to me. I have not given it a friendly welcome. But I have submitted. I have ordered a lorgnon and a pair of spectacles." Now Bourget: "The optician did not have the prescribed glasses on hand. He needed a half hour to prepare them. M. Maxime Du Camp went out to pass this half hour strolling about the neighborhood. He found himself on the Pont Neuf. .. . It was, for the writer, one of those moments when a man who is about to leave youth behind thinks of life with a resigned gravity that leads him to find in all things the image of his own melancholy. The minor physiological decline which his visit to the optician had just confirmed put him in mind of what is so quickly forgotten: that law of inevitable destruction which governs everything human.... Suddenly he began-he, the voyager to the Oriem, the sojourner through mute and weary wastes where the sand consists of dust of the dead- to envision a day when this town, too, whose enonnous breath now filled his senses, would itself be dead, as so many capitals of so many empires were dead. 111e idea came to him that it would be extraordinarily inter­esting for us to have an exact and complete picrurc of an Athens. at the time of

Pericles, of a Carthage at the time of Barca, of an Alexandria at the time of the Ptolemies, of a Rome at the time of the Caesars ... . By one of those keen intuitions with which a magnificent subject for a work Hashes before the mind, he clearly perceived the possibility of writing about Paris this book which the histo­rians of antiquity had failed to write about their towns. He regarded anew the spectacle of the bridge, the Seine, and the quay.... The work of his mature years had announced itself." It is highly characteristic that the modem administrative­technical ,",,'Ork on Paris should be inspired by classical history. Compare further, conceming the decline of Paris, U on Daudet's chapter on Sam Coeur in his Paris vicu <Experiences of Paris). LO 1C4]

The following rema rkahle sentence. from the bravura piece. " Paris souterrain ," in Nadar's Quand j'etais photographe: " III his history of sewers, written with the genial pen of the poet a nd philosopher, Hugo mentions at one point (after a de­scription that he has made nlOre stirring than a drama) that , in China , not a single peasant returns home, after selling his vegetables in the city, without bearing the heavy load of an enormous bucket fi lled with precious fertilizer" (p . 124).

[C4a, I)

Apropos of the gates of Paris: "Until the moment you saw the toll collector appear between two columns. you could imagine yourself before the gates of Rome or of Athens." Bios raphi4! universelk ancienne et moderne. new edition published UD­

der the direction of 1\1. Michaud . vol. 14 (Paris, 1856), p. 321 (article by P. F. L. Fontaille). [C4a,2]

" In a book by Theophile Gautier, Caprice, et :;igzaSI, I find a curious page. 'A great danger threatens us,' it says. ' The modem Babylon will not be smashed like the tower of Lylak; it will not be lost in a sea of asphalt like Pentapolis , or buried under the sand like Thebes. It will simply be depopulated and ravaged by the rau of !\Iontfaucon.' Extraordinary vision of a vague but prophetic dreamer! And it has in essence proven true.... The rau of Montfaucon ... have not endangered Paris; HaU8Smann 's arts of embellishment have driven them off .... But from the heights of !\Iontfaucon the proletariat have descended , a nd with gunpowder and petroleum they have begun the destruction of Pa ris which Ga utier foresaw. " !\lax Norda u, A/L$ dem wahren i'tfilliurdenlarule: Puriser Srudien urnl Bilder (LeipJlig, 1878), vol. I , pp. 75-76 ("Belleville"). [C4a,3]

In 1899, dur ing work on the M~t ro , foundations of a tower of the Bastille were discovered on the Rue Saint-Antoine. Ca binet des Estampes. lC4a,4)

Halls of wine: "The ....arehouse. which conl in s partly of vaults for the spir its and partly of wille cellars dug out of stone , forlllS ..., as il were , a cit y in which the streets bear the names of the most importa nt wine regions of France. " Acht Tage in Paris (Paris. July 1855), pp. 37-38. [C4a,51

"The cd lltrs of the Cafe Anglais ... extend quite a distance under 1111: LH,Iulevltrds. forming the most comJllicl'ted (Iefil es. The management took the truuble to tlivide the.m into slret: ts .... You hl've the Rue du Bourgogne, the Rue du Bonit:a u" , the Rue. du Beanne, the Rue de l' Ermitage, the Rue du Chamberlin , the crossroads of

. Tonnel'u" . You cOllie 10 a cool grotto ... rilled with shellfish ... ; it is the grotto for the willee of Champagne . ... The greal lords of bygone daye conceived the idea of dining in their stablet.... Bul if you want to dine in a really e.cCClllriC fa shion : vivent k s co lJf!s!" Tuile Delord , PariJ-viveur (Pa ris, 1854), I)P' 79-81 , 83--84. IC4a,6]

" Resl assured Ihal when Hugo saw a beggar on the road , . .. he saw him for what he is, for wha t he really i, in reality : the a ncient mendicant , the ancient suppli­ca nt , ... on the ancient road . When he looked at a marble slab on one of our mantlepi l.."(;es , or a cemented brick in one of our modern chimneys, he saw it for what it is: the stone of the hearth. The ancient hearthstone. Wilen he lookt.-d at a door to the "reet , and at a doorstep , which is usually of cut stone, he distinguished clearly 011 this stone the ancient line, ,he sacred threshold, for i, is one and the same line ," Charles Peguy, Oeuvres compli~tes, 1873-1914: Oeuvres de prose (Paris, 1916), pp . 388-389 (" Victor-Marie, Comte Hugo" ). [C5,1)

"The wille shops of tile Fa ubourg Antoine resemble those taverns on Mount Aventine, above the Sibyl's cave, which communicated with the det:p and sacred afflatus; taverns whose tables were almost t ripods, and where men dra nk what Ennius calls ' the sibyWne wine.·.. Victor Hugo, Oeuvres completes, novels, \'0 1. 8 (Paris, 1881), IlP. 55-56 (i.es fttiserabks. pa rt 4). II [CS,2)

"Those who have traveled in Sicily will remember the celebrated convent where, as a result of tbe earth ', capacity for drying and preterving bodiet , the monb at a cer tain time of year can deck out in their ancient rt'galia aU the ~andee, to whom they have accorded the hospitality of the grave: ministers, popes, cardinals , war­riors, a nd kings. Placing them in IWO rows within their spacious catacombs, they allow the Imblic to pau between these rows of skeletons .. . . Well , this Sicilian cOllvent givcs us an image of our society. Under the pompous garb tha t adorns our art and liter a ture, 110 hear' beats-there a re only dead men , who gaze at yOIl with staring eyes, lusterleu and cold , when you ask the century where the inspiration is , where the arts, where the literature:' <Alfred) Nettemenl , Les Ruines 1II0ruks et j,rtellecwelk5 (Paris, October 1836), p . 32. This may be cOlllpa retl wilh Hugo's " A l'AI·c de Triomphe" of 1837 . IC5,3)

The last Iwo chaplers of Leo Claretie's Purios depuis ses orig ines jllsqu 'en run 3000 (Pa ris, 1886) arc enlitletl "Tile Uuins of Paris" and "T he Year 3000." The fi rs t contaills a para phrase of Victor Hugo's verses on Ihe Arc de Triomphe. Tile second reproduccs I' leclu.re 0 11 the alltiquities of Paris that are prClltl rved ill. the famOlls " Academie de Floksima ... located in La Cellt!pire. This is a new continent .. .

discovered between Cal)e Horn and the southern territories in the year 2500" (p.347). IC5.4]

"There was, at the Chitdet de Paris, a broad long cellar. This cellar was eight feet deep below the level of the Seine. It had neither windows nor ventilators .. . ; men could enter, but air could not . The cella r had for a ~iLing a stone arch , and for a Roor. ten inches of mud .... Eight feet above the floor, a long massive beam crossed this vault from side to side; from this beam there hung, at intervals , chains ... and at tbe end of these chains there were iron collars. Men condemned to the galleys were put into this cellar until the day of their departure for Toulon . They were pushed under this timber, where each had his iron swinging in the darknets, waiting for him... . In order to eat , they had to draw tbeir bread , which was thrown into the mire, up their leg with their heel, within reach of their band.... In this hell-sepulcher, what did they do? What can be done in a sepulcher: they agonized. And what can be done in a hell : they sang.... In this cellar, almost all the argot songs were born . It is from the dungeon of the Grand Chatelet de Paris that the melancholy galley r efrain of Montgomery comes: 'Timaloumisaine, timou­lamison.' Most of these 80ngs are dreary; some are cheerful." Victor 8ugo, Oeuvres completes novels, vol . 8 (Paris. 1881). IJP. 297- 298 (i.es Miserabks).lt oSubterranean Paris 0 [CSa,l !

On the theory or thresholds: '''Between th03e who go on foot in Paris and those who go by carriage, the only difference is the running board,' as a peripatetic philosopher ha, u id. Ah , the running board! ... It is the point of departure rrom one country to another, from misery to luxury, from thoughtleu ne8s to thoughtIuI­nellS. It ill the hyphen between him who i, nothing and him who is all . The question is: where to put one', foot." Theophile Gautier, Etudes philosophiques: Paris et ks Parisien! au XIX' sieck (Paris, 1856), p . 26. [CSa,2)

Slight fOTellhadowing of the Metro in this description of model houses of the future : "The basements , very spacious and well lit , are all connected . forming long galler­ies which follow the course of the " reet,. Here an underground railroad has been built-not for human travelers, 10 be l ure , but exclusively for cumbersome mer­chandise, for wine, wood , coal, and so forth , which it delivers to the interior of the home . . . . These underground trains acquire a steadily growing importance." Tony Mollin , Parios en l'an 2000 (paris, 1869), pp. 14-15 ("Maisons-mode:les'"').

IC5a,3]

Fragments from Victor Hugo's ode " A l' Arc de Triomphe" :

" Always Parill cries lind muUeu. Who can tell- unfathomable (IUell ljolt­

What would be 10" from the univerllal clamor On the day lhal Paril fell ll ilent !

III Silent it will be nonethelesl!-Alter 80 mllDy dawn,.

It the robe which time JI'flf!'ls from them Worth the one it puts back on.

So many monthf and yean_ 80 many played-out « nlurie.. It is time whochiseu a Voove When lhill bank, where the , Iru m breaklll!ain,t the echoin~ bridges. In an indigentan:h.,tone. b relurned 10 the modell l and murmuring reed.;

When the Seine , hall flee the obstructing I tonel,

Consuming l ome old dome coll.pied into illl depth •• lleedrul of the sentle breeze thai u n ite to the cloud. The rul tling of the leavel a nd the 8On! of bird.;

When il , h.1l ftow, at night. pale in lhedarkneM. Happy. in the drowsing of ils lons,u'ouhled courte.

To Ii l ten al last to the countle .. voice. Pan ing indillinctly beneath the atarry Iky;

When thi. city, mad and churlith OUllnen!',

Thai h.,lenl the rate reKrved for iu w.u., And, (Urning to dUll under the blow. of its hammer, Convertl bronte to coinl! and marble to ftaptonet;

When the roo£" the bell., the tortuOUS hiVfll,

Porchel, pedimente, archei fu11 of pride That make up this city, many.voiced Ind twnu1luous,

Stiftinfll, inextricable, and I« milll to Ihe eye,

When from the wide pllin aU lhe.e thlnp bave pined,

And nothing remains of pyramid Ind plntheon Bultwo granite tower. built by Charlemagne And a bronze column raised by Napoleon,

You, Ihen , will complete the sublime triangle!

IV Thill, arch. you wiUloom eternal and inlact When aJllhal the Seine now mirron in ita surface

Will have vanished forever, When oflhat city-the equI I. yet. of Rome­Nothing will be lefl except . n .tlfIlfll. an e.pe. a man

Surmounting thn:e . ummi"!

V

No . lime takel nothing away from thinp.

More Ihan one portico wrongly vaunted In il8 protracted metamorpho.e. Cornel to he.uty in the end . On the monuments we ~vere Time casu I IIOmber SI)flU. Stutching from fa f,ade to 111!!fl.

Never, though it cracks a nd rul t • •

Who rllhs hi, knowing thumb On Ihe corner of a harren marble 8lab ; h i. he who , in correcting Ihe work, Introduce. a living . nake Midsllhe knOb of a vanile hydra. I think I tee a Cothic roof start laughing When. from ite a ncient !riue, Time removflS I stone and Jluts in a nest.

VUI

No, everything will be dead. Nothinfll le!t in this camJlIgna But a vani,hed popuiation .llill around, But the dull eye o! man and Ihe living eye of God, But a n arch , and a column. and there, in the middle or thit silvere<l-over river, atill .foam,

A church half·stranded in the mil t. February 2, 1837.

Victor Hugo. Oeuvre. comple,e • • Poetry, vol. 3 (Pans , 1880), pp. 233-245. IC6; C6a,l j

Demolition sites: sources for teaching the theory of construction. " Never have cir cumstances been more favorable for this genre of study than the epoch we live

in today. During the past twelve yean, a multitude or Luildings--among them, churches and cloister8--have been demolished down to the first layers or their

foundations ; they have aU provided ... useful instruction. " Charles-Fran~oil Viel , De l'lmpuiuunce de. matllematiques pour aUllrer la solidile des batimena (Paris, 1805), pp . 43-44. (C6a,2]

Demolition sites: "'The high walls, with their bister-colored Lines around the chim­lIey fiues, reveal , like the crosa-seclion of an architeclUra l p lan , the myster y of

intimate distributions.... A cu rious 81)fl(; tac1e, these open houses, with their fl oorboards suspcnded over the aLyn . their colorful fl owered ....·allpapcr still Showing the shape ofthe rooms, their staircases Icading 1I0where now, their cellars 0llen to the sky. their bizarre collapsed interiors and battered ruins. It all resenl' bles, though withou t the gloomy tOile, those uninhabita ble structures wbich Pin· nesi outlined with such fe\'ensh intensity in his etchings." TheophiJe Ga utier, Mo.mique de rllines : Pa ri. e t leI I'liriaien. au XIX' .ieck. by Alexandre Dumas, Thcophile Gautier. ArseJlc Houssaye, Paul de Mus~ct , Louis Enault, and 011 Fayl (Paris, 1856), pp. 38-39. IC7,1]

Condu,.ion of <Louis) !..urine', a rticle "Le, Boulevards": "The boulevard8 will die of an a neurism: the eXpl08ion of gas ." Pori., chez soi (Paris (1854». p . 62 (allthol­ogy issllt.... 1 by Paul 8 oiza nl). [C7,2)

Baudelaire to Poulet-Malu u is on January 8 , 1860, concerlling Meryon : " In olle of his large "Iates. be 8uhstitutcd for a little balloon a cloud of predatory birds. a nd when I pointed out to him thai il wu impla usible that 80 many eagles could be found in a Parisian sky, he answered that it was Dot without a hasis in fact , since ' thoilc men ' (the emperor 's government) had often released caglell to study the presages according to the rites, and tha t this had been r eported in the newspa­pers--c,'en in Le Moniteur." 13 Ciled in Gustave Geffr oy, ChMie. Meryon (Pa ril ,

1926), 1)1>, 126- I27. [C1.3)

On the triumphal arch: "The triumph was aD institution of the Roma n state and was conditioned on tile l)Ossession of the fi eld-eommander 's right- the right of the

military imperium-which , however, was extinguished on the day of the tri­umph.... Of the various provisions attaching to the right of triunlph , the m08t

important was tha t the territorial bounds of the city ... were not to be crossed prematurely. Otherwise the commander would forfeit the rights of the a uspices of

war-which held only for operations conducted outside the city- and with them the claim to triumph.... Every defil ement , all guilt for the murderous battle (and

perhaps originally tltis included the danger posed by the spirits of t he slain), is removed from the commander and the army; it r emains ... outside the sacred ga leway . ... Such a conception ma kes it clear ... that the porto triumpllalu was

nothing less than a nlOIlUment for the glorification of victory." Ferdinand Noack ,

Triumph lind Trillmphbogen. Warburg Library Lectures, vol. 5 (Leipzig, 1928), pp. 150-1 51, 154. [C7,4)

"Edga r Poe created a char acter who wanders the streets of capital cities; he called him the Man of the Cr owd . The restlellsly inquiring engraver is the Man of Stones .... Here we have ... an ... artist who did not study and draw, like

Pira uesi, Ihe remnants of a bygone e:-:istence, yet whose work gives one the 8ensa­lioll of lHl-rsistent nostalgia .... This is Charles Mer)"on. His work as an engr aver

represents one or the profoundest poems ever written about a city, ami wha t is trul y origi ual in all these striking pictures is that they seem to lHl- the image, despite being drawlI directly from life, of thiugs that are finished , that a re dead or a hout to

die .... This imprcn ion exists independeutiy of the must scrupulous and realistic reproduction ur subjects choscn by the artist . There was something uf the visioll­ury in Meryon. aud he unduubtedly divined that these rigid alld unyielding forms were cphcmeral , thlll Ihelle singula r beauties were going the way of all fl esh . lie li8lcne<1 tu tile language spokcn by strects and alleys that , since the ea rliest da ys of the city, were being continually torn "I) and redone; alld that is why his evocative poetry makes contact with the Middle Ages through tile nineteenth-centu ry city, why il ralli utes cterual nlclallchuly through the vision of immcdiate appcara nces. " Old Pa ris is gune ( 111.1 human hea rt I changes half su rast as a city's ru c.c). "I I T hese

two tines by Baudelaire could serve as an epigraph tu Meryun '8 entire oeuvre." Gustave Geffroy, Charies Meryon (Parie, 1926), PI' . 1-3. [C7a,l )

"There is nu need to imagine that the allcient porta triumphom was already an arched gateway. On the cOlltra ry, since it served an entirely symbulic act , it wuuld

uriginally have been er ected by the simplest of meall8--nameiy, twu posts and. a straight lintel ." Ferdin and Noack , Triumph lind Trillmphbogen. Warburg Library Lectures , vul. 5 (L.e..ip:-:ig, 1928), p . 168. [C7a,2)

The march thruugh the triumphal a rch as rite de pauage; "The ma rch of the

troops thruugh the narrow gateway has been compared to a ' rigorous passage through a narruw opening, ' something to which the significance uf a rebirtb at­taches." Ferdinand Noack , Triumph und Triumphbogen, Warburg Library Lec­tures, vol. 5 (Leipzig, 1928), p . 153. [C7a,3}

The fantasies of the decline of Paris are a symptom of the fact that teclmology was not accepted. These visions bespeak the gloomy awareness that along with the great cities have: evolved the means to raze them to the ground.

[C7a,4)

Nuack mentions " that Scipio's arch uood nut abuve but oppusite the road that leads up to the Capitol (adver sus viam , (IUa in Capitulium ascenditur).... We are thus given insight inlo the purely munumental character of these Uructures,

which are withuut any practical meaning." On the other hand , the cultic sig­nificance of these structures emerges as clearly in their relation tu special occa­

SiODS as in their isulation : " And there, where many ... later arches stand-at tbe beginning and end of the 8l~t, in the vicini ty of bridges, at the entrance to the forum, at the city limit- there was operative for the ... Rumans a conceptiun of

the sacr ed as boundary or threshold ." Ferdinand Noack , Triumph und Tri­umphbogcn, Warburg Lihrary Lectures, vol. 5 (Leipzig, 1928), pp. 162, 169.

[ca, l)

Aprupos of the bicycle: "Actually une should nut deceive oneself about the real purpose of the fa shion able new mount , which a poet the other day referred to as

the horse of the Apocalypse." L 'lllwtration. June 12, 1869, cited in Vcndredi, October 9, 1936 (Louia Cheronllet, "Le Cuin des vieux"). [C8,2)

Concerning the fire that destruyed the hippodrome: "The gossips uf the dislrict see in this disaster a visitatiun of the wrath of heaven on the guilty spectacle of the velocipedes." ,.£ Gaulois. Octuber 2 (3?). 1869, cited in Vendredi, Octoher 9 , 1936 (Louis Cheronnet , "Le Coin des vieux"). The hippodrume was the site of ladies' bicycle races. [C8,3]

To elucidate Les Myu erc. de I'(lris a nd simila r wurks, Caillois refers to t.he romon noir, in particula r The Myllerie. of Udolpho . on accuunt uf the " prel)onder­

ance of vaults and underground passages." Roger Caillois, " Paris, mythe moderne," Nou velle Revue fraru;ai$e , 25, no. 284 (May I , 1937), p. 686.

IC8,41

"The whole of the rive gauche. aU the way from the Tour de Nesle to the Tombe Issoire ... , is nothing but a hatchway leading from the surface to the depths. And if the modern demolitions reveal the mysteries of the upper world of Paris, per· haps one day the inhabitantll of the Left Bank will awaken IItartled to discover the mysteries below." Alexandre Dumas, Le. Mohicam de Porn . vol. 3 (Paris, 1863).

IC8,S}

"Thill intelligence of Blanqui's,. . thill tactic of silence, this politics of the cata­combs, must have made Barbes hesitate occasionally. as though confronted with

... an unexpected stairway that suddenly gapes and plunges to the cellar in an unfamiliar house." Gustave GeCfroy, L 'Enferme (Paris, 1926), vol. 1. p . 72.

IC8,' }

<Regis) Mes8ac « in Le " Detective Nove' " et l'influence de fa pemu .cientifique [Paris, 1929] ,> p . 4 19) quotes fr om Vidocq's Memoire& (chapter 45): " Paris ill a

spot on the globe, but this spot ill a sewer and the emptying point of all sewers ." [CSa,l }

I.e Panorama (a literary and critical revue appearing five times weekly), in vol­

ume I , number 3 (its last number), February 25, 1840, under the title "Difficult Qyestions": "Will the universe end tomorrow? Or mwt it---enduring for all etemity-see the end of our planet? Or will this planet, which has the honor of bearing us, outlast all the o ther worlds?" Very characteristic that one could write this way in a literary revue. (In the first number, "To Our Readers," it is acknowl­

edged , furthennore , that Le PanOTama was founded to make money.) The

founder was the vaud evillian Hippolyte Lucas. (C8a,2)

Saint who each night led back The entire flock to the fold, dil.igent shepherdess, When the world and Paris come to the end of their term , May you , with a firm step and a light hand , Through the last yard and the Il8t portal, Lead back, through the vault and the folding door, The enti re flock to the right hand of the Father.

Charles Peguy, La Tapinene de Sainte-Genevieve, cited in Marcel Raymond . De Baudelaire au Surreawme (Paris, 1933) , p . 219. 15 [C8a,3}

Di~tru 5t of cloisters and clergy duri.ng the Commune: "Even more than with the incident o( the Rue Picpus, everything possible was done to excite the popular imagination , thanks to the vaults of Saint-Laurent. To the voice ~f the preu was

added publicizing through images . Etienne Carjat photographed the skeletons, ' with the aid of electric light. ' ... After Picpus, after Saint-Laurent, at an interval of some d ays , the Convent of the & sumption and the Church of Notre-Dame-des­Victoirell. A wave of madness overtook the capital. Everywhere people thought they were finding buried vaults and skeletons." Geor ges La ronze, Il i.$ I.oire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris, 1928), p . 370 . [C8a,4}

187 1: "The popular imagination could give itself free reign , and it took every opportunity to do so. There wasn' t ODe civil-service official who did not seek to

expose the method of treachery then in fashion: the subterranean method . In the prison of Saint-Lazare, they searched for the underground passage which was said 10 lead (rom the chapel to Argenteuil-that is, to cross two branches of the Seine

and some ten kilometer s as the crow Ries . At Saint-Sulpice, the passage supposedly abutted the chateau of Versailles." Georges Laronze, Hi.$toire de la Commune de

1871 (Paris , 1928), p . 399. [CSa,S]

"As a matter of fact , men had indeed replaced the prehistoric water. Many centu­ries after it had withdrawn, they had begun a similar overRowing. They had

spread themselves in the same hollows, pushed out in the same directions. It was down there-toward Saint-Merri , the Temple, the Hotel de Ville. toward Les Hailes, the Cemetery of the Innocents , and the Opera, in the placell where water

had found the greatest difficulty escaping, places which had kept oozing with infiltrations, with subterranean streams-that men, too, had most completely

saturated the soil. The most densely populated and busiest qltartier! still lay over

what had once been marsh ." Jules Romain" Les Homme. de bonne volonte. book I , Le 6 octobre (Paris <1932» . p . 191 .hI [C9,l]

Baudelaire and the cemeteries: " Behind the high walls of the houses, toward Mont­

martre, toward Menilmontant, toward Montparnasse. he imagines at dusk the cemeteries of Paris , these three other cities within the larger one--cities smaller in

appearance than the city of the living, which seems to contain them, but in reality how much more populous, with their closely packed little compartments a rranged in tiers under the ground . And in the same places where the crowd circulates

today-the Square des Innocents, for example-he evokes the ancient ossuaries , now leveled or entirely gone, swallowed up in the sea of time with all the.ir dead , like ships that have sunk with aU their crew aboard ." Fra m;:ois Porclle, La Vie

douloureuse de Cha rles Baudelaire, in series entitled Le Roman des Grande! Existences , no. 6 (Paris <1926» , pp. 186-187. [C9,2}

Parallel passage to the ode on the Arc de Triomphe. Humanity is apostrophized:

As for your ci ties, Bah-els of Hlonunumls Where all events clamor aI once, How 8uhslanlial are they? Arche$, lowers, I'yramid!l­I would not be surprised if, in its humid incandescence, The dawn one morning suddenly dissol ved then"

AloDIl with the d~drOIJ8 on ••1It' . nd thyme. And . 1I your nohle dwellin ll'. m. ny-tiered, End up II ~ heap. of I ione and grau Where , ill I.he ~ ullli gh t . the l ubtle Ilet'JJent hisllel.

Victor I-Iugo, w fin de Salan : Dieu (Pari., 1911 ), liP. 475-476 C'Dieu- L'Ange"'). [C9,3]

Leon Daudet on the view of Paris from Sacre Coeur. " From high up you can see thi. population of palaces, monuments, houses, and hovels, which seem to have gathered in ellpectation of some ca taclysm, or of several cataclysm&-meteorologi_ cal, perhaps, or social. ... As a lover of hilltop nnctuaries , which never fail to stimulate my mind and nerves with their bracing harsh wind . I have spent houn on FOllrviereslookjng at Lyons, on Notre-Dame de la Garde looking at Marseilles, on Sacre Coeur looking at Paris . ... And . yes, at a certain moment I heard in myseU something like a tocsin , a strange admonition, and I saw thete three mag­nificent cities . .. threatened with collapse , with devastation by fire and flood, with carnage, with rapid erosion , like foresl8 leveled en bloc. At other tinles , I saw them preyed upon hy a n obscure, subterranean evil, which undermined the monumentl and neighborhoods , ca llsing entire sections of the proudest homes to crumble ..• . From the standpoint of these promontories , what appears most clearly is the men­ace. The agglomeration is menacing; the enormous labor is menacing. For man has need of labor, that is clear, bllt he has other need8 a8 well.... He need8 to isolate himself and to form groups, to cry out and to r evolt , to regain calm and to sub­mit . ... Finally, the need for suicide is in him; and in the 80ciety he form8 , it is stronger than the instinct for seU-preservation. Hence. as one looks out over Paris , Lyolls. or Marseilles, from the heights of Sacre Cocur, the Fourvieres. or Notre-Dame de la Garde, what a8l0unds one is that Paris, Lyons, and Marseillet have endured." Leon Oaudet , Paru uecu , vol. I , Rive droite (Paris <1930), pp.220-221. [e9a,! ]

" In a long !eries of classical writers from Polybius onward , we read of old, re­nowned cities in which the st.reets have bec:ome lines of empty, crunlbling shells, wllere the cattle browse in forum and gymnasium , and tile amphitheater is a 80wn field , dolted with emergent statues and herms. Rome had in the fifth century ofour era the population of a vi llage, but il8 imperial palaces were still habitable. " Oswald Spengler, Le Deciin de I'Occit/enl <traus. M. Tazerout), vol. 2, pI. I (Paris, 1933), p. 151.11 [C9a,2]

o [Boredom, Eternal Return]

Must the SWl therefon: murder all dreams the pale children of my pleasure grounds?' Th~ da~ have grown so still and glowering. SatlSfaruon lures me with nebulous visions while dread makes away with my salvation:"" as though I wen: about to judge my God.

- Jakob van HoddQl

Bon:dom waiu for death.

-Johann Ptter HebeF

Waiting is life.

- VICtOr HuF

Child with its mo~er in th~ panorama. The panorama is presenting the Battle of Sedan. The child finds It all very lovely: "Only it's too bad the sky is so dreary'o"- "That's what the weather is like in war," 'answers the mother. 0 Dio­",",,,

.Thus:, the panoramas too an:: in fundamental complicity with this world of trust, this cloud-world: the light of their images breaks as through curtains ofrain.

[Dl ,l ]

" '1'1 ' P . . liS arts [of Baudelaire's] is very different from the Paris of Verlaine wllich ~ t sdf hus already faded. The olle is somber and rainy, like a Paris on w~ch the ;olllge of Lyons has been superimposed ; the other is whitish and dusty like a pastel J)' Uaphuel. One is 8uffocating, whereas the other is airy, with n: w buildings ~:lI lt cr:d ill II wasteland , and , Ilot far away, a gate leading to withered arbors ."

ra ll\,Ols Porche . La Vie dQulourewe de Charles BalUleLaire (Paris, 1926), p. 119.

[Dl ,2]

Them .. rr r e,: ~arcotwng euect which cosmic forces have on a shallow and brittle

pc sonahty 15 attested in the rdation of such a person [0 one of the highest and mOst geniaJ manifestations of these forces : the weather. Nothing is more c.harac.

terucic than that precisely this most intimate and mysterious affair, the working of the weather on humans, should have become the theme of their emptiest chatter. Nothing bores the ordinary man more than the cosmos. Hence, for him,

j the deepest connection between weather and boredom. How fine the ironic

f overcoming of this attitude in the story of the splenetic Englishman who wakes up onc moming and shoots himself because it is raining. Or Goethe: how he] managed to illuminate the ",,-eather in his meteorological srudies, so that one is tempted [Q say he unclenook this work solely in order to be able to integrate even the weather into his waking, creative life. [01 ,3]

Baude.laire 8 S the poet of Spleen de Paris: " One of the central motielJ of tlli , poetry'" is, in effect . boredom in the fog, ennui and indiscriminate haze (fog of the cities). In a word , it is spleen." Fram;:ois Porche, La Vie douloltreu.se de Charles Baude·

loire (Paris , 1926), p. 184. [01 ,4]

In 1903 , in Paris, Emile Tardieu brought out a book entitled L'Ennui, in which all human activity is sho\'lll to be a vain attempt to escape from boredom, but in which, at the same time, everything that was, is, and will be appears as the inexhaustible nourishment of that feeling. To hear this, you might suppose the work to be a mighty monument of uteratuTe-a monument aere perenniUJ in honor of the taedium vitae of the Romans.' But it is only the sdf-satis6ed shabby scholarship of a new Homais, who reduces all greatness, the heroism of heroes and the asceticism of saints, to documents of his O\'lll spirirually barren, petty­bourgeois discontent. [01 ,5]

"When the French went into Italy to maintain the rights of the throne of France over the duchy of Milan and the kingdom of Naples, they returned home quite amued at the precautions which Italian genius had taken against the excessive heat ; and, in admiration of the arcaded galleries, they strove to imitate them. The rainy climate of Paris. with its celebrated mud and mire , suggested the pillars, which were a marvel in the old days. Here, much la ter on, was the impetus for the Place Royale. A strange thing! It was in keeping with the same motifs that, under Napoleon, the Rue de Rivoli , the Rue de Castiglione, and the famous Rue des Colonnes were constructed." The turban came out of Egypt in this manner as wen . Le Diable a Paru (Paris , 1845), vol. 2, pp . 11- 12 (Balzac, " Ce qu.i disparait de Paris").

How many years separated the war mentioned above from the Na poleonic expe .. dition to ltaly? And where is the Rue des Colonnes located?5 [01 ,6]

"Rainshowers have given birth to <many> advenrures."· Diminishing magical

power of the rain. Mackintosh. [D1 ,11

As dust, rain takes its revenge on the arcades.- Under Louis Philippe, dust settled even on the revolutions. When the young duc d 'O rieans "married the princess of MeckJenburg, a great celebration was held at that famous ballroom where the

first symptoms of the Revolution <of 1830) had broken out. VVhen they came to prepare the room for the festivities of the young couple, the people in charge found it as the Revolution had left it. On the ground could be seen traces of the military banquet-candle ends, broken glasses, champagne corks, trampled cockades of the Gardes du Corps, and ceremoniaJ ribbons of officers from the Aanders regiment." Karl Gutzkow, Briift au; Pam (Leipzig, 1842), vol. 2, p. 87. A historical scene becomes a component of the panopticon. 0 Diorama 0 Dust and

Stifled Perspective 0 [Ola,l ]

"He explains that the Rue Crange..Bateliere is particularly dusty, that one gets terribly grubby in the Rue Reaumur. " Louis Aragon, Le Payson de Paru (Paris. 1926) , p. 88. ' [O la,2]

Plush as dust collector. Mystery of dustmotes playing in the sunlight. Dust and the "best room." "Shottly after 1840, fully padded furniture appears in France, and with it the upholstered style becomes dominant." Max von Bochn, Die Mode im XIX. Jahrhundert, vol. 2 (Munich, 1907), p. 13 1. Other arrangements to stir up dust: the trains of dresses. "The true and proper train has recently come back into vogue, but in order to avoid the nuisance of having it sweep the streets, the wearer is now provided with a small hook and a string so that she can raise and carry the train whenever she goes anywhere." Friedrich Theodor Vtscher, Mode und ..(jnismUJ (Swugan, 1879), p. 12. 0 Dust and Stifled Perspective 0 [Ola,3)

The Calerie du Thermometre and the Calerie du Barometre, in the Passage de (,Opera. [OIa,4]

A feuilletonist of the 18408, writing on the subject of the Parisian weather, has detennined that Corneille spoke only once (in Le CUI) of the stars. and that Racine spoke only once of the S UD . He maintains, further, that stars and Rowers were first discovered for literature hy Chateaubriand in America and thence transplanted to Puis. See Victor Mery, "Le Climat de Paris," in Le Diable a Paru <vol. I (Paris, 1845), p. 245>. [OIa,5)

Concerning some lascivious pictures: " It is no longer the fan that 's the thing, but the umbreUa-invention worthy of the epoch of the king's national guard. The umbrella ellcouraging amorous fantasies! The umbrella furnishing discreet cover. The canopy, the roof, over Robinson 's island. " John Crand..Carteret , Le Decolleleet fe relrou.ue (Paris ( 1910» , vol. 2, p. 56. [Dla,6]

"0 Il ly here," Chirico once said . " is it possible to paint. The streets have such gradations of gray .. . . " [D1a,7]

1'he Parisian atmosphere reminds Caruss of the wa y the Neapolitan coastline looks when the sirocco blows. CD Ia,8J

i

Only someone who has grown up in the hig city can appreciate its rainy weather, which a1together slyly sets onc dreaming back to early childhood. Rain makes

j everything more hidden, makes days not only gray hut unifonn. From morning until evening, one can do the: same thing-play chess, read, engage in argu­ment-whereas sunshine, by contrast, shades the hours and discountenances the dreamer. The latter, therefore, must get around the days of sun with subter·] fuges-above all, must rue quite early, like the great idlers, the waterfront loafers and the vagabonds: the dreamer must be up bd'ore the sun itself. In ~e "Ode ~ Blessed Morning," which some yean past he sent to Enuny Henrungs. Ferdi­nand Hardekopf, the only authentic decadent that Germany has produced, confides to the dreamer the best precautions to be taken for surmy clays.'

[Ola,9] " ""0 give to Ihis dust a semblance of consistency, as by 80aking it in blood .... Loui, Veuillot , Le, Odeltrs de Paru (Paris. 1914), p. 12. [Ola,10)

Other European cities admit colonnades into their urban perspective, Berlin setting the style with its city gates. Particularly characte!is:tic is the Ha?e Gate­unforgettable for me on a blue picture postcard represen~g Belle-~ce ~tz by night. The card was tranSparent, and when you held It up to the light, all Its

windows were illuminated with the very same glow that came from the full moon up in the sky. [02,1]

" The buildings cOllstructed for the new Paris revive aU the styles. The ellsemble it not lacking in a certain unity, however, because all the styles belong to the category of the tedious-in fact , the most tedious of the tedious, which is the emphatic and

the aligned. Line up! Eye,jronr! It seenu that the Amphion orthis city is a corpo­ral. ... I He moves great quantities of things---ehowy,stately, coloual-and aU of them are tetlious. He moves other things, extremely ugly; they too are tedious. I The8e great 8treetl, thesc great quayli , theae great boules , thele great sewen, their

physiognomy l)I)Orly copied or poorly dreamed-aU h ave an indefinable 10methill5 indicative of unexpected and irregular fortune . They exude tedium." Veuillot , Le. Oc/eur! de Paris <Paril, 1914~ , p . 9. 0 Haussmann 0 [02,2]

Pelletan describes a vilit wilh a king of the Stock Exch ange, a multimillionaire: "As I cntered the courtyard of the house, a squad of grooms in red veets were

occupied in ruhhing down a half dozen English horses. I ascended a marble I lair· case hung with a giant gilded chandelier, and ellcountered ill the vestibule a major· domo with white cravat allli plump calves. He led me into a large glass-roofed galler y whOle wall l were decorated entir ely with camellia li alld hotilOuse plants. Something like l uppresscd boredom lay in the air; at the very first step . ~ou breathe.l a vapor as of opi um . I then passed between two rows of pcr che8 011 wluch parak(..'Cts from va rious countrie8 were roosting. They were red , blue, green, gr ay. yellow. a nti white; but all seemed to suffer from homesickneu. At the extreme en.d of the !;allery stood a Imall table oPpolite a Re.llaislance--style fireplace. for at thil

IlOur the master o£ the house took hil breakfa&1. ... After I had waited a quarter of an hour, he. deigned to appear.... He yawned , looked sleepy, and seemed continually on the point of nuddin!; off; he walked like a somnambulis t. H is fatigue had infe<: led the wali ll of his mansion . The parakeeu stood out like his separate thoughl$ . each one materialized and attached to a pole .... " 0 Interior 0 <Juliua> Hodenberg, Paru bei Sonneruchein unci wmpenJichr (Leipzig, 1867), pp . 104­

105. (02,3]

Feles frant;aises, au Puris en miniatur e <French Festivities. or Paril in Mini­atu re>: IJrOOuced by Rougcmont and Gentil a t the Theatr e del Varietes. The plot

lias to do with the marriage of Napoleon Ito Marie--Louile, and the convcraation, at this point, concerns the planned fe8tivities. ""Nevertheless," lI&yll one of the characters. " the weather iii rather uncertain."-Reply: ""My friend , you may r est

assured that this day ia lhe choice of our sovereign ." He then strike8 up a song that

begills:

At his lJiercing glance, doubt not­The future is revealed; And when good weather i8 required . We look to his star.

Cited in Theodore MUTet , L 'Histoire par le theatre, 1789-1851 (Paris, 1865), vol.

I , p. 262. [02,4]

"'This d ull , glib ladness called ennw." Lowl Veuillot , U8 Odeurs de Paris (Paris, 1914), p. 177. [02.5]

""Along with every outfit go a few accessorie8 which show it off to best effect-that iii to say, which cost loti of money beeaule they are so quickly ruined, in particular by e,·cry downpour." This apropOI of the top hat. 0 Fuhion 0 F. Th. Viacher,

Ve rniinftige Gedunken iiber di/? j etzige Mode (in Krituche Gange, new leriee. no. 3 (Stuttgart , 1861», p . 124. [02,6]

\~ are bored when we don't know what we are waiting fOT.lbat we do know, OT think we know, is nearly always the expression of our superficiality or inatten­tion. Boredom is the threshold to great deeds.-Now, it wou1d be important to know: What is the dialectical antithesis to boredom? [02,7]

The quite humorous book by Emile Tardieu, L'Ennui (Paris, 1903), whose main thesis is that life is purposeless and groundless and that all striving after happi­ness and equanimity is futile, names the weather as one among many factors Supposedly causing boredom.-lbis work can be considered a son of breviary for the no,'entieth century. [02.8]

Boredom is a warm gray fabric lined. on the inside with the most lustrous and colorfu1 of silks. In this fabric we wrap ourselves when we: dream. \>\t are at

home then in the arabesques of its lining. But the sleeper looks bort:d and gray within his sheath. And when he later wakes and wants lO [ell of what he- dreamed, he communicates by and large only this boredom. For who would be

j able at one stroke to tum the lining of time to the outside? Yet to narrate dreams

1 signifies nothing else. And in no other way can onc deal with the arcades-struc­tures in which we relive, as in a dream, the life of our parents and grandparents, as the embryo in the womb relives the life of animals. Existence in these spaces

! Bows then without accent, like the events in dreams. F'linerie is the rhythmics of this slumber. In 1839, a rage for tortoises overcame Paris. One can ",'dl imagine the elegant set mimicking the pace of this crearurt: mort: easily in the arcades than

II on the boulevards. oFlineur 0 [02a,11

Boredom is always the extema1 surface: of unconscious events. For this reason, it has appeared to the great dandies as a mark of distinction. Ornament and boredom. (0231,2]

On the double meaning of the term Irnps'~ in French. [02a,31

Factory lahor as economic infrastructure of the ideological boredom of the up­per classes. "The miserable routine of endless drudgery and toil in which the same mechanical process is repeated over and over again is like the labor of Sisyphus. The burden of labor, like the rock, always keeps falling back on the worn-out laborer." Friedrich Engels, Die Lage der arbritrnden K/asse in England <2nd ed. (Leipzig, 1848) ~, p. 217; cited in Marx, Kapitai (Hamburg, 1922), vol. 1, p. 388. l! [02a,4]

The feeling of an "inrurable imperfection in the very essence of the present" (see Les PltJiJirs tiles jours, cited in Gide's homage)12 was perhaps, for Proust, the main motive for getting to know fashionable society in its innermost recesses, and it is an underlying motive perhaps for the social gatherings of all human beings. [02a,5]

On the salons: "All faces evinced the unmistakable traces of boredom, and conyer· sations were in general scarce. quiet , and serious. Most of these people viewed dancing al drudgery. to which you had to submit becaule it was SUPI)osed to be good fonn to dance." Further on, the proposition that " no other city in Europe, perhaps, dilplays such a dearth of satisfied . cheerful. lively faces at its soirees as Paris does in its salons .... Moreover, in no other society so much as in this one, and by reaSOIl of fashion no lell than real cOllviction, is the unbearable boredom so roundly lamented." "A natural consequence of this is that social affairs are marked by silence and reserve. of a 80rt that at larger galherinp in other citiel would 01 0&1 certainly be the exception ." Ferdin and von Gall. Paris Iltul seine Salons, vol. I (Oldenburg, 1844), PI" 151- 153. 158. [02a,6)

The following lines provide an occasion for meditating on tiinepieces in apart­ments : .. A certain blitheness, a casual and even careless regard for the hun:ying

time, an indifferent expendirure of the all too quickly passing hours-these are qualities that favor the superficial salon life," Ferdinand von Gall, Paris und seine Salotu, vol. 2 (Oldenburg, 1845), p. 171. [02a,71

Boredom of the ceremonial scenes de:picte:d in historical paintings, and the: dolce far nirote of battle scenes with all that dwells in the smoke of gunpowde:r. From the imagts d'Epi1lai to Manet's E-ctcution 0/Emperor Maximilian, it is always the same-and always a new- fata morgana, always the smoke in which Mogreby <?, or the: genie: from the bottle suddenly emerges before the dreaming, absent­minded art lover. 0Dream House, Museums 0'-' (D2a,8)

Chess playen at the Cafe de la Regence: " It was there that clever playe" could be secn playing with their backs to the chessboard. It WaR enough (or them to hear the name of the piece moved by their opponent at each turn to be assured ofwiomng." IlisloirJJ des cafes de Paris (Paris. 1857), p. 87. [02a,9]

" In SUIII , clastic urban art , after presenting its masterpieces, fell into decrepitude at the time of the philosophes and the constructors of Iyatems. The end of the eightccnth century saw the birth of innumerable projects; the Commiuion of Art· isu brought them illlo accord with a body of doctrine. and the Empire adapted them "1thout creative originality. The fl exible and animated classical style waa succeeded by the systematic and rigid pseudoclauical style .... The Are de Tri· omphe echoes the gate of Louis XIV; the Vendome column is copied from Rome; the Church of the Madeleine, the Stock Exchange, the Palais-Bourbon are so many Greco·Roman temples." Lucien Dubech and Pierre d ' Espezel, Histoire ~ Pari., (Paris. 1926). p. 345. 0 Interior 0 [03 ,1)

"The First Empire copied the triumphal arches and monuments of the two clau i· cal centuries. Then there was an attempt to revive and reinvent more remote models: the Second Empire imitated the Renaiuanee. the Cothic, the Pompeian. After this came an epoch of vulgarity without style." Dubech and d'Espezel, His· loire de Pari., Waris, 1926), I) ' 464. 0 Interior 0 [03,2)

Announcement for a book by Benjamin Gastineau, La Vie en chemin defer <Life 011 the Railroad): " La Vie en chemin de f er is an entra ll cin~ prose poem. It is an epic of modern life. alway, fiery and turbulent , a I)anorama of gaiety and tears Ilassillg before us like the dust of the rails hefore the windows of the coach:' By LJclljamin Castilleau, Puri., en rose (Paris. 1866), p. 4. [03,3)

Rather than pass the time, one: mUSt invite it in. To pass the time (to kill time, expel it): the gambler. Tune: spills from his every pore.-To store time as a battery stores energy: the 8:ineur. Ftnally, the third type: he who waits. He: takes ill the time and renders it up in altered form-that of expectation. IO [03,4)

"This recently {Iepoll ited Iimellton~the bed 011 which PMri8 rests-readily crum­hlcs illto a dll ~ t which, like MU limestone dust , is very pMinful to the eyes and lungs.

A little rain doe. nothing at . u to help, aince it i. immediately absorbed a llli the peii. They have had to be exhumed with the help of a hrush . if not a pickaxe."

J l urtace left dry once again .... " Here ia the aource of the unprel)0!J8C88ing b leachedgray of the houIes, which a re aU buill from the brittle limestone mined lIt:ar Paris;

H. de Pene. Pari&intime (Paris , 1859), p . 320. [03a,5]here, too. the oripn of the dun-colored B1ate roof. tha i blacken wilh 800t over the

1 yean, &8 well a8 the high . wide chimneys which deface even the public huild­

"Thc introduction of the Macad am ~ys tem for p aving the houleva rds gave rillc toings•... and which in some districb of the old city stand 80 close together thai

uunlerOU li caricatures. Cham shows the Pa risians blinded hy dust, aud he pro­

f they almost block the view entirely." J . F. Bell~enberg. Briefe g€achrieben (Ill!

poses to erect ... a statue with the inscript ion : ' In recognition of Macadam , from einer Reile nach Paru (Dortmund . 1805). vol. 1, pp . 112, Ill . [03,5]

the grateful oculists and opticians.' Others represent IJede8trians 1II0Uuted onstilts traver sing marshes and bogs." Pori&.fOU& la Republique de 1848: Expo.fition(Ie It I"Engeb told me that it was in Paria in 1848, at the Cafe de I. Regcnee (one of the

Bibliotheque et des Tra t)(lUX hi.f toriques de la Ville de Paris (1909) [Poete, earliest centers of the Revolution of 1789), that Ma rx first laid out for him the

Beaurepaire. Clouzot , Henriot], p . 25. [03a,6]'" ec!ononUc determinism of his materialist theory of histor y. " Paul Lafa rgue, "Only England could have produced d andyism. France is as incapable of it as its" Personliche Erinnerungen an Friedrich E ngels," Die neue Zeit , 23, no. 2(Stuttgart , 1905). p . 558.

neighhor is incapahle of anything like our ... liont . who are as eager to plealle as[03,6] the daudiel are d isdainful of pleating.... D'Orsay ... was naturally and pasllion­ately pleasing to everyone, even to men , whereas the dandies plcased only inBoredom-as index to participation in the sleep of the coUective. Is this the displeasing.... Between the lion and the dandy lies an ahyn. But how muchreason it seems distinguished, so that the dandy makes a show of it? [03,7] wider the ahYlis between the dandy and the fop!" Larou8se, ~Gr(lfld Dictionnoireuni~r.fe/le> du dix-neuv;eme siecle<, vol. 6 (Paris. 1870), p . 63 (article on theIn 1757 ther e were only three cafes in Paris. [03., I} dand y». [04,1]

Maxims of Empire p ainting: " The new a rtists accept only ' the heroic style, the In Ihe second-to-Iast chapter of his book Poru: From Iu Origin& to the Year 3000sublime, ' and the sublime is attained only with ' the nude and drapery. ' ... Paint­ (Paris, 1886), Leo Claretie spea ks of a crystal canopy that would slide over the cilyers are IUpposed to find their inspiration in Plutarch or Homer, Uvy or Virgil, in case of rain. " In 1987" is the title of this chapter. [04,2]a nd , in keeping with David', r ecommendation to Gros, are supposed 10 choose ...'subjects known to everyone.' ... Subjects taken from conlemporary life were, With reference to Chodruc-Dudos : "~ are haunted by what was perhaps thebecause of the clothing styles. unwortby of 'great a rt .'" A. Malet a nd P. Grillet , remains of some rugged o ld citizen of H erculaneum who, having escaped &omXIX' &iede (Paris, 19 19), p . 158. 0 Fashion 0 his underground ~d,[03a,2) rerumed to walk again amo ng us, riddled by the thousand

furies of the volcano, living in the midst o f death." Mimoiw de Chodruc-Dudos," Happy the man who is an observer ! Boredom , for him , is a l'I'ord d evoid of

ro.]. Ango and Edouanl GoWn (Paris, 1843), vol. I , p. 6 (pmace). The firstsense." Victor Fournel, Ce qu 'on voit dan! leI rue! de Paris (Paris, 1858) , p . 27 1.

Bineur amo ng the dic/a.s;iJ. [04,3] [03a,3]

The world in which one is bored-"So wha l if onc is bored! What inftucnce can itBoredom ~gan to ~ experienced in epidemic proportions during the 18405.

possibly ha" e?" " What influence! . .. What influence, boredom, with us? But anLamartine is said to be the first to h ave given expressio n to the malady. It plays a

enormous influence• ... a decis ive influence! For eunui, you St.'e. the Frenchman role in a litde Story abou t the famous comic Deburau. A distinguished Paris has a horror verging on veneration . Ennui , in his eyes. is a lerrihle god with aneurologist was consu1ted one day by a patient whom h e had not seen before.

devoted cult following . It is only in the grip of horedom tll al Ihe Frenchmall can he The patient complained of the typical illness of the times-weariness with life,

serious. " Edouard PaiUcron , Le Moncle ou I'on .f'ennuie (1881). Act I , scene 2; indeep depressions, boredom. "There's no thing wrong with you," said the d octor

'>ailleron , T heatre complet. vol. 3 (paris <19 1h ), p . 279. [04,4]after a thorough examination. just try to relax-find something to entertainyou . Go see Deburau some evening, and life will look different to you." "Ah, dear

Miclu:.let ';offers a description , fu ll of inteUigence and coml)assion, of the condition sir," answered dle patient, "I am Deburau." [03a.4)

of Ihe fi rs t specialized ractory ...·orkers around I&W. There ....e re 'true heUs ofhoredom' in the spinlling and weaving mills: ' E ller. eller, ever. is the ullvarying

Heturn from the Course! de la Marche: " The dust cxc(.oede(1all expectutiolili. The "'·onl tlullulering in your ears fro m the automatic CtluipmCllt which ~hukes cven

d egant folk hack from the r aces a re virtually encrustetl; they remilltl you of Porn-tile floor. One can nevcr get used to it .' Often the remarks of Michelet (for exam­ple, 011 reverie and the rh ythms of {lifferent occupationlJ) anticipate, 0 11 all ill lui­

live level, the experimentul analyses of modern psychologists. tt Georges Fried.

111111111 . La Crise dll progri!1l (Pa ri, (1936» , p . 244; quotation from Michelet . Le Pel/pie (paril> . 1846), p . 83 .1S [04,5]

j

f Faire droguer, ill the k nsc of fuire attendre. "to keep waiting," belongs to the argot oC tbe amlie8 of the Revolution and of the Empire. According to <Ferdinand> ] Bnlllol , Iliatoire de 10 lc,"sue/ram;aue, vol. 9, La Revolution et l'Empire (Pans . 1937) <po 997). [04,6]

Pn"';! ian Life: "The eonlellll)orary scelle ill preserved, like a lp4!(:imen under glass, in II leiter of ~ommendation to Melella given by Baron Stanislas de Fraseala to" his friend Baron Condremarek. The writer, tied to the 'cold country' in which he live" sighli for the champagne supper! , MeteOa', sky-blue boudoir, the longs. the glamor of Paris . the gay and glittering city. throbbing with warmth a nd life, in

~'hlch differences of sta tion are abolished . Metella reads the le tter to the strains or

Offenbach 's music, which surrounds it with a yearning melancholy, as thou~

Paris were paradise lost , and at the same time with a halo of bliu as though it were

the paradise to come; and . as the action continues, one is given the impression that

the picture given in the leiter is beginning to come to life." S. Kracauer, Jacques

OffenbClch und dos Poru seiner Zeit (Amsterdam, 1937), pp. 348-349.1~

[04.,1]

"' Romanticism end!! in a theory or boredom, the characteristically modern 8e.Dti­

ment; that is, it ends in a theory of l)Ower, or at least of energy .... Romanticism,

in effect , marks the recognition by the individual of a bundle of instincts which

society has a strong interest in repressing; but, for the most part, it manifeslll the

abdication of the s truggle .. . . The Romantic writer ... turns toward ... a poetry

of refuge and escape. The effort of Balzac and of Baudelaire is exactly the reverse

uf llus and tends to integrate into life the postulates which the Romantica were

resigned to working with only on the level of art . ... Their effort is tbuslinked to

the myth according to which imagination plays an ever-increasing role in life. tt

Hoger Caillois, " Paris. mythe moderne," Nouvelle Revue/ramiaue. 25, no . 284 (May I , 1937), pp. 695,697. [04a,2]

1839: " France is bornd" (Lamartine). [04a,3]

Butltlclaire in his essay on G uys: " Dandyism is a mysterious institution , no less

peculiar than the duel. It is of great antiquity, Caesar, Catilille, and Alcibiades

provitling us with dazzling examples; and very widespread . Chateaubriand having

found it in the forests and by the lakes of the New World ." Baudelairn , L'Art rolllontilille (Paris). p. 91 .17 (04a,4]

Tim GUYBchapter in L 'A rt romtuuique. 011 dalldieij: " They a re all repre~entatives ... o( Iha l compelling 1It.'etI , ala~ only 100 rare loday. for comhating and destroying t.rivialit y .... DUlldyism j ij Ihe las l spurk of heroism amid tlecadence; a nd the type o( dandy tli3coveretJ hy our Iraveler ill North America doe~ nothing to invali~ate

thiij idea; for how call we be ~ure thallhose tribes which we call 'savage' may not in

fact be the ciisjecf(J membra of greal extinci civilillations? ... It is hardly neces­sary to say thai when MOlls ieur G. sketches one of his dandies on paper, he never

(a iJs 10 give him his his torical personality- his legendary penonality, I would

" ell tllre to say, if we were nol speaking of the present time and of things generally

cIHlsitiered frivolous. " Baudelaire, L'Ar' romontiqlle, vol. 3, ed. Hachette (Pa ris).

pp.94-95. 11 [05,1]

Baudelaire describes lhe impression that the consummate dandy must convey: "A rich man. perhaps, but more likely an out-of-work Hercules!" Baudelaire, L'Art romolltique (Paris), p . 96. 19 [05,2]

In the essay on Guys, the crowd appears as the supreme remedy (or boredom:

"'Any man ,' he said Olle d ay, in the course of one of those conversations which he

illumines with burning glance and evocative gesture, 'any man ... who can yet be bored in ,he heart 0/ the multitude is a blockhead! A blockhead! And I despise

him!" Baudelaire , L 'Art romantique, p . 6S.zo [05,3]

Among all the subjects first marked out for lyric expression by Baudelaire. one can ~ put at the forefront: bad weather. [05,4]

As auributed to a certain " Carlin," the well-known anecdote about Deburau (the

actor affli cted with boredom) forms the pi~e de resistance of the versified Ewge de l'ertnui <EnconuulII to Boredom>, by Charles Boissiere. of the Philotechnical Soci­ety (Paris. 1860).-"Carlin" is the name of a breed of dog!; it cornel from the fint

name of an Italian actor who played Harlequin . [OS,S]

" Monotony feeds on the new." J ean Vaudal, Le Tableau flair; cited in E. Jaloux,

" L' Esprit des livres ," Nouvelles fitteroires, November 20, 1937. [05,6)

Counterpan to Blanqui's view of the world : the universe is a site of lingering catastrophes. [05,1]

On L'E/t:TTIi/i par Ie; astm: Blanqui, who, on the threshold of the grave, recog· nizes the Fan du Taureau as his last piau of captivity, writes this book in order to opcn new doors in his dungeon. [05a,1]

On L'E/ernili par Ie; astres: Blanqui yields to bourgeois society. But he's brought to his k.nces with such force that the throne begins to totter. [05a,2]

On L'Eternili par I~$ as/m: The people of the nineteenth u ntury see the stars against a sky which is spread out in this text. [05a.3]

It may be that the figure of Blanqui surfaces in the "Litanies ofSatan": "You who give the outlaw that serene and hauglllY look" (~Bauddaire, Ckuure;, ) cd. Le

1 II

Dantec, (VOl. 1 [Paris, 1931],) p. 138).21 In point of fact, Baudelaitt did a drawing from memory that shows the head ofBlanqui. (05a,4]

J To grasp the significance of nouue4uti, it is necessary to go back to novelty in everyday life. Why does everyone share the newest thing with someone else? Preswnably, in order to triumph over the dead. This only where there is nothing really new. (05a,5]

Blanqui's last work, l'Iritten during his last imprisonment, has remained en· tirely lUlIloticed up to now, so far as I can 5«. It is a cosmological speculation. !,. Granted it appears, in its opening pages, taSteless and banal. But the awkward deliberations of the autodidact are merely the prelude to a speculation that only this revolutionary could develop. ~ may call it theological, insofar as hell is a subject of theology. In fact, the cosmic vision of the world which Blanqui lays out, taking his data from the mechanistic natural science of bourgeois society, is an infernal vision. AI. the same time, it is a complement of the society to which Bianqui, in his old age, was forced to concede victory. What is so unsettling is that the presentation is entirely lacking in irony. It is an unconditional surTeIlder, but it is simultaneously the most terrible indictment of a society that projects this image of the cosmos-understood as an image of itself-across the heavens. With its trenchant style, this work displays the most remarkable similarities both to Baudelaire and to Nietzsche. (Letter of January 6, 1938, to H orkheimer.):1:2

[DS••6]

From B1anqw'e L 'Etemite por le, MIre,; " Wha t man does not find him8elf 8ome­

times faced with two opposing courses? The one he dec!line8 would make for a far different life, while leaving him hi8 particular individuality. One lead8 to mieery.

shame, servitude; the other, to glory a nd liberty. Here, a lovely woman and happi­ness ; thcre. fury and desolation. I am 8peaking now for both sexe8. Take your

chances or your cboice---it makes no difference. for you will not e8cape your destiny. But destiny finds no footing in infinity, which knows no altcrnative and makes room for everything. There exists a world where a man follows the road that , in the other world , his double did not take. His existence divides in two. a

globe for each ; it bifurcates a 8ccond time, a third time, thOllsallds of times. He thus possesses fuDy formed doubles with innumerable variants, which , in multi­plying, always represent him a8 a person but capture only fragments of his destiny. All that one might have been in this world , one i8 in another. Along with one',

entire exis tence from birth to death , experienced in a multitude ofplaccs, olle also lives, in yet other places, ten thousand different vcrsions of it. " Cit(.'(1 in Guslave

Gcffroy, L 'Enfernle (Paris. 1897), p . 399. [06,1]

From I.he conclusion of L 'Eter-nile par les astre,; " Wltat I write allhis mOJIIClit in a cell of the Fort flu Taureau I have written aud sha ll write tltroughout all eter ­nity- al a tahle, with a pen, clothed as I am now, ill circuJIIs tances like thcse." Ciled in Gustave Geffroy. L 'Enfernle (Paris. 1897). p . 401. Right after·this . Gef­

froy writes: " lie thus inscribes hi8 fal e, at each instant of ils duration , acron t.he numberless s ta r8. His prison cell is multiplied to infinity. Throughout the enUre

. h•.,. the same conftned lIIau thai he is on this earth , ,.';th his rebellious uJUvene. strength and his freedolll of thought ." [D6,2]

f rolll the conclusion of L 'Eternile par les «stres: " At the prC8ent time, the elltire J life of our planet , from birth to death. with all its crimes and miseries, is being Ii" ed partly here and partly there, day by d ay, on myriad kindred planets. What [",'e call 'progress' is confined to each particular world , and vanishes with it. AI· ways and everywhere in the terrestrial arena . the same drama, the same setting,

on the same !Iarrow slage---a noisy humauity infatuated with its own grandeur, r believing itself to be the univer se and living in its prison as though in 80me im­

mense realm , only to founder at an early date along with its globe . which has borne with tleel)est disdain . the burden of human arrogance. The same monotony, the same immobility, on other heavenly bodies. The universe repeats itself endlessly and paws the ground in place." Citcd in Gustave Geffroy, L'EfI/ernie (Paris,

1891), p. 402 . [D6a,l ]

Blanqui expre88ly emphasizes the 8cientific character of his theses, which would have nOlhin~ to do with Fourierist frivolities . " One must concede that each par­

ticular combination of materials and people 'is bound to be repeatcd thousands of times in order to satisfy the demand8 of infinity.'" Cited in Geffroy, L'Enferme

(Paris, 1897) . 1). 400. [D6a,2]

B1amlui'8 misanthropy: "The variation8 l)egLn with those living creatures that havc a will of their own , or something like caprices. As soon as human beillg, ellter

the scene, imagination enten with them. It is not as though they have much effect on the planet .... T heir turbulent activity never seriou sly disturbs the natural

progre88ion of physical phenomena . though it disrupts humanity. It is therefore advisable to a nticipate this subversive inftuenee, which ... tean apart nations ami b rings down empires. Certainly these brutalities run their course without

even scratching the terrestrial surface. The disappea r ance of the disruptors would leave no trace of their self-styled sovereign presence, and would suffice to return natu re to its virtually unmolesled virginity." B1amlui , L'Eternite <par les (IStres

(Paris , 1872)), pp . 63-64. [06a,3]

Final chapter (8, " Resume") of Bl allllui's L'Eternite par les (I, tres; "The entire

uni\·crse is composcd of astral systcms. To create them, natu.re has only a hundred sim,/Ie bodies at its rusposal. Despite the great adva ntagc it d erives from these resources , and the innumerable combinations that these resources affonl its fe­cundity, thc result is ne<:e88arily afinire number. like that of the d cments them­sch ·es; and in order to fill its expanse, nature must repea t to infinity each of ill origillal combinations or types . I Su cach heavenly bod y, whatever it might bc, ex.i8ts ill infinite number in time and space. not olily in olle of ill aspe<:ts b ut a8 it is al ellch 8e<:ond of its exi8tente. from birth to death. All the beillgs distributed

acrou it ~ ~urface. wllether large or smaU , living or inanimate. share the privilege of thi~ perpetuity. I The ea rth i ~ one of these heavenly bodies. Every huma n being is thus eternal at every seeo",1 of hi.s or her existence. What I write at this moment

j in a cdl of the Fort du Taureau I have written and shaU write throughout aU

j

eternity-at a table. with a pen , clothed as I am now. in circumstances like these. And thus it is for ever yone. I All worlds are engulfed . one after another, in the] revivifying fl ames, to be reborn from them and consumed by them once more-.

monotonous fl ow of an hourglass that etem ally empties and turns itaelf over. The uew ia alwaya oM, aud the old alwaya new. I Yet won ' t those who are intere8led in extraterrC8trial life Bmile at a mathematical deduction which accorda them nOI .. only immortality but eternity? The number of our doubleB ia infinite in time and alJau. One cannot in good conscience demand anything more. TheM! doublet! erilt

in flesh and bone--indeed, in troUBenl and jacket , in crinoline and chignon. They are by no mealls phantollls; they are the present eternalized . I Here. nonetheless, lies a great drawback: there ia no progress, alas, but merely vulgar revisiona and

reprin18. Such a re the exemplanl, the ostenaible ' original editions,' o( all the worlds ,)ast and all the worlds to come. Only the chapter on bifurcation. is still

OIJeIl to hOIJe. Let us 1I0t Corget: all that one might have been in thia world, one it in anotller. I In this world . progress is (or our descendanta alone. They will have

more of a chauce than we did . All the beautiful thingB ever seen on our world have, oC course, already been seen- are being seen at this instant and will always be seen- by our descendanta, and by their doubles who have preceded and will (01­

low them . Scions o( a finer humanity, they have already mocked and reviled our existence on dead world8, while overtaking and succeeding ua . They continue to

scorn us on the living world8 from which we have disappeared . and their contempt for us will have no end on the worlds to come. I They and we. and . U the inhabi­tants of Ollr planet , are reborn prisoners o( the momeot and o( the place to which

dcstiny haa auigned us in the series of Earth's avatara. Our continued life depend.

on that ohhe planet. We are merely phenomena that are ancillary to ita reflurree­tions. Men of the nineteenth century, the hour of our apparitions is fixed fo~ver,

and always brings U8 back the very 8ame ODCS, or at m08t with a prospect o(

felicitoua varianu . There ia nothing here that will much gratify the yearni.ng (or improvement . What to do? I have sought not at aU my pleasure . but only the truth.

Here there is neither revelation nor prophecy, but rather a simple deduction on t.he basis of spectra l a nalysis and Laplacian cosmogony. These two di8coveries make us eternal. Is it a windfaU? Let li S profit from it. Is it a mystification? Let us

resign ourselves to it . I. . I At bottom , this eternity of the human being among the star s is a melancholy thing, and this sequestering of kindred worlds by the inexorable ha rrier oC space is even more sad. So many identical populations pas! away without 8uspccting one a llother 's exis tence! But no--this has finally been di~eovered, in the nineteenth century. Yet who is inclined to believe it? I Until now, the past has . for us, meant barharism, whereas the Cuture has signified pro­gre~8. ~ rie" ct'. happincs8, illu sion! This past. on all our counterpa rt worlds. has seen the 111081 hrilliant civilililations disappear without leaving a trace. and they will continue 10 lliJlII IJIl'ea r without leaving a trace. The future will wit.Aen yet again . on billiolls of world., the iplOrance, folly, and cruelty of our bygone eras! I At the

present time, the entire life of our planet , from birt.h to death. with all ita crimes and miseries, is heillg lived partly here and partly there. tlay b y d ay, on myriad kindred planets . What we call 'progreu' is confinetilO each particular world , and "anishes with it. Always and e\'cr ywlU!re in the terrestrial a rena , the same drama, t.he same setting, on the sa llie narrow stag~a noisy humanity infatuated with iu own grandeur, believing itself to be the univerBe and living in its prison as though in SOlin: immense rea lm , only to (ounder a t an ea rly d ate along with its pohe, which has borne with deelM!8 t disdain the burden of human a rrogance. The same monot­ony, the Jlame immobility, on other heavenly bodies . The universe repeats itself endlessly and (laws the ground ill place. In inflDity, eternity performs--imper_

turbably- the same routine8." Auguste B1allllui , L 'Eternite par ies (J$tres: Hy­por/l~e a5tronomique (Paria. 1872). pp. 73-76. The elided paragraph dweUs on the "consolation" afforded by the idea that the doublea of 10'·00 ones departed

from Earth are at this very hour keel'ing our own doubles company on a nother

planet. [D7; D7a)

" Let us think this thought in its most terrible form: e,ustence as it is, without

·meaning or aim, yet recurring iuevitably without any fmale into nothingness: the eterrlal retllm [po 45].... We deny end goals: if existence had one , it would have

to have been reaehed ." Friedrich Nietzsche. Ce$ammelte Werke (Mullich (1926» , vol. 18 (Ti, e Will to Power, book I). p. 46 .Z3 [D8,I)

"The doctri.ne of eternal recurrence would have scholarly presuppositions." Nietzsche. Ge5ammelte Werke (Munich). vol. 18 (The Will to Power, book 1), 1' . 49.ZI [D8,2)

"The old habit , however, of Buociating a goal with every e,·ent ... is 80 powerful that it ret:luircs an effort for B thinker lIot to CaU into thinking oC the very aimless­

lIess of the world a8 intended . Thi8 notion- that the world intentionally a voids a goal ...- lIlust occur to all those who would like to force on the world the capacity for eternCii novelty (p . 369).... The wo rld , as for ce, may Dot be thought of 8S

II l1linuted , for it camlOI be 80 thought of. ... Thus--the world also lacks the capacity for eternal novelty. '" Nietzsche. Gesammelte Werke. vol. 19 (The WiU to /)o,,;er, hook 4). 1'. 370.15 [D8,31

'·The ....orld ... lives 011 itself: its cxcr emcnts are it ~ nourishment. " Nietzsche. Cesulllmelte Werke , vol. 19 (Ti,e Will 10 Power. book 4), 1'. 37 1.:'; [D8,4)

T he ....orld " witllG!!t gou l, unless the joy of the circle is itst:lf a goal; without will. unless a rillg fl!i! ls good willluwartl it ~e1f. " NiclzllcI,e. Cesammelte Werl.-e. vol. 19 (The Will to I'ower, hook 4), p . 374.2: [D8,5)

On eternltl recurrCllce: " The great tlmught II~ II Metlusa heatl: all fea lure~ of the ""orltl become lIlotjonlesH. II frozen deu ll, throe. -- Frietlrich Nietzsche, GestUFlmelle if'erke (M unich ( 1925», vol. 14 (Unpllbfislled PCI/Jers_ 1882-/ 888), p. 188.

!DB,. ]

I

"We have created the weightiest thought- now let '" creote the being for whom it is light and piell.sillg! " Nietzsche, Ge80 mmelte Werke (Mullich). vol. I" (U'lpub­lished Poper8. 1882_1888j, p . 179. [08,7J

j Analogy between Engels and Blanqui : each turned to the natural sciences late in

] lifo. (D8,8)

"If the world mlly be thought of as a certain definite qu antity of force and a& a certain defmite number of centers of force--and every other representation re­mains ... weleu-it follows that, in the great dice game of existence, it must pas8 .. through a calculable number of combinations. In infinite time, every possible combination would at some time or another be realized ; more: it would be realized an infinite number of times. And since between every combination and its next recurrence aU othcr p088ible comhinations would have to take place, ... a circu­lar movement of ab80lutely identical series is thus demonstrated.... This concep­tion is not simply a mechanistic conception; for if it were that , it would 1I0t condition an infinite recurrence of identical cases but a filial slate. Because the world has not reached this, mechanistic theory must be considered an imperfect and merely provisional hypothesis." Nietzsche, Gesammelte Werke (Munich <1926» , vol. 19 (The WiUto Powe,.., book 4) , p. 373.28 [08a, IJ

~ the idea of eternal reCl.llTeIlcc, the historicism of the nineteenth century cap­SIZes. As a result, every tradition, even the most recent. becomes the legacy of som~~g that has already run its course in the immemorial night of the ages. TradilJon hencefonh assumes the character of a phantasmagoria in which primal history enters the scene in ultramodern get-up. [08a,2J

Nietzsche's remark that the doctrine of eternal recurrence does not cnbrace mechanism seems to turn the phenomenon of the J>r:rPetuum mobile (for the world v.'Ould be nothing else, according to his teachings) into an argument against the mechanistic conception of the world. [08a,3)

On the problem of modernity and antiquity. "The existence that has lost its stabil­it y and its dir~tion. and the world that has lost its coherence and its significance, come together in the will of ' the eternal recurrence of the same' as the attempt to repeat---on the pea k of modernity, in a symbol- tile life which the Greeks lived within the living cosmos of the vislLle worM ." Karl Lowith. Nietzsches Philosophie lIe,.. ewigen Wiede,..kllnft del Gleichen (Berlin, 1935), p. 83. [08a.4)

i'Eternili par ItJ a.strtJ was written four, at most five , years after Baudelaire's death (contemporaneously with the Paris Commune?) _- This text shows what the stars are doing in that world from which Baudelaire, with good reason, excluded them. (D9,I)

The idea of eternal recurrence conjures the phantasmagoria of happiness from the misery of the Founders Years?9 This doctrine is an attempt to reconcile the

mutually contradictory tendencies of desire : that of repetition and that of eter­nity. Such heroism has its .counterpart in the heroism of Baudelaire, who conjures the phantasmagoria of modernity from the misery of the Second Empire.

(D9,2)

The notion of eternal return appeared at a time when the bourgeoisie no longer dared count on the impending development of the system of production which they had set going. The thought of Zarathustra and of etcrnal recurrence belongs together with the embroidered motto.seen on pillows: "Only a quarter hour."

(D9,3)

Critiifue of the doctrine of eternal recurrence: "As lIatu ral scientist ... , Nietzsche is II philosophizing dilettante, and li S founder of a religion he is a ' hybrid of sickness and wiJI to power '" [preface 10 Ecce Homo] (p. 83).30 "The entire doctrine thus seems to he nothing other than an experiment of the human will and an auempt to eternali%e aU our doings and failings, an athei&tic surrogate for religion. With this accords the homiletic style and the composition of Zar'athustro , which dOwn to its tiniest details often imitates the New Testament" (PI). 86--37). Karl Uiwith, Nietzsches Phiu,sophie de,.. ewig6fl Wiede,..kllnjt des GIeichen (Berlin , 1935). (D9,4)

There is a handwritten draft in which Caesar instead of ZarathUStra is the bearer of Nietzsche's tidings (LOwith, p. 73). lOat is of no little momenL It underscores the fact that Nietzsche had an inkling of his doettine's complicity with imperial· ISm. [09,5)

Lowith calls Nietzsche's " new divination ... the syntilesis of divination from the stKrS with divination from nothingness. which is the last verity in the desert of the freedom of individual capacity" (p. 81 ). [09,6J

From "u s Etoiles" <The Stars>, by Lamartine:

Thus theBe globes of gold . t.heBe islands of light .

Sou gil t instinctively by the dN!aming eye.

Flash up by the thousands from fugitive shadow. Like pillerinfj; dust on the tncks of night ;

And the hreath of the evening that Riel in il8 wake

Semb them swirling through the radiance of space.

All thut we seek- Io\'e. truth .

These fruil ' of the sky, full en on eart h's palate. TI,rollgh ,)ut your brilliant climel we long 10 see­

Nourish fore\'er the children of life;

t\"d one day man l>erha l"" hi8 ,le' lin)' fulfilleo.l . Will reccn'er in )·ou all the thin~ he ha~ lo~t.

~Alphon5e de) Lamurtine, OeulJn~s completes , vol. I (Pari,. 1850), PI' . 22 1. 224 (J\MrlitmiOlI8). TJ.ill metlitation c10llell wilh a re\'crie in ....hicl. Lamartine ill pleused to imagine luntllclf trullsformed into a star a lllong stars. [09a, l]

From " L' lnfini dana lea cieux" <Il1finity ill the Skiel), by w m artiue:

Man, nonethdeu, Ihat imli8covcrable in&ecl .

j Cr awling abo ul the hoUowB of a n obscure orb,

Ta ke1l the measure of these fier,· pla neu,

] As~ignB them their place in the heavens. Thinking. wilh handslhal cannot manage t he compass,

To aifl Bu n8 like Vains of land.

f And Saturn bedimmed by its dista nt ring!

l..amartlne, Oeuvre, complete, (Parit, 1850), pp. 81-82, 82 (Jl armonie, poe,iques .. e, relis iel/Je,) . (09a,2]

Dislocation of hell: "And, fmally, what is the place of punishments? All regions of the universe in a condition analogous to that of the eanh, and still worse." Jean Reynaud, Terre et ciel (Paris, 1854), p. 37Z 1b.is uncommonly faruow book pre­sents its theologica1 syncretism, its p/lliosophie religieuJe, as the new theology. The eternity of hell 's tonnents is a heresy: "The ancient trilogy of Earth. Sky, and U nderworld 6nds itself reduced, in the end, to the druidical duality of Eanh and

Sky" (p. xili). !D9.,31

Waiting is, in a sense, the lined interior of boredom. (Hebel: boredom waits for death.) (09a,4]

" I alway! arrived first. It was my lot to wait for her.... J .-J . Rousseau, Le, Confe.­, iom, ed . HilsulII (Paris( 193 1» , vol. 3, p. 11 5.31 (09a,5]

First intimation of tbe doctr ine of ett! rnal rt!currence at tbe end of the fourth book of Diefrohliche Wi.uenschaft : " How. if 80me day or night a demon "'ere to sneak after you into your loneliest )olleline88 and say to you: 'Tlu8 li£e as you now live it ulld bave lived it , you will have to live once more and innumerable times more; and there ,.d U be nothing ne'" in it , but every pain and every joy and every thought and sigh and everything immeasurably smaU or great in your life must return to you­all i..II th t! same succession and Se(lut!lIce--even this spider and this moonlight between the trees, and e\'ell this 1II0ment a lld I my8eLf. The eternal hourglau of e:ll: istence is tu rned over and ovt!r, and yOIl wi th it , a du~ t grain of (luHt.' Would you lIot ... cu rse the dellloll who spoke thus? Or did you once eXl.erience a tremen­dous moment when YOIl would hU\'e answeretl him: ' You a re a god and never bave I helml lIuything more godly!"'J2 Cil t!d ill Lowith , Niet:ache, 1'l!iwsophie der ell:igen Wiederkmift <des Gleichen (Berlin . 1935), p. 57-58. (010, IJ

Blanqui 's theory as a ripi titi()1I du mythe-a fundamental example of the primal history of the nineteenth century. In every century, humanity has to be held back a grade in school. Sec the basic fomlUlation of the problem of primal hisLOry, of UrgeJchichte, in N3a,2; also N4,1. [0 10,2)

"Eternal return" is ulefondamentalfoml of the urgeJ(;hichllichen, mythic conscious­ness. (Mythic because it does not reflect.) (010,3]

L'Eternite pu. r res u.5tre, should be compared with the spirit of '48, 8!1 it animate8 Heynau<l 's Terre el ciel. With regard to this, Cassou: "On di llcovering his ea rthly destin )". man feels a 80rt of vertigo and callnot at ft rst rec:oncile himself to this destiny alone. He must link it up to the grea test possible immensit y of tillle alld space. Only in the contex t of its m08t sweeping breadth will be intoxicate himself with being, with movement, with progress. Only then can he in aU eonfldence and ill all dignity pronounce the sublime word8 of J ean Reynaud : ' I have long made a practice of the universe. '" " We ftnd nothing in the universe tbat cannot serve to elevate U8, and we a re genuinely elevated only in taking advantage of what the universe offers. The sta rs themselves, in their sublime hiera rchy, a rc hut a series of Stel)S hy which we mount progressively toward infinity." <Jean) Cassou, Quar­llllte-huit <Pan s, 1939), pp. 49.48. (010,4]

Life within the magic circle of etemal rerum makes for an existence that never emerges from the auratic. (OlOa,l ]

As life becomes more subject to administrative nonns, people must learn to wait more. Games of chance possess the great charm of freeing people from having to wait. (O l Oa,2]

The boulevardier (feuilletonist) has to wait, whereupon he really waits. H ugo's ~Waiting is life" applies firs t of all to him. (O IOa,3]

The essence of the mythica1 event is rerum. Inscribed as a hidden figure in such events is the futility that furrows the brow of some of the heroic personages of the underworld (Tantalus, Sisyphus, the Danaides). 'Thinking once again the thought of etemal recurrence in the nineteenth century makes Nietzsche the figure in whom a mythic fatality is realized anew. (The hell of eternal damnation has perhaps impugned the ancient idea of etemal recurrence at its most formida­ble point, substiruting an eternity of torments for the eternity of a cycle.)

(OlOa,4]

Tbe belief in progress-in an infinite perfectibility understood as an infinite ethical task- and the representation of etemal rerum are complementary. They are the indissoluble antinomies in the face of which the dialectica1 conception of historical time must be developed. In this conception, the idea of etenm.l return appears precisely as that "shallow rationalism" which the belief in progress is accused of being, willIe faith in progress seems no less to belong to the mythic mode of thought than docs the idea ofeternal return. [0 10a.5)

E [Haussmannization, Barricade Fighting]

11l(: B.ow~ry realm of dccoratioll.'l , TIle chann of landsca~, of architecture, And alIl.hc effect of sttncry rest Solely on the law of perspective.

- Franz Bohle, '(}uattT·CaltdtiJmlLl, fKkr "'lIlIoristisdlt ErAliiru"l INT­Kili,t/mn- ufmiWidt im Biill1lmkbm iiblicMr Frmui-.diTt(T (Munkh), p.74

I venerate the Beautiful, the Good, and all things great; Beautiful nalUrc:, on which great an resLS-How it cndlanUi the ear and channs the eye! I Icrve spring in blossom: women and TO.'ICli.

-OJ,ywioll d'u" lion dC!Kflu lIilU;f (Baron Haussmann, 1888)

11l(: brtathless capitals Opened thcll1Klves to the carolon.

-Pierre Dupont. u Claant da iludu,niJ (ParU, 1849)

The characteristic and, properly speaking, sole decoration of the Biedenncicr room "was afforded by the curtains, which-extremdy refined and compounded preferably from several fabrics of dilTerent colors- were furnished by the uphol. sterer. For nearly a whole century aftenvard, interior decoration amoWlts, in theory, to providing instructions to upholsterers for the tasteful arrangement of draperies." Max von Bodm, Die Mode im X IX. Jahrhundert, vol. 2 (Munich, 1907), p. 130. TIUs is something like the interior's perspective on the window.

[EI, I]

P"I'~W'cli\' 1I 1 c IJa ractc r of Illc (Ti nolinc . ..... ith it ;; lIumifo l.1 flOIlIl CC!!. A I leasl fi ve 10

~i" pl'l linlll lS "," ' rc wornllnJcrllcu lh . {El ,2]

I't·t·p .~ ho ",· rhctori(·. pt·r!lpt·c tivul figul't!fI of 51H:ech : "'Incidcnt a ll y. tile fi gu re of

~rt ·a l ,·! t ,·ff,·d. cmployc.1 by a ll Frcnch om tor'S from Iheir pO(IiuIIl8 li nd t rihunes,

!lo lI'Hl s I'I'clly milch li kc thi ~: 'T lIt'rl' wus in Ihc Mj.lJle Ages a hook which concen·

t raled the spirit of thc l imcs as a mirror COllcclltra tcs the rays of thc sun , a book

""hieh towered "I' in mllj t'l8l.ic glory 10 the heavell' like II primeval forest, a book in which ... a hook for .....!tich ... flll aUy, a hook which ... by whicb a nd through which [ the most IOllg. willdt.'tl spt..'Cifica lions foUow] ... a book ... a book ... this

book was th e DilJjfle Comedy.' Lolld appla use." Karl Gutzkow, Brie/e aus Puris (Lei pzig, 1842), vul. 2. Pl'· 151- 152. {EI .3)

Strategic basis for the perspectival articulation of the city. A contemporary seek. ing to justify the construction of large thoroughfares under Napoleon III speaks of them as "unfavorable 'to the habitua! tactic of local insurrection.''' Marcel Poete, Ulle flie de a'ti (Paris, 1925), p. 469. "Open up this area of continual disturbances." Baron Haussmann, in a memorandum calling for the extension of the Boulevard de Strasbourg to Chatdet. Emile de Labedolliere, Ie Nouueau Paro, p. 52. But even earlier than this: "They are paving Paris with wood in order 10 deprive the Revolution of building materials. Out of wooden blocks there will ~ no more barricades constructed." Gutzkow, Brieft aUJ Paris, vol. I, pp. 60-61. What this means can be gathered from the fact that in 1830 there ",etc 6,000 barricades. (E I,4]

" Ill Paris . .. they a re fl eeing the a rcades, 8 0 long in fashion , as one flees sta le a ir.

The a rcades a re d ying. From t ime to time, one of them is closed, like the !lid

Pa ssage Delorme, where, in the wilderness of the gaUer y, female figures of a taw­

dry antiquity used to dance a long the shopfronts, as in the scenes from Pompeii

inte rpreted by Guerinon B enellt . T he arcade thllt for the Paritian was a 80 rt of

salon-walk , where YO Il s trolled and smoked and chatted, it now nothing more than

a species of refu ge which you think of when it r am s. Some of the a rcades mamtain

a cert ain a ll raclion on account of this or that famed esta blishment still to be found

there. But it is the tenant 's renown tha t prolongs the excitement , or r a ther the

dea th agon y, of Ihe plncc. The arcades have one grea t deft..'C1 for modern Parisians:

you could say that , just like certa in paintings done from stifled perspectives,

they're in need of air. " Jllies Cla retie, La Vie aPa m, 1895 (Paris, 1896), pp. 47f('

[E I,5]

The radical transfonnation of Paris was carried out under Napoleon III mainly along the axis ruruung through the Place de la Concorde and the H6td de V ille. It may be that the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 was a blessing for the architec. lU.ra1 image of Paris, seeing that Napoleon III had intended to alter whole dis­tnets of the city. Stahr thus writes, in 1857, that one had to make haste now to see the old Paris, for "the new ruler, it seems, has a mind to leave but li ttle of it slanding." (Adolf Stahr, MlChfii,y]ahrm, vol. 1 (Oldenburg, 1857), p. 36.)

[E I,O]

The stifled perspective is plush fo r the eyes. Plush is the material of the age of Louis Philippe. DDusl and Rain D [E 1.7]

Regarding "stifled perspectives": " ' You can come to the panoroma to do drawingll fr om nature,' David told his s tudents." Emile de LahedoWer e, Le iVOll lJeO. U Porn (Paris), p . 31. [£1,8]

Among the most impressive testimonies to the age's unquenchable thirst for perspectives is the perspective painted on the stage of the opera in the Musee GrCvin. (This arrangement should be described.) [£1,9)

" Having, as they do , the appearance of walling-in a massive e ter nity, Ha uu ­

manu's urhan works a re a wholly a ppropria te representation of the absolute gov­

erning principles of the Empire: repression of ever y individual formation, every

or ganic self-developmen t, ' fund amenta l hatred of a ll individuality. ,,, J . J. Honeg_

ger, Grunm teine einer a llgemeinen Kulturgeschichte der nel«!lten Zeit , vol. 5 (Leipzig, 1874), p. 326. But Lou.is PhiliPIJe was alread y known as the Roi~Ma~on

<Mason King). [E l a,I)

On the tra n8fonnation of the city under Napoleon 11.1 : "The 8ubsoil h al heen

profoundly dis turbed by the installa tion of gas mains and the construction of

sewers.... Never before in Paris h ave so many buil<ling supplies been moved

about , so many bouses a nd a partment buildings constr ucted , so ma ny monumentll

restored or erected , so man y fa~ade8 dressed with cut stone .. . . It was ne<:e88ary

to act qu.ickly aDd to take ad vantage of properties acq uired a t a ,·er y high cost : a

double s timulus. In Paris, shallow b asements ha ve taken the place of deep cellars,

which required excavations a fun story deep . The use of concrete and cement ,

which was fi rst made possible b y the discoveries of Vica t, has contributed botb to

the reasonable cost and to the boldness of the&e sub81ructions." E . Levasseur.

fl istoire del clauel ouvr ;er el el de l'itldwtrie en France de 1789 ii 1870, vol. 2 (Paris . 19(4), pp. 528-529. 0 Arclldes 0 [El a,2]

" Pari ~ , as we find it in the period following the Revolutiun of 1848, was about to

become uninhabitable. Its population h ad been greatly enla rged a nd unsettled by

the inceu ant activit)' of the railroad (whose rails extended further each day and

linketl up with those of neighboring countries) , and now this populat ion was suffo­

ca ting in the na rrow. tangled , putrid alleyways in which it was forcibly confined ."

~Maxime) 011 Camp, IJaru • vol. 6 <Paris , 1875), p . 253. [Ela,3)

Exprupria tions umler Ha Ulsmann . "Certain barris ter"! made a s lH!Cialty of this

kind of ca se... . They defended rea l estate expropria tions. industrial expropr ia­

t iolls , tcn ant expropriations. sentiment al expropr ia tion8; they spoke of a roof for

fa lhen! aud a cr adle for in fa nts .... ' I-Iow did you make YOll r fortune? ' II par venu

....as asked : ' I',·e been expropriated .' ca me t.he response.... A new illlius tr y was

crea ted , ....hich , on the pre text of taking in hand tile interests of the expropria ted,

did not shrin k from the hu est fraud .... It sought uut sOlan manufactllrt!rs and

t.."quippcd them with tle luiled account houks. fal se invcnt ories, a llli fuke mercha n­

<lise that often Was nothing more than logs wr apped in paper. It would even pro­cure group8 of cus tomers to fillt.he shop on the day the j ury made their prescribed

"is it. It fab rica ted lease~xaggeratcd . extended , anlcd ated--on shectll of old paper bearing offi cial II ta mps, which it had managed to procllre. It would ha ve

stores newly repainted and ~ ta ffed ....ith improvised clerks, whom it paid three

fra nc8 a day. It was a sort of mid night gang t.ha t rifled the till of the city govern­

ment. ·' 0 11 Camp , Pa ri&. vol. 6, pp . 255-256. [E18,4]

Engels' critique of harricade tactics : " T he most that the insurrection caD actually

implement ill the wily of tactical practice is the correct construction lind defense of

a single h arricade." But "even in the clau ic period of I t reet fi ghting, ... the

ba rricade produced more of a moral than a material effe<: t . It was a means of

shaking the steadfas tness of the military. If it held on until this was attained , then

\'ictor y was WOII ; if not, there was defea t. " Friedrich Engell, Introduction to Karl

Marx, Die Kllusenk iimpfe ira Frarakreicll , 18,UJ--1850 (Berlin , 1895) , pp . 13, 14. L

[El a,5)

. No less retrograde than the tactic of civil war was the ideology of class sttuggie. Marx on the February Revolution : "In the ideas of the proletarians, ' .. who confused the finance aristocracy with the bourgeoisie in general; in the imagina­tion of good old republicans, who denied the very existence of classes or, at most, admitted them as a result of the constirutional monarchy; in the hypocritical phrases of the segments of the bourgeoisie up till now excluded from power-in aU these, the rule 0/ Ihe bourgeoisie was abolished with the introduction of the republic. All the royalists were transfonned intO republicans, and aU the million­aires of Paris intO workers. The phrase which corresponded to this imagined liquidation of class relations was fraim/iii." Karl Marx, Die KitJJJenAAmpje in Frankreich (Berlin, 1895), p. 29.2 (Ela,6]

In a ma nifesto in which he proclaims the r ight to wor k . Lama rtine speaks of

the " ad vent of the industrial Chris t." J ournal del I!!co tlomistel , 10 (1845), p . 2 12 . J

oIndustry 0 [El a,7]

"T he reconstruction of t.he city ... , hy obliging the workers to fmd 10dgiu gII in

outlying (lrro ndiuemetlts . has dissolve!1 the hOllds of neighho rhood that pre­

viously united them ....ith the hourgeois ie." Levasseur, Ililloire del cl(luel ou­

vrie res et (Ie l'indwtr ieen France, vol. 2 (Pa ris, 19{)<h. p . 775. {E2, 1]

" Pa ris is 1II1I8t y allli dose." Louis Vcuillot , l.el OrJeurl de P(l r is (Pa ris. 1914),

p. 14 . [E2,21

)'arks, ~ (lu ar(:8, and public gardens fin t ins talled ulllicr Na poleon III. Between

fort y a llli fift y were created . [E2,3)

Con~lruclion in the faub(lurg Saint-Antoine: Boulevard Prince Eugene, 'Boule­vanl Maza., IIml Bou levard Richard Lenoir. as strategic axef. [E2 ,4J

The heightened expression of the dull perspective is what you get in panoramas. It signifies nothing to their detriment but only illuminates their style when Max Brod writes: "Interiors of churches, or of palaces or art galleries, do not make for beautiful panorama images. They come across as Bat, dead, obstructed." <Max. Brod,) Vb« die Schiinheit ha.uli,h« Bilder (Leipzig, 1913), p. 63. An acrurnte description, except that it is precisely in this way that the panoramas serve the epoch's will to expression. 0 Dioramas 0 fE2 .5)

011 June 9, 1810, a t the Theatre de la Rue de Chartres, a play by Barre, Radet,

aud Desfontaines is given its first performance. Entitled Momieur Durelie!. ou Le. EmbeUUsement. de Pari•• it presents a series of rapid scenes as in a review, show­

ing the ch anges wrought iu Pa ris ia n life by Napoleon J. "An architect who i. the bearer of one of those sigllificant names formerly in use on the stage, M. Durelief, has fabricated a miniature Paris, which he illtellds to exhibit. Having labored

thirty yea rs on this project , he thinks he has fini shed it at lns t ; but suddenly a

'creative epirit ' aplHlars, and proceed s to pmlle and sharpen the work , creating the need for ince88ant co rrections and addi tions:

Thi, vast and weahhy capital, Adorned wilh his fine monument" I \1;«1) Me II. cardboard model in my room, And I follow the embelli, hmenls. But alway. lliud myself in arrears­By m)' word, it ', ~tting desperate: Even ill miniature, one cannot do Whallh ll. t man doe. full ·Kale.­

Tile play ends with an a potheosis of Marie-Louise. whoSi: portrait the goddess of the cit y of Pa ris holds , as her loveliest ornament , high above the head, of the audience. Cited in Theodore Murel, L'Hutoire par k theatre , 1789- /851 (Paris,

1865). "01. I . pp. 253-254. (E2 ,6J

Use of omnibuses to build barricades. The horsee were unha rnessed , the passen­

gers were put (Iff, the vehicle was lll rlled over, and the fl ag was fa stened to an axle_ 1'2,71

On the expropriatiulIs: " Before the war, there was talk of demolishing the Passage 1111 Cu ire ill ortler to pUI a circus on the site. TOIla y there's a shortage o(funds, and the proprieton (all fort y-four of them) are hard to please, Let 's hope there's a 8110rtage of fUlI(l s for a long I.jllle to come amllile proprietor.!! become s till harder to plcalOc. The hil leous gap of the Bouleva nl l-I au8smalln at the corner of the Rue Drouot. with all Ihe charming houses it has brought (1(I""n , should I;Olllelll u. for Ihe momcnt:' Paul LCa niaUlI. " Vieu" Parill," Mercure de "'rance (Octoher 15, 1927). p . 503. (E2,8J

Haussmann ami the Chamber uf Deputie8: "Olle day, in an exceu of lerror, Ihey accused him of having created a desert in the very ccnter (If Pa ri .!!! Thai de.!!crt wae t.he Boulevard SCI,aslopol.·' Le Corbu.!! ier, UrbcHl u me (Pari.!! (1925), I)' 149.~

[[2,91

Very important : " Ha u.!!,manll 's ~:qllipmclIl"-iIIu.!!tration8 ill Le Corbusicr. Ur­bllnisme. p . 150.s Va rious shovels. picks . ",·heelharrows, and so on. (£2, IOJ

J Illes Ferry, Comptes!ClII/(utiqlle. d 'H(I.lIlSmunn <Paris, 1868). Panlphlet direc::led

against Hau8smann's autocr atic management of finances. (£2, 11]

" The aycnues [l:Iau88mallll] cut were entirely arbi t.rary: Ihey ""ere not b ased 0 11

strict deductions of the sciellce of tOWII 1)lanliing. T he measures he took were of a financial a nd milita r y character. " Le Corbusier, Urbflni. me (Paris). p. 250. ~

(E2a, l]

"... the impossibility of obtaining permission to photograph an adorable wax­. work figure in the Musee Grevin, on the left, between the hall of modem political

celebrities and the hall at the rear of which, behind a curtain, is shown 'an evening at the theater': it is a woman fastening her garter in the shadows, and is the only statue I know of with eyes-the eyes of provocation." Andre Breton, Nadja (Paris, 1928), pp. 199-200.7 Very striking fusion of the motif of fashion with that of perspective. 0 Fashion 0 [E2a,2J

To the characterization of this suffocating world of plush belongs the description of the role of Bowers in interiors. After the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, an attempt was made at first to return to rococo. But this was hardly feasible. ~e European situation after the Restoration was the following: "Typically, Cor:n­thian columns arc: used almost everywhere. . . . This pomp has something oppressive about it, just as the restless bustle accompanying the city's tranS­

formation robs natives and foreigners alike of hoth breathing space and space for reBection.... Every stone bears the mark of despotic power, and all the ostenta­tion makes the atmosphere, in the litera1 sense of the ",'Oros, heavy and close .... One grows dizzy with this novel display; one chokes and anxiously gasps for Dreath. The feverish haste with which the work of several centuries is accom­plished in a decade weighs on the senses." Die Grem.bolenJournal of politics and literature « Leipzig,~ 1861), semester 2, vol. 3, pp. 143- 144 ("Die Pamer Kunst· ausstellung von 1861 und die bildende Kunst des 19 .... Jahrhunderts il~ Frank­reich"). The author probably Julius Meyer. l"b.ese remarks are allned at HaUSSmaJUl. 0 Plush 0 (£2a.3J

Remarkable propensity for structures that convey and COlUlect-as, of course, the arcades do. And this cOlUlccting or mediating function has a literal and spatial as well as a figurative and stylistic tx:arin g. One thinks, above all, of the way the Louvre links up with the Tuileries. "111e imperial govenmlent has built practi­

cally no new independent buildings, aside from barracks. But, then, it has been all the more zealous in completing the lxudy begun and half·finished works of previous cenruries .... At first sight, it seems strange that lhe govemment has made it its business to preserve existing monuments.... The government, how. ever, docs no t aim to pass over the people like a stonn; it wants to engrave itself lastingly in their existence .... Let the o ld houses collapse, so long as the old monuments remain." Die Grenzhott1J (1861), semester 2, vol. 3, pp. 139-141 ("Die Pariser Kunstausstellung von 1861 "). 0 D ream H ouse D [E2a,4]

ConneClion of the railroads 10 Haussnu.lnn's projt!CIS. From a memorandum by II l1 ullllma nn : ""The railway slations are t!Hlay the principa l entryways into Paris.

To put Ihem in communica tion with the city centcr by mealls of large a rteries is a

IWI:C!ss ity of the fi rs l order. " E. de Labedolliere , lli$loire tlu 'IOU Ileall Ptlri.s. I). 32. This applies in pa rticular 10 the so-caUl ..d Boulevard du Centre: the extenliion of

tilt: Boule\'a r<1 de Strashourg ItJ Chi telel by what is loday the Boulevard Sebas­

lopol. [E2a,5]

,Ol>cninguflhe Boulevard Sebali lopollike the ullveiling of a monument . "At 2:30 in Ihe IIflC! rnOOn, at Ihe lIIoment Ihe [impcrial] procession was IIpproaching from the

Bouleva rd Saint-Dcnis, an immense scrim , which had masked the entrance to the Boule\'ard de SebaslollOl frOIll this s ide, was dra....n like a curtain . Thi.ll drapery

had been hung lH! twcen two Moorish columns, on the pe(les tals of which were fi gures rcprcsenting the arts, the sciences, industry, and commerce ." Labedol­lil~ re , f1is lQire du IIQ1Weflll Paris , p . 32. [E2a,6]

Hausslll;um 's predilection fo r perspectives, fo r long open vistas, represents an attempt to d ictate art fonns to technology (the technology of city plaruting). nus ah vays results in kitsch . [E2a,7]

lI a tlss nla un on himself: " Born in Paris, in the old .' auhonrg du Roule, which is joilwd IIOW 10 the Fa ubourg Saint-Hollore at the I)oint where the Boulevard

II lI lI sil ln;ulII ends ami the Aveline d e .' ried land hegins; student at the College 1I t' lI r i IV :11111 the oM LycCe Na poleon , which is situated 011 the Montagne Sainte­CI·llc \Oii·\'t· . where I lalt' r studie<1 al the law school a nd . at odd 1II0ments, at the

Su duolllw ululthe College de France. I took walks, morcover, through all parts of Ilw d ly. alltl J was oft en absorlwtl , during my youth . in protracled contemplation uf a lIl ap uf Ihis many-sitled I~aris . a lIla p which re\'ealed 10 me weaknesseli in the Iwt wol·k uf ,,!lhlie ~ 1!·t·t· l s. I Despite Illy long reij itlcnce in Ilrc provincC!s (no less

th:tI\ IWI·nl y-t"'·o years!). I ha"c managetl 10 reta in my lIlC! moricii and impressiolls uf for mCI' times. so thai . wlre ll J was iludtl C! lIl y called UpOII . sOllie days ago. 10 direct III!' Irlll1 sful'llI ation uf II II' Capil al of IIIC Empire (ovet· which lire Tuileries alld Cily 11 :111 1I 1'l~ l'urn'lIt ly :11 luggcl'hell lls ). I fell myself, in fa ct, lie tter prepared than olle miglll hll\'l' supposcd hI fulfill this complex mission , alld ready, in an y case. to (' lIler buld ly inlo li te IICIIl't of li te pruhl(·lIIs 11.1 lie re80Ivc{I. " Mcmoircs du Haroll 1If1f1ss I//(///JI . \'1.11. 2 (Pllris, 1890), 1'1" 34-35. DClllull81rale.ll very ~cll how it is

often dista nce a lollc thai , inlervening betweell 1'111 11 a nd work. ena ble! the plan to be realized . [E3, l]

How Baron i:laussma nn advllnced upon Ihe drea m city thai Pa ris 81.ill was in 1860 . From a ll a rticle of 1882: "There wcre hills in ['aris, evcn Ull the UOlllm'ard8.... We lacked waler, markets. liglll in those remote times-scarccly thirl y yea rs ago. Some ga8 jets had begun to aplJCar-lhat is all . We lacketl Churcilt.'8, 100, A nUIII­

ber of the more IIncient oncs. including the mOdt lieautiful , were ser ving a8 stores, bllrrllcks, or offlccs. The othcrs were wholly concealed by a growth of tumbledown ho\·els. Stm, the Railroads exisled ; each day in Parili they discilargetl torrents of

tra\'elers who cou ld neither lod ge in our houses 1I0r r01l1ll through oll r torluouli s lreets. I . .. He [1IIIussmllllll] demo lislied some (11I<lrtier8--olle might say, entire tOWIIS. There were erie8 that he would bring on Ihe plague; he toler ated .II uch

outcries and gave us inslead- through hili well-collsidered a rchitectural b reak­Ihroughs--air, health , and Life. Sometimes it was a Streel that he created , .IIome­limes an Avenue or Bouleva rd ; sometimes it was a Square, II Public Garden , a

IJromenade. He e.ll tll liLished Hospita ls, Schools, Campuses. He ga ve us a whole ri , 'er. !-Ie dug magnificent 8ewers. " fttemoire$ tll/Haron HUllumwlll , vol. 2 (Paris,

1890), pp. x, ri oExtracts from an article by Jule8 SimOIl ill Le Gaillois. May 1882. The nUlller:ous capital letters a ppear to be a characteris tic orthogra phic interven­

tion by Hau8smanll . (£3,2]

From a conversation , later on , between Na poleon III alld Haussmann. Napoleon : -'How r ight you are to maint ain thai the People of France, who li re generally

thought so fickle, are at bOIlOIll the most routinc people ill the world! " " Ye8, Sire, though I would add : with regard to things! ... I myself am charged wilh the

double offense of having unduly diSlurhed the Population of Pari li by boulever­sanl , by ' boulevardi7.ing,' almost aLI the quartiers of the cit y. and of having al­

lowed it 10 keeplhe u me "rome in the same setting for too long." Memoire8 du Haron Ha w smann, vol. 2 (Pa ris. 1890), I~ I) ' 18-19, <Compare E9 , 1.~ (£3,3]

FrOIll a discussion between Napoleon III and HauSSlllann 011 the lalter 's assuming

his duties in Pa rill. Hauu mann : " I would add thai , although Ihe FH>pulatioll of Pa ris as a whole was liympathetic to the plans for the tra nsformation--or, as it wll8 called then , Ihe 'emhelLisluuent '--of the Capit ll l of the Empire. the gr eater pal'l of the liourgeoisie and alm051 all Ihe a ristocracy were hostile:' ",III)' Ihough?

Memoire$ flu B(lrOIi H(lUu rtltllln, vol. 2 (Paris, 1890), p . 52. {E3.4]

" 1 left Munidl 011 t.he sixth of Febru ar y. spelll len Ila ys ill IIrchil'e8 ill northerll h aly, and a rri\'cd ill HOllie limier a pouring rain . i found Ihe l1 utt SSmlt llllizatioll of Ille cit y wellllli vancell. " Bri('f e 11011 Fenlilll/1l(/ Grcgorovil/ .~ rm tle ll S /(lIIl ssekreliir I-Ierm(lntl von 1'1,iie . cd . Ilermll lln "on r~c lcrs llorff ( Berli" , 1894), p . 110.

[E3 .5J

Nicknallle for l-Ia ll8slllanll : " I'a8ha Oll llla n. " He himself Illukes the commenl , wil h reference to hill IITOVidillg the cily with spring waler : " I mUlit build myself all

aqlll.llluct." Another hon mot : " My t.itlcs? I have been luuned artist-d cmoli­lionist. .• (E3,6(

" In 1864. Ildcnding the arhitrary cha racter of the city's government . [ lIau88­m81111JIHlopled a tone of rare boldness. ' ''' or its inhabitants, 11aris is either a great marketplace of consumption . a giant stockyard of labor, a n arena of ambitions, or simply a rentlCillvoUS of pleasures. It is not their home ... .' Then the statement tha t polemicists wiU a ttach to his reputation like a stone: ' If there are a great many who come to find an honorable situ ation in the city, ... there are also others,

\'eritable nomads in the midst of Parisian society, who are absolutely destitute of municipal lIentimcnt .' And , recalling that ever ything-railroads, administrative

networks, brunches of national activi ty~ventually leads to Paris, he concluded : ' It is thus not surprisiug that in France, country of aggregation and of order, the

Cal)i tal almost always has heen placed, ",ith regard to its communal organintion , . ,., G LatllltIer an emergency regime. COr ges ronze, Le Baron Ilauumann (Paris,

1932), pp . 172-173. Speech of November 28, 1864. (E3a,l ]

Political ca rtoons represented " Pa ris as bounded b y the wharves of the English

Cha nnel and those ufthe south of France, by the highways of the Rhine vaUey and of Spain ; or, according to Cham , a8 the city which gets for Christmas the houses in

the suburhs! ... One ca ricature shows the Rue de Rivoli stretching to the hori­zon ." Gt."Orges Larorl ze.l...e Baron lIau.nmann (Paris, 1932) , Pl'. 148-149.

(E3.,,]

, " New arteries ... woulcllink the center of Paris with the railroad stations, reduc­

ing congestion in the latter. Othen would take part in the battle against poverty a nd revolution; they would be stra tegic routes, breaking through the sources of

contagion and the cenlel"ll of unrest , a nd lH!rmiUing, with the inOu,; of beuer air, the arriva l of an armed force, hence connecting, like the Rue d e Tur bigo, the

!O\'ernment with the barracks. and , like the Bou1evard du Prince-Eugene, the ba rracks with the suburbs." Georges Laronze, Le Baron Haun mann , PI" 137­

1m. (E3a~

" An ind cpendent deput y, the comte de Durfort-Civrac, ... objected that these

lIew houlevartls. which were supposed to aid ill repressing disturbances, would 1I 1 ~0 mllke thcm more likely heca use, in order to construct them, it was neceasary to as!;cmhle n muss of wOI'kers.'· Gcorges Larollze, Le l1aron J/cmnmflml, p. 133.

[E3a,4)

lI u ll s~ma llll c.·lchrnte>! tile birlhd ay--or name Ila y (April 5)?--of Napoleoll III . " Hunn ing the leugt h of the Chumps-Elysees, from tim Place de 11.1 Conconle to the ": toilc. then' was a 8Cll llolH!d border of 12·1 sculpted arcades reposing on a tlouhle row of columns. · It is a reminiSl"ence; Le Corutitllfion1lel sought to ex plain, ' of Cordova a nti t.he Alhamhra .· ... T he visual effect was thus very striking, with the swirling hranche~ of the fift y.s ix great streetlights alollg the avenue, the reOections

from the surfaces helow, and the fli ckering of flames (rom Ihe five hundred thou­sand jets of gas." Geor ges LarOI1 ~e, IAt 1101"011 Ilall-umlUlrl , p. 11 9. 0 F1iineur 0

[E3a,5)

On Uaussmann : " Paris now ccasetl forever to be a conglomeration of small towns.

each "'ith its dis tinctive physiogllomy and way of life--where one was horn and where one died, where one ne\'er dreamed of leaving home, and where nature a nd histor y had collaborated to realize variety in unity. The centralization , the mega­lomania , cr eated an a rtificial city, in which the Parisian (and this is the crucial

point) no longer feels at home; and so, a8 800n as he can , lIe leaves. And thus a new need arises: the craving for holidays in the country. On the other hand , in the city deserted by itll inhabitant.s, the foreigner arrives on a specified date--the start of ' the season.' The Parisian , in hiB own lown , which has become a cosmopolitan

crossroads, now seems like one deracinated ." Lucien Dubech and Pierre

d ' Espezel , <Hu toire de Paru (Pa ris, 1926),) PI' . 427-428. [E3a,6]

"1\.10st of the time, it was necessa r y to resort to a jury of expropriations. Its mem­bers , cavilers from birth , adver saries on principle, showed themselves generous

with funds whi.ch , as they supposed , cost them nothing and from which each was hoping one day to benefit . In a single session where the city might offer a million

and a haU, the jury would dema nd from it near ly three million . The beautiful field of speculation! Who wouldn ' t want to do his part? There were barris ter s specializ­

ing in the mailer ; there were agencies guara nteeing (in return for a commission) a serious profit; there were operations for simulating a lease or a commercial trans­action , and for doctoring account books." Georges Laronze, Le Baron Haws­

mann (Paris , 1932), pp . 190-191. [E4,I)

From the Lamentationl raised against Ha uasmann : " You will live to see the city

grown desolate and bleak. I Your glory will be great in the eyes of future archae­ologists. but your last days will be sud and biller. I . .. I Anti the heart of the city

will slowly freeze. I ... , Lizards. stray dogs. and rats will rule over this mag· nificence. The injuries inflicted b y I.ime will accumulate on the gold of the balco­

nies, and on the painted murals. I .... I And lonelineas, the tedious goddess of desertll, ",ill come and seltle upon this new empire you will have made for her by so fo rmidable a labor." Pori.! ciesert : I..{mlelltat ion.! cl 'un }eremic hawlmannue « Paris, 18(8), PI' . 7-8). [£4,2)

"The problem of the emhellishment---(lr. more precisely. of tile r cgencration--(Jf Paris arose ahoul 1852 . Until then . it Il ad bt.'Cn possible to leave this great cilY in ils state of dilapidation . but no",' it bCi:ame lIeeeasa ry to dea l with the matter. This was because, by a forluitous coincidellce, Frallce and the countries around it were eonlpleting the construction of those long lines of r ailroad tracks which crisscross Europe." Pa ril 1IouIJcaujuse I)ar Imjlancllr (Paris, 18(8). p. 8 . [E4.3]

"'I read , in a book which enjoyed great s llcceu last yea r, thai the streets of Paris had heen enlarged to permit ideas 10 circulate and , above all, regiments to pan.

This malicious atalement (which comes in the wake of othera) ia the ccluivalent of aaying thai Pa ria haa been stralegically embellished. WeU, so be it .... I do nol hesit ate to procluim that strll. legic emhelli.shments are the moSI admira hle of em­bellishments." Puru nOUlleau j uge par Im jliineur (Paris, 1868). pp . 21- 22.

[£4,41

"They say tha t the city of Paris has condemned itself to forced la bor, in the lIeDse Iha t, if it ever ceast:d its various constructiOIl projects and forced ils numerous workers to return to their re.spective provinces, from that day forwa rd its toU revenues would dirninillh considerably. " Paris nouveau juge par 1m jlaneur (Paris, 1868), p . 23. [E4,5]

Proposal to link the right to vote for the Paris mUllicipal council to proof of a t least fifteen months' resideDce ill the city. Part of the reasoning: " If you examine the mailer closely, you will soon realize that it is p recisely during the agi ta ted, adven­turous, and turbulent I)eriod of his existence. that a ma n residell in Pa ris." "(lris nouveau juse pur "njWneur, p . 33. [£.4,6]

" It is understood that the follies of the cit y promote reason of state." Jules Ferry, Comptesjant(lstiqlleJl d 'IIClIlu nw nn (Paris, (868), p. 6. [FA ,7]

"The cODceuions. worth hundreds of millions. a re uPl)Ortioned sub rosa. The principle of public adjudication is set aside, as is that of cooperation." Ferr y, CompleJlfimtUJl liqlU!s. p. II. [E4a, l]

Ferry analyzes (pp'. 2 1- 23 of his ComptesjantastiqueJl) the j udgments rendered in caseli of expropriation- judgments which, in the course of Ha llu mann 's projects. took on a tendency unfavorable to the city. FoUowillg a decree of December 27, 1858--which Ferry r egards as merely the normalization of an aDcient right , but which Ha uu mann regardll 88 the establishment of a ne~' rigllt-the city was de­nied the possibility of expropriating in their entir ety propt!rtiea which lay in the way of the new arter ies. The expropriation was limited to those por tions immedi­alely rC(luiroo for the constr uction of the stnoets. In this way, the city lost out on the profits it had hoped to make from the sale of remaining plOIS of land , whollC value was driven up by the construction. [E4a,2]

From Ha ussmann 's memorandum of December 11 , 1867: "There is a deep-rooted a nd long-sta nding conviction tha t the last two method& of acquisition did not by II. lIy mea llS a utomatica Uy termin ate the tenants' occupancy. But the Court of Ap­pt!als has ruled , in va rious decisions spanuing the pt!riod 1861- 1865 , that , vis-a­vis the city, the jU Ilgment re«(uiring the conllelll of the seller. ta ken together with the pr ivate contract . has the effect ip Jlo jure of dissolving the lease of the tenants. All II conSCCluence. many of Ihe tenants doing business in hOIlst:s aC(luh-ed for the city by mutua l agreemell t ... have acted to annllilheir leases before the date of expropriation and have de.ma nded to be immedia tely evicted and compen­

sated.... The city ... has had to pay enormous, unforeseen indemnities. It Cited ill Ferry. Comptcsjall t6s tillues, p . 24. (E4a,3]

'· I...o llis-Nal)Oleon Bonaparte felt his vocation to be Ihe securing of the ' bourgeois order .' ... hl(lustry and trade, the affairs of the bourgcoisie , were to prosper. An im lllcnse number of concessions were given out to the railroads ; public subven­tions were grantetl; credi t was orga nized. The wealth and luxury of the bourgeois world increased . The 1850.1 saw the ... beglnllillg8 of the Par isian department stores: Au Bon Marche, Au Louvre. La Belle Jardiniere. The turnover at Au BOD Marche-which, ill 1852 , was only 450,000 francs-rose, hy 1869, to 21 million." Gisela Freund , " Entwicklung del" Photographie in Frankreich" [manuscript] .'

[£4.,41

Around 1830: "The Rue Suint-Denis a nd Rue Saint-Martin are the principal ar­teries in this quartier, a godsend for rioters. The wa r for the streets was deplorably easy there. The rebels had only to rip up the pavement and then pile up various objC4:ts: fur niture from neighboring houses, crates from the grocer ' •• and, if Deed be, a passing omnibus, which they would 8tOp. gallantly helping the ladies to disembark . In order to gaillthese Thermopylaes, it was thull necessar y to demolish the houses. The line infantry would advance into the OpeD, heavily armed and well equipped . A handrul of ill8urgents behind a barricade could hold an entire regi­ment at ba y." Dubeeh and d 'Espezel, Histoire de Pa ru (Paris, 1926), pp . 365-366.

[£4.,51

Under Louis Philippe: " In the interior of the city, the governing idea seems to have been to rearra nge the strategic lines that played 110 important a role in the rulitOric days of July: the line of the qu ays, the line of the boulevards.... Finally, at the center, the Rue de Rambuteau , gr andsire of the Raussmannized thoroughfares: it presented . at Les Hailes , in the Marais, II breadth that seemed considerable then- thirteen meters." Dubeeh and d ' Esllezel, Hu toire de Paru (Paris, 1926), pp.382-383. [E5,11

Sailll-Simonians: " During the choler a epidemic of 1832 . they caned for the demo­li tion of crowded . closely built nei&hborhoods. wruch was excelleDt . But they de­nla,;ded th at Louill Phili ppe and Larayette set the pace with shovel and pickaxe ; the wor kers were supposed 10 work under the direction of uniformed Polytechni­cians, amI to the 1I0und of military music; the most beautiful women in Paris were to come anll offer their encouragement ." Dubech and d ' Espezel, Hu lOire de Pa ris , I'p . 392-393. 0 Indust rial Developmeut 0 Secret Societies 0 [E5,2]

"All efforU notwithsta nd ing, the newly constructed buildings did not slIffice to aceonmlOdate the expropr iated. The result was a grave crisis in rents : they dou­li led. In IB5 I. the ()Opulation was 1,053 ,000; after the annexatioll in 1866, it increase{1 to more than 1,825,000. AI the end of the Second Empire, Paris had 60.000 houst:s and 612,000 al)artme.nts. of which 481.000 were r ented for lelll than

500 franct. Buildinge grew taUer, but ceilinge became lower. Tile government had " If we had to define, in a word , the new spirit that was coming 10 p reside over theto pa811 II law J"e(luirillg a minimum ceiling height of 2 meten 60 centimeters." tra nsformatioll of Paris, we would have to call it megalomani a. The empe ror allliDuhech and d 'Espezd , PI' . 420-421 . {ESt 3) Ius Ilrefect aim to make Paris the capital not olily of France but of tile world .Cosmopolit an Pllris will be the resuh ." Dubccll and d ' Espezel , p. 41)t1 . [E5a,2j

"Scanda lous fortunes ",·ere amassed by those inille prefect's inner circle. A legendaltrihutes to Mad ame Ha Ullllnumn a naive remark in a talon:

"Three facts will dominate the project to trallliform Paris: a s tratel,';c fa ct that' It is curious thatevery time we buy a houlre, II boulevard pusses through it. , .. Dubech and

demands, at the cilY's center, the break-up of the ancient capital and a lIew ar­d ' Espezel, p. 423 . [E5,4 j

rangement of the hub of Paris; a natural fact , the push westwa rd ; and a factentailed hy the systematic megaloma nia of the idea of annexing the suburbs. "Dube<:h and d'Espezel, p . 406."At the end of his wide avenues, Haussmann constructs-for the sake of perspec­ [E5a,3)

tive--var ious monumen18 : a Tribunal of Comlllerce al Ihe end of the BoulevardSebastopol, and bastard churches in all styles, such as Saint-Augustin (where

Jules Ferry, opponent of Haun mann, a l the news of the surrender at Sedan : "The Ballard copies Byn ntine structures), a new Saint-Ambroise, and Saint-Fran~o is­

armies of the emperor a re defeated! " Cited in Duhech and d ' Espezel, p. 430. Xavier. At the end of the Chaussee d 'Antin , the Church of La Trinite imitates the

[£5a,4) Renaissance style. Sa inte-Clotilde imitates the Cothic style, while Saint-Jean de "Until Haussmalln , Paris had been a city of moder ate dimensions, where it wasBelleville. Saint-Ma rcel, Saint-Bernard , and Saint-Eugene are all prooucts of irOnconstruction and the hideous embrasures of false Cothic.... Though Hau8Snlann

logical to let experience rule; it developed according to pressures dictated by na­ture, according to laws inscribed in the facu of history alld in the face of thehad some good ideas, he realized them badly. He depended hellvily on perspee­ lalldscape. Brusquely, Haussmann acceler ates and crowns the work of revolution­tives, for example, and took ca re to Jlllt monuments at the end of his re<: tilinear ary and imperial centralization.... An artificial and inordinate creation,stree18. T he idea was excellent , but ",·hat awkwardneu in the execution! The emerged like !'tUncrva frolll the head of Jupiter, born amid the abuse of the spirit of Boulevard de Strasbourg franles the enormous Right of s tel's at the Tribunal of

Commerce, and the Avenue de l' Opera providcs a vista of the porter 's lodge at the authority, this work had need of the spirit of authority in order to develop accord­

Louvre ." Duhech and d ' Espezel, Pl'. 416, 425. ing to its own logic. No sooner was it bo rn , than it was Cllt off at the source....[E5,5) Here was the paradoxical speetacle of a construction artificial in prillciple butabandoned ill fact only to rules imposed by nature." Dubech and d ' Espezel, "Above all, the Paris of the Second Empire is cruelly lacking in beauty. Not one of pp .443-444.

these great straight a venues has the charm of the magnificent curve of the Rue {ESa,5)

Saint-Antoine, and no hOllse of this period affords anything like the tender de­ " lI aussmann cut immense gaps right through Paris, and carried out the most lights of an eighteenth-century fa~ade, with its rigorous and graceful orders. Fi­ startl ing operations. It seemed as if Pa ris would never endure his surgical experi­nally, this i110gical city is structllrally weak . Alread y the architects are saying that ments. And yet , today, docs it not exist merely as a consclluence of his daring andthe O,.era is cracked , that La Trinite is crumbling, and that Saint-Augustin is courage? His equipment was meager ; the sho\'e1 , the pick , the wagoll , the trowel ,brittle." Dubech a nd d 'Espezel, p . 427. [E5,6) tile wheelba rrow- the simple tools of every race ... before the mcchanical age.His achievement was truly admirable." Le Curbusier, UrbtwiSlllc (Pnris d 925» ,

" In Haussmann's time, there was a need for new roads, but not necessarily for the p . 149.' [ESa,6)lIew roads he built.... The 1II0St striking feature of his projects is their scorn forhis torical eXIW!rience .... Haussmann lays Ollt an artificial ci ty, like sOlllethilig in

The mighty seek to secure their position with blood (police), with cunning (fash­Canada or the .' a r West.... His thoroughfares ra rely possess any utility and ion), with magic (pomp). [ESa,7) nevcr an y beallty. Mon a re astollishing arehitectural intrusiolls that begin just ahout a nywhere and end up nowhere, whilc dcstroying evcr ything in their path ; to Thc widenillg of the streets, it was said, was necessitatt..'<1by the crinoline. [E5a,S) cun'e them would have been enough to prt:servc precious old buildings.... Wemust not accuse him of too much Haussma nnization , but of too little. In spite of Manlier of life II 1110ng the masons, ""ho often came from Marche or Limousin . (Thethe megalomania of his theorics, his vision was, in practice, 1I0t la rge enough . description dates from 1851- before the great influx of this social st ratum in theNowhere did he anticipate tile future. II.is vistas lack amplitude; his strects are too wake of HalissmaJln '8 works.) " The masons, whose way of life is lIIore dis tinct thannarrow. Ilis clJllccption is grandiose but not graml; lIeither is it just or providcnt. " that of other emigrants, belong ordinarily to famili es of smu.1l farmcr-llUuscholdcrsDubech li nd d'Espezd , PI' . 424-426. . [E5a, 11

established ill the rural towlIshil)S and provid t..-d wi th individual paSlurage, allow­

Tools used by Haussmann's workers. Artist unknown. Set: £5a,6.

ing for the maintenance of at least one dairy cow per family .... During hie 80­

journ in Paris , the mason lives with aU the economy that is consistent with an unmarried situation ; his provisionl ... come to approximately thirty-eight franc. a month ; hil lodgings ... cost only eight franci a month . Worken of the .ame profession ordinarily Ihare a room, where they sleep two by two. TWI chamber iI barely heated ; it is lit by means of a tallow candle, which the lodgers take turnl in buying .... Havillg r eached the age of forty~fi ve, the mal on ... henceforth re­mains on his property to cultivate it himself .... This way of life fonns a marked contral t to that of the sedentar y 1)OIluiationi neverthelell, after lome yean, it tendl visibly to alter.. .. Thus, durinA his stay in Paril, the youn~ mason showl himself more willinA than before to contract illegitimate unionl, to spend money on clothing. and to frequent various gathering places and placel of pleasure. AI he becomes len capable of elevating Ilimllelf to the condition of prov.rielor, he finds

hi.m8elf more susceptible to feelinga of jeaJoulY toward the upper classes of toeiety. Thil depravity, to which he succumbs far from the influence of his family, ... and in which the love of gain develops without the counterweight of reUgioul aentiment , leads lometimel to the 10rt of coaraenel8 found ... among the sedentary workers of Paril ." F. Le Play, Les Ouvrier. europeefU (Parie. 1855). p. 277 . [£6,1)

On the politics of finance under Napoleon Ill: "The financial policy of the Empire has been consistently guided by two main concerns: to compensate for the in~ sufficiency of normal revenue. and to multiply the con. truction projecu that keep capital moving and provide job•. The trick W81 to borrow without opening the ledger and to undertake a great number of works without immediately overloading the budget .... Thus, in the Ipace of l eventeen years, the imperial government ha, had to procure for itself, in addition to the natural productl of taxation , a 8um of four billion three hundred twenty-two million francs. With the gathering of this enormous 8ubsidy, whether by direct loans (on which it was necel8ary to pay interest) or by putting to work available capital (on which revenues were lost). there has re.u1ted from these extra~budgetary operatione an increase of debu and liabilities for the state." Andre Cochut, OperatiofU et tendances jinancieres du Second Empire (Paris, 1868), pp. 13,20-21. [£6,2)

Already at the time of the June Insurrection, "they broke through walls 80 as to be able to pall from one house to another. " Sigmund Englander, Geschic:hte der !ramosilchenArbeite"..Auocwtionen (Hamburg, 1864), vol. 2 , p. 287. [E6,3)

" In 1852, ... being a Bonapa rtist opened up all the pleasures in the world. It was tbese people who, huma nly speaking, were the most avid for life; therefore . they conquered . Zola was agitated and amazed at this tbought; suddenly, here was the formula for those men who, each in hie own way and from his own vantage point, had founded a n empire. Speculation (chief of tbe vital functions of this empire), unbridJed self-enricbment , pleallure !leeking-all three were glorified theatrically in exhibition. a nd festivals , which by degrees took on the aspect of a Babylon . And along with these brilliant malles taking part in the apotheosis, close behind them, ... the obscure malleI who were awaking and moving to the forefront ." Heinrich Mann. Ceilt und Tat (Berlin, 1931). p . 167 ("Zola"). [E6a,l)

Around 1837, Dupin , in the Calerie Colbert, issued a series of colored lithographs (signed Pruche <?>, 1837) representing the theatergoing public in variou. postures. A few plates in the series: Spectator. in High Spirits . Spectators Applaudiry;. Spectator. Intrigu.ing, Spectator. Accompanying the Orchelfra. Attentive Spec~

. tator •• Weeping Spectator.. [£6a,2)

Beginnings of city planning in Soisse!'s Discourl con Ire leI servirude. publiques <Discourse against Public Easements> of 1786: "Since the natural comnlunity of goods has been broken up and dil tributed. every individual property owner has built as he pleases. In the past , the locial order would not have suffered from this

trend . liut now that urlian construction proceeds at the entire discretion, and 10 till!: entire advantage, of the owners, t1lere is no longer a ny consideration at all for the security. healdl , or comfort of society. Tllis is particularly the case in Par is, where churches and palaces , lioulevards and walkwaYII are built in abundance, while houll illg for the great majority of inhabitants is relegated to the sluldows. Boinel descr ihes in gra phic detail the ruth and perill that threaten the poor pedell· triall 0 11 the II treelll of Pa ril .... To this miserable a rra ngemcllt of Itreell he now turns his attention, a nd he eff~tinly l olves the prohlem by p ropol ing to Irans· form the ~ound fl oors of houses into airy ar cades, which would offer prot~tion

from the vehicldl and the weather. He thus anticipatel Bellamy's idea of ' one umbrella over all heads. "'10 C. Hugo. ""Der SO"llialismus in Frankreich wii hrend der grossen Revolution," part I , "Fran~ois Boilisel," Die neue Zeit, II , no. 1

(Stuttgart . 1893), p . 8 13. (E6a,3)

On NalwleQn III a round 1851: " Ue is a socialist with Proudhon , a reformer with Girardin , a reactionary with Thiers. a moderate r epublica n with the SUPl)Orters of the republic, and an enemy of democracy and r evolution with the legitimists. He promises everything and subscribes to everything." Friedrich Szarvady, Pam, vol. I {the only volume 10 appear] (Berlin , (852), p . 401. (E6a,4)

" Louis Nalwleon, ... this representative of the lumpenproletariat and of every type of fraud alld knavery. slowly draws ... all power to himself .... With glad elan , Daumier reemerges. fi e creates the brilliant figure of Ratapoil, an audacioul pimp and charlatan , And lhili ragged ma rauder, with his murderous cudgel for­ever concealed behind his back, bet:omeli for Daumier the embodiment of the downfallen Bonapartist idea." Frit"ll Th. Schulte, " Honore Da umier," Die neue Zeit, 32, no. I (Stuttgart <1913-1914» , p . 835. (E1,1)

With reference to the tranliformation of the city: " Nothing len than a COmpa88 is required , if you are to find your way. " J acques Fabien, Ptlru en !onge (Paril , \863), p . 7. [E?,2)

The fo llowing remark , by way of contrast , throws a n interesting light on Pa ris: "Where money. industry, and riches a re prelient , there are fa~ade8; the houses have assumed faceli tha t serve to indicate the differenccs in claSli. III London, more than c1s~wht!re , the distallces a re pitilessly marktl(1. ... A prolifera tion of led ges, bow windowli, cornices, column!l--8o man y columns! The colullln is nobility."

Fernand Uger, " Londres," LII , 5. no. 23 (June 7, 1935), 1' . 18. (E7,3)

The (Iistanl native or the age-old Marais RaN-ly IJets root in the Quartier tI 'Antin. Ane! {rom Menilmontant . calm lookout poinl , He lurvey. Parie u {rom a hei&!tt; II i. thrill anti rrul5a li ly won ' I le t him butll5'" "rom this '1>01when Ihe (!:Ods h.ve (Iropped him.

[Leon Go:d an.] Le Trionl/,he rle! onirlibll..J: Poeme heroi:...comiqlU! (Paris. 1828),

p.7. [E?,' )

" Hundreds of thousands of families , who work in the center of the capital, lilcep in the outskirtl. This movement resembleli the tide: in the morning the worken stream into Paris, and in the evening the same wave of people flows out. It is a melancholy image .... I ....ould add ... tha t it is the fi rs t time that humanity hal aSliisted in a spectacle so dispiriting for the people." A. Granveau, L'Oll.vrier c/evant W societe (Paris . 1868), p . 63 ("Les Logements a Paris"). (E7.5)

J u ly 27, 1830: "Outside the IIChool, men in shirtsleevell were alread y rolling casks; others brought in paving siones and Ii8nd by wheelbarrow; a barricade was be-­gun ." G. Pinet, Hu toire de " Ecole poly,echniqlle (Paris, (887), p . 142. [E1a. l )

1833: '"The plan to surround Pa ris with a belt of fortifications ... aroused pas­sionate interest at this time. It was a rgued that detached forts would be useleSli for the defense of the interior, and threatening only to I.he population. The opposition wali univeJ;sal. ... Steps were taken to orgallize a large popular demonstration on July 27 . Informed of these preparatiolls , , . , the government abandoned the proj· eet.. . . Nevertheless, ... on the day of the review, numerous cries of ' Down with the forts! ' echoed in ad vance of the procession: 'A bas le! f ort! detacMs! A btl! leI b(l..J lille! !'" G. P inet , Hut oire de " Ecole polytechniqu.e (Paris, 1887), PI' . 2 14-2 15. The government mini literS took their r evenge with the affair of the "Gunpowder Conspiracy."11 (E1a,2]

Engravings from 1830 show how the insurgentli threw all sOrU of furnilu re down on the troops from oul of the windows. T his was a feature especially of the ba ttles on the Rue Saint· Antoine. Cabinet des Estampeli. (E7a.3]

Rattier invokes a d ream Paris, which he calls " the false Par ili"-as distinguished from the real one: " the purer Parili, ... the truer Paris, ... the Parili that doesn ' t exist" (p. 99): " It is gralld , at this moment in time , to set well-guarded Babylon walzing in the arm! of Memphis, and to set London dallcing in the embrace of Peking .... One ofthcse fine mornings, France ....iII have a rude awakening when it realizes it is confIDed within the walls of Lutetia. of which she forms but a cross· roads .... The lIext day. It aly, Spain . Denma rk, and Russia will he incorporated hy decree into the Par isian municipality; three days later, the city gates will be pushed back to Novaya Zcmlya alld to the Lalld of t.he Papuans. Paris will be the world , and the uni vcrse will be Pa ris. The sava nnahs and the pampas and the m ack Forest will compose the puhlic gardens of this greater Lutetia; the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Andes, the Himalayas will he the Aventine a nd the scenic hills of this incomparahle city- knoil li of plealiure, st udy, or liolitude. But aU this is IitiU 1I0th­illg: Paris will mount to the akica It.ntl scale the fi r mament offinnamen18: it will an­nex, as suburbs . the planets and the stara." Paul-Ernest de Rattier, Pam n 'exute

IHU (Paris. 1857). PI)' ,n-49. Thc&e ea rl y fantasiell II hould be compared with the lIa tircs on Uauu malln published WII years later. [E7a,4]

Mread y Rattier assignll to hill false Paris "'a unique and simple syll tem of traffic control that links geometrically, and in pa rallel lines, all the avenues of this fa lse Parill to a single center, the Tuiteries-this being all admirable method of defense

and of maintaining order." Paul-Ernest de Rattier, l\Jrill 11 'exute pUll (Paris. 1857), p . 55. [E8, l ]

" T he false Paris has the good tas te to recognize that nothing is more useless or

more immoral than a riot . Though it may gain the upper hand for a few minutes, it is queUed for sever al centuries. Instead of occupying itself with politics •... it is

peaceably absorbed in questions of t!t!onomy.. . A prince who is against fraud . . knows ... very well ... that gold . a great deal of gold . is re(luiroo ... 011 our

planet to build a 81epladder to the sky." Paul-Ernest de Rattier. Paris n 'ex;.fle pas (Paris, 1857), pp. 62 , 66-67. (£8,2]

July Revolution : " Fewer were felled ... by buUets than hy other projet!t ilell. The lar ge squares of gra nite witb which Pa ris is paved were dragged up to the top floors

of the houses a nd dropped 0 11 the heads of the soldiers." Friedrich \'on Raumer, Briefe am Paru utld Frankreich im Jahre 1830 (Leipzig ~ 183 1)), vol. 2, p . 145.

[E8,3]

Report of a third party. in Raumer's book: '" saw a group of Swiss, who had been

kneeling a nd begging for their lives, kiUed amid jeering, aud I saw the stripped bodies of the gravely wounded thrown cOlltemptuously onto the ba rricades to

ma ke them higher." Friedrich von Raumer. Briefe uus PClr;.s und FrCIIlkre;ch ;n Jahre 1830 (Leipzig, 1831), vol. 2, p . 256. (£8,4)

Descriptions of barrica des of 1830: Cil . Motte, RevolutiOlu de Pa ris. 1830: Pian fig.lrarijdes barricades aim; que de.s po.s;tions et mouvements de.s c;toyell5 arme.s el de.s troupes (published b y the author ( Paris, 1830) . (£8,5]

Caption for a plate in u.s Ru;nes de Paru: 100 photogral)hies, by A. Liebert

(paris, 1871 ), vol. I : ""Barricade of the Federa tes, Constructed by Gailla rd Senior... [ES,6]

"When the emperor ... enters his ca pital , the fifty horses of bis ca rriage are at a I;;a llop; between the Gateway of Paris a nd his Louvre, he pauses under two thou· saud triumphal arches and passes before fifty colossi erected ill his image .... And this idolizing of the sovereign by hisllubjocts causes some dismay a mong tllI~ la lter­day pious, to whom it occu rs that tllt~ir idols were never recipiclits of sudl hom­age." Arsene HOllu aye, " Le Paris fUlur"; in (Duma~ . Gautier. l-IolIS8u ye , and Hl hers ,) PlI ri.s el ie. Parisien.s (III X IX- siecie (Paris. 1856), p . 460. [£8,7]

High d aily allowallccs for the depulics under Napoleon III . ]ES,S}

" The 4 ,054 harricadefi of the ' Three Glorious llays' were made fro m ... 8. 125,000 paving stones.'" Le Romanlume (Exhibitioll catalogue (at the Ilib­Iiotheque Na tiollule), J anua ry 22-Mureh 10, 1930; exphlllator y note to no. 635,

A. de Grandsagne and M. P lant . Revolution de 1830, plun des combut.s de PlI r is]. ]ES,9]

" When , last year. thousands of workers mar ched through the streets of the capital ill a menacing ca lm; when , at II time of peace and cOlluuercial prosltCrity, they

illierruptetithe course of their work ... , the govcrnment 's first responsibility was 10 take forcefullllcasures against a disturbance th at was a ll Illt~ more {Iangerolls for not knowing il8elf as such." 1... de Carne, " Publica tions democrati(IUes et

communistes," Revue de.s deux mOIU/e.s, 27 (Parill , 184 1), 1" 746. [E8a, l]

"What fate does the present movement of society have in s tore for architecture? I,..e tlls look around us . . .. Ever more monuments . ever more palaces . On aU sides

rise up great 'SlOne blocks, and everything tends toward the solid , the heavy, the vulgar; the genius of a rt is imprisoned by such an imperative. in which the imagi­

nation no longer has any room to play, can 110 longer be great , but rather is exhausted in representin~ ... the tiered orders on fa~_ade8 and in det!orating

friezes and the borders of windo"" frames. In the interior, olle finds s till more of the court , more of the peristyle, ... with the little rooms more and more confined, the studies a nd boudoirs exiletlto the niches under the spiral s taircase, . . . ·where

they constitute pigeonholes for people; it is the cellul ar system applied to the family group. The problem ooomes how, in a given space, to make lise of the least

amoullt of materials alld to pack in the greatest number of people (while isolatin~

them aU from one a nother) .... T his tendency-indeed . this fait accoDlpli- is the

result of progressi,'e subdividing.... In a word . each for him.self and each by him.selfhas incr easingly ~ome the guiding principle of society, while the puhlic

wealth ... is scaltered and s()uandered. Such are the causes , at this 1II0ment in France, for the demise of monumentally scaled residential a rchitecture. For pri­vate ha bita tions. as they become narrower, a re able to sustain but a narrow a rt .

Tile artis t, lackillg space, is reduced to making statuettes and easel paintings.... In the presently cmerp ng condi tions of society, art is driveu illto a n impas8C where

it suffocates for lack of air. It is alread y suffering the dfects of this new norm of limited a rtis tic fa cility. which ccrtllin souls , supposetlly ad" aIlCctl , st."em 10 regllrd as the goal of thei r philalltbropy .... In architecture , we do not nHlke uri fOI' 11l'I'S sake; we d o not raise monuments for the sole purpose of occupying the imagination of architects and furni shing work for painters and sculptors. What is uecessll l'y, then , is 10 apply the mon umel11 al mod e of construction ... 10 all the d ement i! of iUllllan dwelling. Wt" must make it l)Ossihle 1I0t onl y fo r a few pri,'ilcgctl individuals hu t for all people 10 live in pa laces. And if one is 10 occupy a pulace . one ~houlil properly li ve there together with others. in bonds of 88sociation .... Where al'l is concerned . therefore. it iM onl y the aSliociation of all clements of the eummunily

that can laullch the immense development we are outlining." D. Laverda.nt . De to miu iotl de I'lIr' I'll du role des artille.: Solon de 1845 (Paris. 1845). from the offices of La I' lmlatlge. pp . 13-15. [E8a,2)

" For sOllie time now, .. there have L ttll efforts to discover wher e this word bOlllevard could have come from. As for me, ) am finally sati s.fi ed as to the etymol­ogy: it is merely a variant of the word OOuleve,..ement ~commotion. upheavab ."

Edouard Fournier, Chmnique. et Ugende. de. rue. de Pari, (Pa ris, 1864). p . 16. [E9, I)

" Monsieur Pica rd , attorney for the city of Paris , ... has energeticaUy defended

the interests of the city. What he has been p resented with in the way of anteda ted leases at thc moment of expropriations, what he has had to contend with in order

10 nullify fantastic titles a nd reduce the claims of the ex propriated is almost be­yond belief. A collier for the city one d ay placed hefor" him a lealie, antedated

w me years, on paper hearing official s tamps. The simple maD believed himself ah'eady in poues8ion of a weighty 8um for his shanty. Bul he did nol know that this palM! r bore, in iu watermark , the date ofils manufacture. The attorney raised it to the lighl ; it had been made three years after the date stamped ." Auguste Lepage,

I.e. Cafe. politiqlle, et fitterai,.e. de Pam (Va ris <1874». p . 89. [E9,2)

Observations on the physiology of the uprising, in Niepovie's book: " Nothing has

changell 011 the surface, but there is something unuliual in the air. The cabriolets, omnibuses, and hacklley coaches seem to have quickened their pace, and the

drivers keep turning their heads as though someQne were aft er them. There are more groUI)S standing around than is usual. ... peQple look at one another with

an ;\:ious interrogation in their eyes. Perhal)S this urchin or this worker hastening by will know something; ami he is stopped a nd questioned . What 's going on? ask

Ihe passersby. And the urchin or the worker responds, with a smile of utter indif­

ference, 'They are gathering al the Place de la Bastille,' or 'They are galherin~ lIear the Temple' (or somewhere else), and then hurries off to wher ever they are

guthering .... On the sites themselves, Ihe scene is pretty much as he said : the population 11 118 massed to 8uch an extenl that you can hardly get through . The pavement is strewn with sheets of paper. What is it? A proclamation of I.e Monifeur republica in, which dates from the Year 50 of the one and indivisible

French republic. People have gathered , you are told , to discu88 the proclamation. T he shops have lIot yet been closed ; shols have nOI yl:lt been fired .... Now then , behold the suviors .... All of a sudden , t.he holy battalion has halted before a

house . and , just as quickly. the third-story windows are thrown open and packets of cartridges rain down . ... The distrihution is accomplished in the twinkling of all eye and. wit h that , the battalion is Ilispatched on the run-a portion 10 one ~ i(l c, II porli"tl 10 the other .... Vehicles are no longer passing 011 the streets; there is leu noise. Aud that ', why one can hear, if I do noilleceive myself .. . Listen , they' re bealing Ihe drum . It is the call to a rms. The authorilies are roused."

Caetan Niepovie, Euuie. phy.iologiquc. , ur le. grande, nuEtropole, e1e l 'Eu,.ope occidentale: Pari$ (Paris, 1840). pp . 20 1- 204. 206. [E9,3)

A barricade: " At the ent,.a nce to a narrow street , an omnibus lies wi tll its four

wlleels in the air. A pile of cr ates, which had served lM!rhaps to hold oranges. rises to the righl and to the left , and behind them. between the rims of the wheels and the openings, small fires are bluing, continually emitting small blue clouds of smoke. " Gaetan Niepovie, Etudes phy'iologique. , ur leI grllndel metropole, de ('Europe occidentale: Pari, (Paris, 1840), 1' . 207. [E9a,I)

1868: dea th of Meryon. [E9a,2)

" It has been said that Charlet and Raffet by themselvcs prepared the way for the Secoud Empire in France." Henr i Bouchot , UI Lithographie (Paris <1895» ,

pp. 8-9. [E9a,3!

From Arago's letter on the encirclement of Paris (Associations Nationales en F~veur de la I)resse Patriote) [extract from I.e Na tional of Jul y 2 1, 1833] : " All the

projected fort s, with regard to distance, would give access to the most populous

districts of the capital" (p . 5). "Two of the forts. those of Ita lie and Passy, would be enough to set fire to aU sections of Paris on the Left Bank of the Seille; ... two olhers, Fort Philippe and Fort Saint-Chaumont , could cover t.he rest of the city

with their circle of fire" (p . 8). [E9a,4)

1.11 Le Figaro of April 27, <1936,> Gaetan San voisin cites this remark by Maxime

Ou Camp: " If there were only Parisians in Paris, ther e would be no revolutionar­ies." Compare with similar statements by Ha uu mann . [E9a,5!

"A one-act play hy Engels, written in haste alld performed in Septemher 1847 at the Gennall Alliance for Workers in Brussels, already ,.ep resented a hattie on the barricades in a German petty state--a battle ....hich ended ....ith the abdication of

the prince and the proclamation of a republic. " Custav Mayer, Friedrich Engeu , vol. I, F,.iedrich Engeu in !einer Friihzeit , 211d etl. (Berlin d 933». p. 269. I:

[E9a,6)

During the suppression of the June Insurrection , a rtiller y came to he used for the first time ill s treet fightin g. [E9a,7)

Haussmann's attitude toward the Parisian population recalls that of Guttot ta­ward the proletariat. Guizot characterized the proletariat as the "external popula­tion." (See Georgi Plekhanov, "Oher die Anfange der Lehre vom K.lassenkampP,' Die neue' Zeit, 21, no. 1 (Swttgan, 1903), p. 285. [E9a,8}

Tile building of barrica"e~ a ppears in Fourier as an example of " nonsalariell hut impassioned work." [E9a,9j

T he practice of bamboozling the municipal exp ropriations committee became a n industry under Ha USSmallIl . "Small tradcrs and shopkt."epers ... would be 811p­"Iiell ,,; th fa lse book8 a nd inventorie1l, and , whcn necessar y. their p remise8 would (it turned out) be n~wl y retlecorated a nd refurnished ; while during the vi8it of the cllmmiltee to the p remise8, a conSlant stream of unexpeclt."(1 clistomCr8 would pour in ." S. Kracauer, Jocqlles Offenbach Ilntl tlos Poris seiller Zeit (Amsterda m,

1937), p . 254. LJ [EIO, I)

Cit y pla nning in Fourier : " Each avenue, each 8treet , should open onto 80me pa r­

ticula r prospect, whether the countrY8ide or a public monument. The custom of civilized nation8-where streets come to an end with a wall , as in fortresses, or with a heap of ea rth , as in the newer 8t.'Ction8 of Mar seille8-sholild be avoided .

Ever y house that faces thc strttl should be obliged 10 have ornamcntation of the fi rst class, in the ga rdens as well as on the buildings." Charles Fourier, Cite,

Oll vrieres: Des modifica tions it intmduire dans " a rchitecture des villes <extracu from LA. Phau.n8e~ (Par is, (849), p . 27. (E IO,2]

In connection with I-Iaussmann : " The mythic structure develops rapidly: opposing the vaU city i8 the legenda ry her o destined to conquer it . In fact , ther e are hardly

an y works of the period that do not contain 80me invocation in8pired b y the ca pital, a nd the celebrated cr y of R astignacl~ is of unusual simplicity .... The

heroes of Ponson <iu Terrail are more lyrical in their inevitable apostrophe to the ' modern Babylon ' (thi8 is always the name used for Paris), See, for example, that

, , , of the ... false Sir Williams in the novel Le Club des Valets de coeur: ' 0 Paris, Pa ris! You are the true Babylon , the true a rena of intellectual battle, the true

temple where evil has its cult and its priesthood; and 1 a m sure that the breath of tile archangel of shadows passes over you eternally, like the winds over the infinity

of the seas. 0 motiollleu tempest , ocea n of s tone, I want 10 be that d ark eagle which , amid your a ngr y wa\'es, d isdains Ihe lightning and sleeps cheer fully on the thunderstorm, his great wing extended . I want to be the genius of e\'il , the vulture

of the seas, of this most perfidious a nd tempestuous sea on which the human passions toss and unfur l. ,.. Roger Caillois, " Pa ris, my the moderne," Nouvelle

Relmeff"Um;aise, 25, no. 284 (May I , 1937), p. 686. [EIO,3]

Blanquist re \'olt of May 12 , 1839: '"' He had wailed a week to profit from the instal­lation of new troops unfamiliar with the maze of Pa ris streets. The thousand men

0 11 whom he counted for the engagement \'I'ere supposed to assemble hetweell the Hue Sain t-Denis und the Rue Saint-Ma rtin . Under a lIIugnifi cent Sun . , . to­warll three in the aft ernoon , in the midst of a burgeoning Sunday cr owd , the rc \'oill tioll ury bU1ll1 all at once muster s and appear8, Immedi ately a vacuum , a 8ilellce, sets in around them, " G ustave Geffroy, L 'E rlf er llle (Pa r is, 1926), vol. I , pp.81-82. {E IOa, l]

In 1830, rope wus used , omong ot.her things, to ba rricade the streets. [EI0a,2]

Raslignac's (amous challenge (ci ted in Messac <Le "Detective Novel" et I'influence de fa pensee ,ciem ifU/ue [Paris, 1929]), pp . 41 9-420): " Eugene. now alone, walked a few steps to the topmost part of the graveya rd . He 8aw Paris , spread windingly along the two banks o( the Seine. Lighu were beginning to twinkle. His gaze fixed itself almost avidly on the space between the column in the Place Vendome a nd tile cupola of Les Invalides. There lived the world into which he had ,,;shed to penetrate. He fastened on the murmurous hive a look that seemed al· read y to be sucking the honey from it , and uttered these words: 'Now I ' m ready

for yoU! "'I ~ [EIOa,3]

To the theses of Haussmann corresponds the tabulation of Du Camp , according to which the population of Paris during the Commune was 75.5 percent foreigners

and pro\'incials. [E lOa,4]

For the Blanquist putsch of August 14, 1870,300 revolvers and 400 heavy dag· gers were made available. It is characteristic of the street fighting in this period that the workers preferred daggers to revolvers. [EI0a,5]

Kaufmann plaees a t the head of his chapter entitled " Architectural Autonomy" an

epigr aph from Le Contrat social: " a form . , . in which each is united with all , yet obeys only himself a nd remains as free as before.-Such is the fundamental prob­lem that the 80cial contract solves" (p. 42).16 In this chapter (p . 43): " (Ledoux]

j us tifi etl the separ ation of the buildinp in the second project for Cbaux with the

words: ' Return to principle .... Consult nature; man is everywhere isolated' (Ar­chitectare, p. 70). The feudal principle of prer evolutionary society ... can have no further validity now. .. The autonomously grounded form of every object

makes all striving after theatrical effect appear sell8eleu.. , . At a stroke, it would seem, ... the Bar oque a rt of the prospect disappears from Bight." E. Kaufmann,

Von Ledoux bis Le Corbwier (Vienna a nd Leipzig, 1933), p. 43. (EIOa,6j

"The renunciation of the picture8llue has its architectural equivalent in the refusal of all pr08IJCcl-a rt . A highly significant symptom is the sudden diffusion of the

silhouette.... Steel engra ving and wood engraving supplant the mezzotint , which had fl ourished in the Ba roque age .... To anticipate our conclusions, ... let it be said·that the a utonomous principle retains its effi cacy . .. in the first decades a fter the architecture of the Revolution , becoming ever weaker with the pauage of time

until , in the later decades of Ihe nineteenth century. it is virtuaUy unrecogniz­ahle." Emil Ka ufmann . Von Ledoux bis Le Corbwier (Vienna and Leipzig, 1933), pp , 47, 50. [E II ,I]

Napoleon Gaill ard : builder of the mighty ba rricade that . in 187 1, 8tood at the

entra nce of the Rue Royale a nd the Rue de Rivoli. [Ell.']

"At the curlier of the Rue de la Chaussee-d 'Antin and the Rue Basse-du-Ramparl , there sit8 a house that is rema rka ble for t.he caryatids on the fa -;ade facing the Rue

Basse-du-Rampart. Because this lalle r sireN must disappear. the magnificent house with Ihe caryatids, built only twenly yeurs ago, is going 10 he {Icmolished. The jury for expropriations grunts Ihe dll'ee miUion francs {lclllumle(1 by Ihe

owner and approved by the cily. Three miUion! What a useful and pro{luctive expenditure!" Auguste Blanqui , Critique socia Ie, vol. 2 , Progments et Tlotes (Paris , 1885). p. 341. [EII ,3]

"Against Paris. Ollilurate scheme to clear oul the cily, 10 disper se its population of

workers. Hypocritically-on a humanitarian pretext- they propose to redistrib­

ute throughout the 38,000 townships of France the 75 ,000 workers afft,-.: ted by

unemployment. 1849. " B1anqui . Critique sociale. vol. 2 , Fragmellts et Tlotes (Paris, 1885) , p. 313. [Ell ,4]

" A Monsieur d ' Havrincourt receutIy expounded on the strategic theory of civil

war. The troops must never be a llowed to spend much time in the main areas of

disturbance. They are corrupted by contact with the rebels and refuse to fire

freely when repression becomes necessa ry.... The best system: construct citadels

dominating the suspect towns and ready at any moment to crush them . Solmen

must he kept garrisoned, away from the popular contagion." Auguste Blanqui,

Critique sociale, vol. 2 (Paris , 1885), pp. 232-233 (" Saint-Etienne. 1850").

[Ell ,SI

"The Haussmanization of Paris and the provinces is one of the great plagues of the

Second Empire. No one will ever know how many thousands of unfortunates have

lost their lives as a consequence of deprivations occasioned by these senseless

constructious. The devouring of so many millions is one the principal causes of the

present distress.... 'When building goes well , everything goes well,' runs a popu­

lar adage, which has attained the s latus of economic u1I:iom. By this standard , a

huudred pyramids of Cheops, rising together iuto t.he clouds, would attest to

overflowing prosperity. Singular calculus. Yes, ill a well-ordered state, where

thrift did not strangle exchange, construction would be the true measure of public

fortune. For then it would reveal a growth in population aud all excess of labor

that ... would lay a foundation for t.he future. In any ot.her circumstances, the

trowel merely betrays the murderous fanta sies of absolutism , which , when its fury

for war momentarily slackens , is seized by the fury for building.... All merce­

nary tongues have been loosed in a chorus of celebration for the great works that

are renewing the face of Paris. Nothing 80 sad, so lacking in !Social spoutaneil y, as

this vast shifting of stoues by the hand of despotism. There is no more dismal

symptom of decadeuce. In proportion as Rome collapsed in agony, il s monuments

grew more lIumerous and more colossal. It was building its own sepulclle r aud

making ready to die gloriously. Bul us for the modern wodd- it has no wish to die, and human stupidity is nearing its em!. People are weary ()f grandiose homicidal

ac ts. The projects that have so dis rupted tile capital , conditione{1 as they are on

repression and vanity. have failed the future no le8s thun the present. " A. Blanljui .

Critique &ocialc, vol. 1, CalJitai et travail (Parill , 1885) , I'p. 109- 111 (conclusion of " Le LU1l:e"). The foreword to Capital e' tm vail ill daled May 26, 1869.

[ElIa, l]

" The illusions aboul lhe fallta slic s tructures are dispelled . Nowhere are there

materia ls other thu.1l t.he hundred simple bodies . ... It ill with this meager assort­

ment that the universe is necessa rily made and remade, without respite. M. Hauu­

malin had just as much 10 rebuild Paris with; he had precisely tbese materials . It is

nol variety that stands out in his construct ions. Nature , which a lso demolishes in

order 10 reCOllstruct , docs a littJe better with the things it c reates. It kuows how to

make such good lise of its meager resources that one hesit ates to say ther e is a liuut

to the origillality of its works." A. Blanqui, L 'Etemite p(lr les futres: Hypothese astronomique (Paris, 1872), p. 53. (EIla,2]

Di( TZeU( Wdtbiihn(, 34, no. 5 (February 3, 1938), in an essay by H. Budzislawski, "Croesus Builds" (pp. 129-130), quotes Engels' "Zur WOhnungsfrage" <On the Housing QyestiOID of 1872: "In reality the bourgeoisie has only one method of settling the ho.using question after its fashion-that is to say, of settling it in such a way that the solution continually poses the question anew. This method is called 'Haussmarm.' By the term 'Haussmarm,' I do not mean merely the specifically Bonapartist manner of the Parisian Haussmann-cutting long, straight, broad streets right through closely built working-class neighborhoods and lining them on both sides with big luxurious buildings, the intention having been, apart from the strategic aim of making barricade fighting more difficult, to develop a spe­cifically Bonapartist building-trades proletariat dependent on the government, and to tum the city into a luxury city pure and simple. By 'Haussmann' I mean the practice, which has now become general, of making breaches in the working­class neighborhoods of our big cities, particularly in those which are centrally situated .... The result is everywhere the same: the most scandalous alleys ... disappear to the accompaniment of lavish self-glorification by the bourgeoi­sie . .. , but-they reappear at once somewhere else, often in the inunediate neighborhood." 17_ With this goes the prize question: Why was the mortality rate in London so much higher in the new working-class districts (around 1890?) than in the slums?-Because people went hungry so that they could afford the high rents. And Peladan's observation: the nineteenth century forced everyone to

secure lodgings for himself, even at the cost offood and clothing. [EI 2,1 ]

Is it true, as Paul \r\b:tJleim maintains in his article "Die neue Siegesallee" (Di( 'Uiu Weltbiihn(, 34, no. 8, p. 240), that Haussmann spared Parisians the misery of large blocks of Bats? (EI 2,2]

Haussmann who, faced with the city plan of Paris, takes up Rastignac's cry of "A !lOllS deux maintenant! " [EI 2,3]

'''The new boulevarl18 !Jave intr(Hluced light and air inlo unwholesome districts, 11111 have done so hy wiping oul , along their way, almost aU the courtyards and ga.·dens-w!Jich moreover lJave beell ruled oul by the progressive rise in real estate prices. " Victor Fournel , Paris nOlwcau et ParisfutlLr (Paris. 1868), p. 224 (" Conclusion"). [E12,4J

The oltl Paris hewails the monotony of the new streets; whereupon the new Paris I"I:SPOlld 8:

Why allihese reproaches? . Thanks 10 the straight line, the eue of travel il arfords, One avoids the shock of many a vehicle. And , if one's eyes are good , one Jikewise avoids The fools, the borrowers, the bailiffs, the bores: Lasl hut nOlleast, down the whole length of the avenue, Each pll8serby now avoids the others, or nods from afar.

M. Bartlu':lelllY, Le VieliX Paris e t Ie nouvea" (Paris, 1861), PI'. 5-6. [EI2a,I J

The old Pa ris: "The rent devours all , and they go without meat." M. Barthelemy, l...e Vieux Paris et Ie nouvealt (Paris, 1861 ), p. 8. [E12a,2]

Victor Fournel, in his Paris nouveau et Paris fuwr (Paris, 1868). pa rticularly in the section "Un chapitre des mines de Paris moderne," gives an idea of the scale 011 which Haussmann engineered destruction in Paris. "Modern Paris is a parvenu that goes back no further in time than its own beginnings, and that razes the old

palaces and old churches to build in their place beautiful white hou8e8 with stucco ornaments and pasteboard 8tatue8. In the previous century, to write the annals of the monuments of Paris was to write the allnals of Pa ris itself, from its origins up

through each of its epochs; soon , however, it will be ... merely to write the annals of the last twent y yea rs of our OWD existence" (pp. 293-294). [E12a,3)

Fournel, in his eminent demonstration of Haussmann's misdeeds: " From the Fau­bourg Saint-Germain to the Faubourg Saint-Honore, from the Latin Quarter to the environs of the Palais-Royal, from the Faubourg Saint-Denis to the Chaussee

d 'Antin , from the Boulevard des ItaLiens to the Boulevard du Temple, it seemed , in each case, th at you were passing from one continent to another. It all made for so many distinct small cities within the capital city-a city of study, a city of

COlllmerce, a city of luxury, a city of refuge , a city of movement and of popular pleasures-aU of them nonetheless Linked to one another by a h08t of gradations a nd transitions. And this is what is being obliterated ... by the construction ever ywhere of the same geollletrical and rectilinear street , with its unvarying mile­la ug perspective a nd its continuous rows of houses that are alwa ys the same house." Victor Fournel , Paris 1I0uvet!lt et Paris futlLr, PI'. 220-221 ("'Con­clusion"). [E12a,4)

"They ... transplant the Boulevard des haliells in its entirety to the Montagne Sainte-Genevieve--with about as much utility and profit as a hothouse flower in the forest- and they create Rues de RivoH in the ancient city center, which has no need of them. Eventually this cradle of the capital , having been demolished , will comprise at most a barracks, a church , a hospita l, and a palace." Victor Fournel, Pari$ nOlweal~ et Puris futur (Paris, 1868), p. 223. The last thought echoes a stanza from Hugo's "A l' Arc de Triolllphe. " [E13, I)

Haussmann's work is accomplished today, as the Spanish war makes clear, by quite other means. [E13,2]

Temporary tenants under Haussmann : "The industrial nomads among the Dew ground-floor Parisians fall into three principal categories: commercial photogra­

phers; dealers in bric-a. -brac who run buaars and cheap shops; and exhibitors of curiosities, particularly of female giants. Up to now, these interestin g personages have numbered among those who have profited the most from the transformation of Paris." Victor Fournel, Paris nouveau et Parisfllwr (Paris, 1868), pp. 129-130

("Promenade pittoresque a. travers Ie nouveau Paris") . [E t3,31

"The covered market of u s Hailes, by universal consent, constitutes the most

irreproachable construction of the past dozen years.... It manifests one of those logical harmonies which satisfy the mind by the obviousness of its signification. " Victor Fournel, Paris nouveau et Pa ri.tflt tur, p. 213. [E13,4]

Already Tissot invites speculation : "The cit y of Paris is supposed to make a series of loans totaling hundreds of millions of francs and , at the same time, purchase the better part of a qltarti.er in order to r ebuild it in a manner conforming to the re­

quirt ments of tas te, hygiene, and ease of communication. Here is matter for speculation ." Anll':dee de Tissot , Paris et wndres compare.t (Paris, 1830), pp.46-47. [E13,51

In Le Paue, Ie present , l'a venir de la Repltblique (Pa ris, 1850), p. 3 1 (cited in

<Jean> Cassou, Quarante-huit (Paris, 1939>, PI'. 174-175), Lamartllie already speaks of the "nomadic, indecisive, and dissolute city dweller!! who are corrupted by their idJeness in public places and who go whichever way the wind of factional­ism blows, heeding the voice of hip! who shouts the loudest ." [E13a,l ]

Stahl on the Parisian tenement houses: " It was already [in the Middle Ages] an overpopulated metropolis that was squeezed within the tight belt of a walled for· tification. For the mass of people, there were neither single-fa mily houses nor separately owned houses nor even modest cottages. Buildings of lIIany stories were erec ted on the narrowest of lots, generally allowing only two, often only one, front window (though elsewhere three-window houses were the rule). These buildings usually remained wholly unadorned , and when they did not simply come to a stop

al Ihe top, I.llere was al mosl II single gahle affixed ther e .. .. On tile roofs. the siluation was stra uge enough . wi th unllssuming superstructures and IIIlIlIsardes nestled ncxt to Ihe chimney flues. whicll were placed ext remely close to one an­other." Sta hl SI'CS, in the freedom of the roofi ng structures-a freedom to which modern a rchitects ill Pa ris Li kewise adhere--"a fa ntastic and thoroughl y Gothic element:' Fritz Sta hl . P(lris (Berlin (1929»), pp. 79--80. [E13a,2]

" Ever ywhere ... the peculiar chimneys serve only to heighten the disorder of these for ms [the mansa rdes]. T his is . .. a trait common to aU Parisian houses. £" el\ tile oldest of them have that high waU from which the tops of the chimney

flues extend.... We are fa r relllo"ed here from the Roman style , which has been taken to be the foundation of Parisia n a rchitecture. We are in fact lIearer ill!

opposite, the Gothic, to which the chimneys clearly allude . .. . If we want to call this more loosely a " nortllern s tyle." then we can see that a second .. . northern

element is present to mitigate the Roma n character of the streets. This is none other than die modern boulevards and a venues .. . • which are planted , for the IllOst pa rt. with tn.'C8; . .. a nd rows of trees. of cour se , are a feature of the north­

ern city. " Fritz Stahl , P(lris (Berlin), pp. 2 1- 22. [E13a,3]

In Ilaris, die modern house has " developed gradually out of the preexisting one. T his could happell hecallse die preexisting one was already a lar ge townhouse of

the type cr eated here .. . in the seventeentll century 0 11 tile Place Ven<lome. where today the residential palaces of former times have come to harbor husine88 e&tab~

lishments of ever y kind- without having suffered die leas t altera tion to their fa ..adea." Fritz Sta hl , Paris (Berlin), p . 18 . (E14]

A plea for Ha uu mann : " It is well k nown that . . . the nineteenth century entirely lost , together with other fundamental concepts of art. the concept of the ci ty u ...

a unified whole. Henceforth there was no longer any city p lanning. New huildinp ....ere introduced into the old network of str eets without a "Ian. and they were

expallded without a pla n .... What ca n properly be called t ile a rchitectural his­tory of a city ... ....as in this way everywllere terminated . Paris is the only excep­tion , a lld as such it was greeted ...;th incomprehension and disapproval"

(pp. 13-14 ). '''I'hrt.'C gellcratiolls failed to "lIderstood what city pl anning is . We know ....hat it is, but in our case this knowledge generally brings only regret for

missell oppOl·ltlllit ies . .. . These considerations make itl'ossible to a pprociate the only cit y plan " er or genius in the modern ....orld- a mall , moreover, who indirectly created nil tire Alllcrican metropolises" (pp. 168-169). " It is solely intilis per spec­tive. then . thllt HaU8Sllll.l llll 'S great thoroughfares take 011 thei r reo lllleaning. With them, Ihe nl'W cily . . . intervenes ill the old and, in a certain sellse, draws 0 11 the 01(1, ....ithout otllt:r wise violating il.8 cha racter. Thus , these tlloroughrarcs lIIay be soillt o Inlve. along .... ith their utility. all aesthetic effect , such th otl.he old cit y and the new a rc IIot left ~hllilling opposite each other, as is the cose everywhere else, but a re drawn togclhcr into one. The moment you come out of some ancient lane onto one of Haun mann 's avenues, you ' re ill contact ...;th this ne ....er Paris-the

Paris of the past three centuries . For Haun mann took over not only the form of the avenue alld boulevarll but also the form of the house from the imperial capital laid out hy Louis xrv. That is why his Itreets can perform the function of making the city into a conspicuous unity. No. he has not destroyed Paris; ~ather, he h u brought it to completion .... This must be acknowledged even .... lIen you realize how much beauty was sacrificed .... Uau1I8mann was alsuredly a fanatic-but his work could be accomplished only by a fanatic." Fritz Stahl, Pam: Eille Stadt au KURstwerl..· (Berlin). pp . 173-174. [E14a]

F [Iron Construction 1

Each epoch dreams the one to foIlO\....

- Michelet, ~A,"l:nirl AV(:llirl" (Europt, 73, p. 6)

Dialectica1 deduction of iron construction: it is contrasted both with Greek con­struction in stone (raftered ceiling) and with medieval construction in stone (vaulted ceiling). "Another an, in which another static principle establishes a tom:

even more magnificent than that of the other two, will struggle from the womb of time to be born.... A new and unprecedented ceiling system, one that will naturally bring in its wake a whole new realm of art forms, can ... make its appearance only after some particular material-fonnerly neglected, if not un­known, as a basic principle in that application-begins to be accepted. Such a material is ... iron. which our cenrury has already staned to employ in this sense. In proportion as its static properties are tested and made known, iron is destined to serve, in the architecture of the future, as the basis for the system of ceiling construction ; and with respect to statics, it is destined to advance this system as far beyond the Hellenic and the medieval as the system of the arch advanced the Middle Ages beyond the monolithic stone-lintel system of antiq­uity.... If the static principle of force is thus borrowed from vaulted construc­tions and put to work for an entirely new and unprecedented system, then. with regard to the art forms of the new system, the fonnal principle of the Hellenic mode must lind acceptance." <um hu'ndvtjiihrig(1l Ceburl.stag 1W.rl BfMtticilerJ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 42, 44--46. (The principle of H ellenic architecrure and Ger­manic architecrure as carried over into the architecrure ofour time.) (FI ,I)

G lass before its time, premarure iron. 10 the arcades, both the most brittle and the strongest materials suffered breakage ; in a cenain sense, they \\-"ere dea?""e~d. Around the middle of the past cenrury, it was not yet known how to build with glass and iron. Hence, the light that fell from above, through tlle panes between the iron supports, was dirty and sad. (Fl ,2]

"The mid-1830s see the appearance or the first iron rUrnilUre. in the rorm or bedsteads, chair8, small tallle8, j(lrrlinii~refj; a nd it i8 highly cllIJrllcteriii tic or the CPOcll that this rurniture was prererred beca use it could be mllde to imitill c per-

reedy a ny type or wood. Shortly arter 1840, rully padded rurniture appears in Frallcc. and ",;t!1 it the upholstered style become8 dominant." 1\1al[ Yon Doehn, Die Mocle illl XIX. j(l/ir/lllflderl , vol. 2 (Munich , 19(7), p . 131 . [FI .3)

The two great advances in technology-gas' and cast iron-go together. "Aside from the great quantity of lights maintained by the merchants, these galleries are illuminated in the evening by thirty-four jets of hydrogen gas mounted on cast­iron volutes on the pilasters." The quote is probably referring to the Galerie de l'Opera. J. A. Dulaure, Histoire de ParU . .. depuis 1821 jUJqu'jz nrujourJ, vol. 2 « Paris, 1835), p. 29). [F I,4)

'"'The stagecoach gallops up to the quay, by the Seine. A bolt of lightning Rashes over the Pont d'Austeriitz. The pencil comes to rest." Karl Gutzkow, Briefi aUJ Paris, vol. 2 <i..eipzig, 1842), p. 234. The Austerlitz Bridge was one of the first iron structures in Paris. With the lightning Bash above, it becomes an emblem of the dawning technological age. Close by, the stagecoach with its team of black horses, whose hoofs strike romantic sparks. And the pencil of the Genna.n author who sketches them: a splendid vignette in the style of Grandville.

[F1,51

" In reality, we know of no beautiful thea ters, no beautiful rail road 8tation8 , DO

bea utiful exhibition halls, no beautiful casinos-that is to 8ay, no ooautiful hou8es

of industry or of frivolity." Maurice Talmeyr, UI Cite du suns (Paris. 1908), p. 277. (Fl,6]

Mugic of Clls t iron : " l:Iahbllez was able then to cOllvince him8elf that the ring

a round this planet was nothing other than a circular balcony on ",·h.ich the inhabi­tants or Saturn strolled in the evening to get a breath or fresh air." Grandville. Un (llIIre lII,omle (Pari8 (844» , p . 139. 0 Ha8hish 0 [Fl ,7]

10 mentionin g factories built in the style of residential houses, and o ther things of this kind, we must take into account the following parallel from the history of architecture: "I said earlier that in the period of 'sensibility: temples were erected to friendship and tenderness; as taste subsequently rumed to the classical style, a host of temples o r temple·like buildings immediately sprang up in gardens, in parkS, on hills. And these were dedicated no t only to the Graces or to Apollo and the M uses; fann buildings. tOO, including bams and stables, were built in the style of temples." J acob Falke. CeJchichte deJ modmun GeJchmaclu (Leipzig, 1866). pp. 373-374. lllcre are thus masks of architecture, and in such masquerade the arcllitecture of Berlin around 1800 appears on Sundays, like a ghost at a costume ball. [Fla,l ]

"Every tradesman imitates the materials and methods of others. and r.hink.s he has accomplished a miracle of taste when he brings out porcelain cups resenl­bling the work of a cooper, glasses resembling porcelains, gold jewelry like leather

thongs, iron tables with the look of rattan, and so on. Into this arena rushes the confectioner as we11-quite forgetting his proper domain, and the touchstone of his taSte- aspiring to be a sculptor and architect.n Jacob Falke, Gescnichte des motkmen Gmnmadf.J, p. 380. This perplexity derived in pan from the superabun· dance of technical processes and new materials that had suddenly become avail· able. The effort to assimilate them more thoroughly led to mistakes and failures. On the other hand, these vain attempts are the most authentic proof that techno· logical production, at the beginning, was in the grip of dreams. (Not architecture alone but all technology is, at certain stages, evidence of a collective dream.)

[Fla,2]

" With iron construction- a s«ondary genre, it is true--a new art was born. The

east-side railroad station designed by Duquesnay, the Gare de l 'Est, was in this regard worthy of archit«ts' attention. The use of iron greatly increased in that

period , thanks to the new combinations to which it lent itself. Two quite differ ent but equally remarkable works in this genre deserve to be mentioned fi rs t : the Bihliotheque Sainte-Genevieve and the cental marketplace, Les Halles. The latter

is ... a veritable archetype: reproduced several times in Paris and other cities, it proceeded. as the Gothic cathedral had done, to appear aU over France.... Nota­

ble improvements can be observed in the details. The monumental lead-work bas become rich and elegant ; the railings, candelabras, and mosaic flooring all testify

to an often successful (Iuest for beauty. Technological advances have made it possi­ble to sbeathe cast iron with copper, a process which must not be abused. Ad­

vances in luxury have led . even more successfully, to the replacemeDl of cast iron by bronze , something which has turned the streetlamps in certain public places

into objets d'art. " 0 Gas 0 Note to this passage: "In 1848, .5,763 tons of iron en­tered Paris; in 1854, 11 ,771; in 1862 , 41 ,666; in 1867. 61,.572." E. Levasseur,

Hutoire des classes ouvneres et de l'indw trie en France de 1789 a1870, vol. 2

(Paris, 1904), pp . .531-.532. [Fl a,3}

" Henri Labrouste, an artist whose talents a re sober and severe. successfully in­augurated the ornamental use of iron in the COllstruction of the Bihliothet(ue Sainte-Genevieve and the Bibliotheque Nationale." Levasseur, llutoire des classes ouvrreres, p. 197. [Fla,4]

First constr uction of Les Halles in 18.51 , long after the p roje<:t had heen approved

by Napoleon in 181 1. It met with general disfavor. This stone structure was known as ie/ort de la HaUe. " It was a n unfortunate attempt which will not be repeated. ... A mode of construction better suited to the end proposed will now he sougbt . The glassed sections of the Gare d e l' Ouest amI the memory of the Crystal Palace, which bad housed the world exhibition at London in 18.51, were no doubt respon­sihle for the idea of using glalili and cast iron almost exclusively. Today we ca n see the justification for turning 10 such lightweight materiab. which , beller than an y others, fulfill ed t.he conditiolls laid down for these estahlishmcnts. Work on Les

Hailes has not let up since 1851, yet lhey are still not finished." Maxime Du Camp, Pari.! (Paris, 1875), yol. 2. I'p. l21 - 122. [Fla,S)

Plan for a train stat ion intemled to repla~:e the Ga re Saint-Lazare .. Corner of Place de la Madeleine li nd Rue Tronchet. " According to the report, the rails-supported by ' elegant cast-iron arclu:s rising twenty feet above the ground , and having a length of 61.5 meters'- would have crossed the Rue Saint-Lazare, the Rue Saint_ Nicola~, the Ruedes Mathurin... , and the Rue CasteUane , each of which would have had its own station."0 FUineur. Railroad sta tion near (?) the streets 0 " ... Merely

by looking at thcm, we ca n see how little these plans actua lly anticipated the futu re of the railroads. Although d cscribed as ' monumental ,' the fa~ade of this train station (which , fortunately, was never built) is of unusually small dimensions; it

would 1I0t even serve to accommodate one of those shops tha t nowadays extend along the corners of certain intersections. It is a sort of Italian ate building, three stories high , with each story Il avingeight windows; the main ent rance is marked by

a s tairway of twenty-four steps leading to a semicircuJar IJOrch wide enough for five or six persons to pass through side b y side. " Du Camp , Pa ru, vol. I , pp. 238­

ill ~ij

The Gare de l 'Ouest (today?) presents " the double aspect of a factory in operation and a ministry." Ou Camp , Paru, vol. I , p. 241. "With your back to the three

tunnels that pass under the Boulevanl des BatignoUes, you call take in the whole of the train station . You see that it almost bas the shape of an immense mandolin: the

rails would form the strings, and the signal posts, pl aced at every crossing of the tracks, would form the pegs." 011 Camp, Paris, vol. I , p . 2.50. (F2,2]

"Charon . . . r uined by the installation of a wire footbridge ovcr thc Styx. " Grand­ville, Un alllre moncle (Paris, 1844), p. 138. (F2 ,3]

The first act of Offenbach 's Vie parisiennc takes place in a railroad station . "The iudustrial U10vemellt seems to run in the hlood of this generat ion- to such an

extcnt that. fo r example, Flaehat has b uilt his house on a plot of land where, on either side , trains arc always whistling by. " Sigfried Gie<lion , Ballen in Fmnkreich (Leipzig and Berlin <1928» . p. 13. Eugenc Flacha t (1802-1873), builder of rail­roads, designer. [1-'2 ,4)

On the Calerie d 'O.-leans in the Pa lais- Hoyal (1829- 183 1): "Even Fontainc, one of IIH~ origina tors of the Empi re ~ ty le, is cOIl Ycrted ill la ter years to the new material. III 183.5-1836. moreover, he replaced the wooden flooring of the Galeric des Dutailles in VerSililles wit h an iron assemhl y.- These galleries , like thosc in the Palais- Hoyal, were subsequently perfected in Italy. For U8 , tlICY li re a point of depilrt urc fo r new urchitectural!)I"oblellls: traill stations, and the like." Sigfricd Cicdioll , Bnllen ill J.'rallkreich , p. 2 1. [F2 ,5]

"The complicatt.."'! construction (out of iron and copper) of the Corn Exchange in 1811 was the work of the archite<:t BeUange and the tlngin~r Brunet. It is the first tillle. 10 our knowledge, that architect and engineer are no longer united in one person . .. Hittorff, the builder of the Care tlu Nord , got hill insight into iron construction frolll BeUangc.- Naturally, il is a matter more of all application of iron than a eonSlruction in iron. TeeilltiqutlS of wood construction were simply transposed to iron. " Sigfricd Giedioll , Hauen in Fnwkreich. p. 20. [F2,6)

Apropos of Veugny's covered market built in 1824 near the Madeleine: "The slen­derness of the delicate cast-iron columns brings to mind Pompeian wall paintings. 'The construction , in iron and cast iron, of tbe new market near Ihe Madeleine i, one of the most graceful achievements in this genre. One cannot imagine anything more elegant or in better taste .. . .' Eck , 7raile." Sigfried Giedion , Hauen in Frankreich , p. 21. [F2,7)

"The most important step toward industrialization: mechanical prefabrication of specific forms (sections) out of wrought iron or steel. The fields interpenetrate: ... in 1832, railroad workers began lIot with buildillg components but with rails. Here is the point of deparlure for sectiollal iron , which is the basis of iron construction. [Note 10 this passage: The new methods of construction penetrate slowly into industry. Double-T iroll was used in flooring for the first time in Paris in 1845, when the masolls were oul on strike and the price of woo<l had risen due to in­creased construction and larger spans. ]" Ciedion , Hauen in Frankreich, p. 26.

(F2 ,8)

The first structures made of iron served transitory purposes: covered markets. railroad stations, exhibitions. Iron is thus immediately allied with functional moments in the life of the economy. What was once functional and transitory, however, begins today, at an altered-tempo, to seem fonnal and stable. (F2 ,9)

" Les Hailes consiSI of two groups of pavilions joined to each other by covered lancs. It is a somewhat timid iroll structure that avoids the generous spans of Iloreau alld Flachal and obviously keeps to the model of the greenhouse." Giedioll , Hauen if! Franl.;reich . p. 28. (F2a,l)

On the Gare tlu Nord: " Here they have entirely avoided Ihat abUlltlanee of space whit:h is fount! in wailing rooms, cutrywa ys, and rcstaurants arolllld 1880, and which led 10 the problem of the railroad Slatioll as exaggerate,1 baroque palace." Gicdioll , Huuen ill Frtlllkreicli , p. 31. [F2a,2)

""Vherever the n.ineteenth century feels itself to be unobserved, it grows bold." Giedion, Baum in Frallkreich, p. 33. In fact, this sentence holds good in the general fonn that it has here : the anonymous art of the illustrations in family mag-.wncs and children's books, for example, is proofof the poinl. [F2a,3)

Railroad stations <Balmhi!fe>used to be known as Eisrnhahnhi!fe.3 [F2a,4)

There is talk of renewing art by beginning with fonns . But arc nOt fonns the true mystery of nature, which reserves to itself the right to remunera.te- precisely through them- the accurate, the objective, the logical solution to a problem posed in purely objective temu? When the wheel was invented, enabling continuous forward motion over the ground, wouldn't someone there have been able to say, with a certain justification, "And now, into the bargain, it 's round- it 's in theform ofa whed'!" Are not all great conquests in the field offomu ultimately a matter of technical discoveries? Only now are we beginning to guess what fonus-and they will be determinative for OUT epoch-lie hidden in machines. "To what extent the old fonns of the instruments of production influenced their new forms from the outset is shown, . .. perhaps more strikingly than in any other way, by the attempts, before the invention of the present locomotive, to construct a loco­motive that actually had two feet, which, after the fashion of a horse, it raised alternately from the ground. It is only after considerable development of the science of mechanics, and accumulated practical experience, that the fonn of a machine becomes settled entirely in accordance with mechanical principles, and emancipated from the traditional fonn of the tool that gave rise to it." (In this sense, for example, the supports and the load, in architecrure, are also "fonus.") Passage is from Marx, Kapital, vol. 1 (Hamburg, 1922), p. 347n.~ [F2a,5)

1brough the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, architecture is linked with the plastic arts. "That was a disaster for architecture. In the Baroque age, this lllLity had been perfect and self-evident. In the course of the nineteenth century, however, it became untenable." Sigfried Giedion, Bauen in Frankreich <Leipzig and Berlin, 1928>, p. 16. This not only provides a very important perspective on the Ba­roque ; it also indicates that architecture was historically the earliest field to out· grow ~e concept of art, or, beuer, that it tolerated least well being contemplated as "art"-a category which the nineteenth century, to a previously unimagined extent but with hardly more justification at bottom, imposed on the creations of intellecrual productivity. (F3, I)

The dusty fata morgana of the winter garden., the dreary perspective of the train statiqn, with the small altar of happiness at the intersection of the tracks- it all ~olders under spurious constructions, glass before its time, premature iron. For m. the first third of the previous cenrury, no one as yet understood how to build WIth glass and iron. That problem, however, has long since been solved by hangars and silos. Now, it is the same with the human material on the inside of ~e arcades as with the materials of their construction. PinlPS are the iron bear­Illgs of this street, and its glass breakables are the whores. (F3.2)

"The new ' architecture' <Baurn) has ils origin in the momenl uf industry's fOI'mu­tion, aroulld 1830-the moment of mutation from Ille craftsmunly to the iudustrial production process ." Gicdion , Huuell ill Fr(JIlkreich , p. 2. [F3.3)

"Railroad ttacks," with the ~culiar and unmistakable dream world that attaches [Q them, are a very impressive c~xample ofjust how great the natural symbolic pO\\-'Cr of technological ilmovation can ~. In this regard, it is illuminating to learn of the bitter polemic waged against iron rails in the 18305. In A Treatise in Elementary Locomotion, for example, A. Gordon argued that the steam carriage (as it was called then) should run on lanes of granite. It was deemed impossible to produce enough iron for even the very small num~r of railway lines being plrumed at that time. [F3,4]

It must be kept in mind that the magnificent urban views opened up by new constructions in iron-Gicdion, in his &urn in Frankreich (illustrations 61--63), gives excellent examples with the Pont Transbordeur in Marseilles-for a long rime were evident on1y to "'()rkers and engineers. 0 Marxism 0 For in those days who besides the engineer and the proletarian had climbed the steps that alone made it possible to recognize what was new and decisive about these structures : the feeling of space? [F3,5]

In 1791 , the term ingenieur began to be used in France for tho5e officers skilled in the arl!! of fortifi ca tion and siege. "At the same time, and in the same counlry, the

opposition between ' conll truction ' and ' a rchitet: ture' began to make itseLffeit; and before 10llg it figured in personal attacks. This antitlicllis had been entirely un­

knuwn in the pall t . .. . 811t in the innumer able aefl thetic treatises which after the

s torms of the Revolution guided French a rt back into regular channels, ... the

COllSlrllctCItr5 stood opposed to the decorlltellr~. and with this tbe further question arose: Di.lnot the illg{micllrs, as the allies of the former, n~ellsa rily occupy with

them, socially Sileaking, a distinct camp?" A. G. Meyer, Eisenbaltten (Esslingen ,

1907). p. 3. [F3.6]

" The teelllli.,ue of slune a rchit~ture is stereolomYi Ihat of wood is tectonics. What

does iron construction have in COllllllon with the one or the other?" Alfred Gott· hol.1 Meyer, Eisenballte" (Esslingen , 1907), p. 5. " In stone we feel the natural

spirit of the mall. Iron is, for us, only artificially cOlllpressed durability and tcnacity" (p. 9). '" Iron has a tensile strength forty times greater than that of stone and ten timcs greater tillm that of wOOlI. although it ~ net weight is only four tinles

that of stone ami onl y eightl.imes that of wood . In comparison widl a stone mass of the same .Iimensiolls . therefore . an iron body I)(lSSes8CS. with only four time!! the

weight . a load limit forty times higller" (p . 11). [F3 ,1)

"Thi~ muteda l, ill it s fi rst humlred ycu rs. has already undergone eSHenlial trans· formalion ~--t;as l iron , wrought iroll, ingol iron_ o dia l tOtlay the engineer has al

his .Iislmlial a IlIIil lling ma lerial completely different from that of some fifty years 11gO•••• In Ihe pcrsl"-"Clive of historical rcfl~tioll , thc;;c are ' fermcnlil' of a dill<iui. d illg instuhility. No otll('r hllilding Illah:r illl offers a nything rClllotely similllr. We ~ tu nol Iwn' at the bcginning of a ,Ie ... clopment thut ill !lure to procee,1 ut a furious pUC,' •.•. Tile . . . comlit.iollll or t.he IlIl1lcrial . . . are ...olutili:t.t:cl in ' IimitlC811

poilllibiJitics.'·· A. G. Meyer, Eisenballtell, p. 11. tron as revolutionary building

material! [F3a,l ]

Meanwhile, how it looked in the vulgar consciousness is indicated by the crass yet typic.1.l utterance of a contemporary journalist, according to whom posterity will one day have to confess, "In the nineteenth century, ancient Greek architec· ture once again blossomed in its classical purity." Europa, 2 (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1837), p. 207. [F3a,2]

Railroad stationt at "ahodcs of art." " If Wicrtz bacl had a t his disposal ... the puhlic mOlluments of modern ci ...ilization- r ailway IItalions, legislative chambers,

unh'enilY lectllre halls, marketplaces, town hallt- .. . who can say wbat bright and dra matic lIew worlds he would have traced upon his canvas!" A. J . Wiertz,

Ocuvre5iitleruircs (paris, 1870), pp. 525-526. (F3a,3]

The teclUlica1 absolutism that is fundamental to iron construction-and funda· mental merely on account of the material itself-becomes apparent to anyone who recognizes the extent to which it contrasts with traditional conceptions of the value and utility of building materials. "Iron inspired a certain distrust just ~cause it was not imnunediately furnished by nature, but instead had to be artificially prepared as a building material. 1bis distrust is on1y a specific applica· tion of that general sentinlent of the Renaissance to which Leon Battista Alberti (De re tudjficatona [Paris, 15121, fol. xliv) gives expression at one point with the words: 'Nanl est quidcm cujusquis corporis pars indissolubilior, quae a natura conoeta et counita est, quam quae hominum manu et ane conjuncta atque, compacta est' <For there is, in each thing, a part that is the work and the assem· blage of nature, and that is more indissoluble than that which is produced and assembled by the hand of man with his arb." A G. Meyer, Eisrnhauten (Esslin· gen, ! 907), p. 14. 1",,')

It is WOM considering- and it appears that the answer to this question would be in the negative-whether, at an earlier period, technical necessities in architecture (bUt also in the other arts) detcnnined the fonus, the style, as thoroughly as they do today, when such teclUlological derivation secms actually to become the signature of everything now produced. With iron as a material, this is .already clearly the case, and ~rhaps for the first time. Indeed, the "basic forms in which iron appears as a building material are ... .already themselves, as distinct synthe· ses, partly new. And their distinctiveness, in large measure, is the produa and expression of the natural properties of the building material, since such properties have been technically and scientifically developed and exploited precisely for theM forms. The systema tic indusuial process which convertS raw material intO immediately available building material begins, with iron, at a much earlier stage than wilh previously existing building materials. Between matter ruld material, in lhis case, lherc is a relationship quite different fro m that between stone and ashlar, clay ruld tile, timber and beam: with iron, building material and structural

form are, as it were, more homogeneous." A. C. Meyer, Eisenhautm (Esslingen, 1907), p. 23. [F3.,5]

! 1840-1844: "The construction of fortifications, inspired by Thiers. .. Thiers,

! who thought that railroads would never work, had gates constructed in Pam at the very moment when railroad stations were needed." Dubech and d 'Espezel, Hi!toire de Poris (Paris, 1926). p. 386. [F3a,6]

!• "From the fifteenth century onward, this nearly colorless glass, in the form of

window panes, rules over the house as well. The whole development of interior space obeys the command: 'More lightl '5_1n seventeenth-century Holland, this development leads to window openings that, even in houses of the middle class, ordinarily take up almost half the wall ... . 1The abundance of light occasioned by this practice must have ... soon become disagreeable. Within the room, curtains offered a relief that was quickly to become, through the overzealous art

of the upholsterer, a disaster ... . 1 The development of space by means of glass and iron had come to a standstill. 1Suddenly, however, it gained new strength from a perfectly inconspicuous source. 1Once again, this source was a 'house,' one designed to 'shdter the needy; but it was a house neither for mortals nor for divinities, neither for hearth fires nor for inanimate goods; it was, rather, a house for plants. 1The origin of all present-day architecture in iron and glass is the greenhouse." A. G. Meyer, Eismbautm, p. 55. oLight in the Arcades 0 Mirrors 0 The arcade is the hallmark of the world Proust depicts. Curious that, like this world, it should be bound in its origin to the existence of plants. [F4,1]

On the Crystal Palace of 1851: "Of all the great things about this work, the great­est, in every sense of the word, i8 the vaulted central hall.... Now, here too, at fir8t , it was not a space-articlilating auhitect who did the talking but a-gar­dener.... Thi8 is literally true: the main reason for the elevation of the central hall was the presence, in this set!tion of Hyde Park, of magnificent elm trees, which neither the Londoners nor Paxton himself wished to see felled. Incorporating them into his giant glaBB house, as he had done earlier with the exotic plants at Chatsworth, Paxton alm08t unconsciously-but nonetheless fundamentaUy--en­hanced the architet!tural value of his construction." A. G. Meyer, Ei!enoouten (EBBlingen . 1907), p. 62. (F4.2]

In opposition to the engineers and builders, <Charles-Fran~ois) Viel . as architet!t, publishes his extremely violent, comprehensive polemic against static calculation, under the title De l '[mpltiuo.nce de, mathemo.rique5 pour o.,ultrer la ,olidite de, batiment5 <On the UseleBBneu of Mathematics for Assuring the Stability of Build­ingS) (Paris, 1805). [F4.3]

The following holds good for the arcades, particularly as iron strucntres: "Their mOSt essential component ... is the roof. Even the etymology of the word 'hall 'G points to this. It is a covered, not an enclosed space; the side walls are, so to

Interior of the Crystal Palace, London, from a photograph by William Henry Fox Talbot. See F4.2.

speak, 'concealt:d.''' This last point pertains in a spc:cial sense: to tht: arcad~, whose walls ha~ only s~ndari1y tht: function of partitioning tht: hall ; primarily, thq- s~ as walls or fa~des for tht: commucial spaces within tht:m. Tht: pas· sage is from A. G. Mt:yer, Eisrobauten, p. 69. [F4,4)

The arcade as iron construction stands on the ~rge of horizontal oc:tension. TItat is a decisive condition for its "old-fashioned" appearance. It displays, in this regard, a hybrid character, ·anaIogous in certain respeas to that of the Baroque .. church-"the vaulted 'hall' that compreht:nds tht: chapels only as an ex~nsion of its own proper space, which is wider than ever before. Nevertheless, an attraction 'from on high' is also at work in this: Baroqut: hall-an upward·tending ecstasy, such as jubilates from tht: frescoes on tht: ceiling. So long as ecclesiastical spaces aim to be more than spaces for gathering, so long as they strive to safeguard the idea of the t:tt:mal, they will be satisfied with nothing l~s than an overarching unity, in which tht: vertical tendency outweighs tht: horizontal." A. G. Meyer, EiJarbauten, p. 74. On the o ther hand, it may be said that something sacral, a vestige of the nave, still attaches to this row of commodities that is the arcadt:. From a functional point of view, the arcadt: already occupi~ the field of horizon­tal amplitude; architecturally, however, it still stands within the conceptual field of the old "haII~ [F',51

The Galerie des Machines, built in 1889.1 was torn down in 1910 "out of a rti. tic

. adism.'" [F4,6)

Historical extension of the horizontal: " From the palaces of the Italian High Ren­

ail8ance, the chateaux of tlle French kings take the 'gaUery,' which-as in the case of the ' CaUery of AIKlllo' at the Louvre and the 'Gallery of Mirrors' at Versailles-­

becomes the emblem of majesty itself.... I Its new triumphal advance in the nine­teenth century begins under the sign of the purely utilitarian structure, with those

haUs known as warehouses and market8, workshops and factories; the problem of railroad stations and , abo!e all , of exhibitions leads it back to art . And every­

wher e the demand for continuous horizontal extension i.e .0 great that the stone arch and the wooden ceiling can have only very limited applications.... In Gothic structures, the wall. tllrn into the ceiling, whereas in iron halls of the type ...

represented hy the Galler y of Machines in Paris, the ceiling slides over the walls without interruption .'" A. G. Meyer, Eisenbauten. PI). 74-75. [F4a,l]

Never bcfore was the criterion of the "minimal" so important. And that includes the mininlal e1cment of quantity: the "little," the "few." These are dimcnsions that wcre well established in tedmological and architectural constructions long before literature made bold to adapt them . Fundamentally, it is a question of the earliest manifestation of the principlt: of montage. On building the Eiffel Tower: "Thus, the plastic shaping power abdicates here in favor of a colossal span of spiritual cnergy, which channels the inorganic material energy into the smallest, most efficicnt fonns and conjoins these fonus in the most clfeetive

manner.... Each of the twelve thousand metal fittings, each of the two and a half million rivets, is machinw to the millimt:ter .... On this work site, one hears no chisel-blow liberating fonn from stone; here thought reigns over musclt: power, which it transmits via cranes and secure scaffolding." A. G. Meyer, Eisenbaulm, p. 93. 0 Precursors 0 [F4a,2)

" Haussmann was incapable of having what could be called a policy 0 11 railroad stations .... Despite a directive from the emperor, who justly baptized Ie. Bare. ' the !lew gateways of Paris ,' the continued development of the railroads surprised everyone, surpaning aU expectations .... The habit of a certain empi.rici. m was

not easily overcome." Dubech and d ' Espezel, Histoire de Paris (Paris. 1926), p.419. (F4a,3)

Eiffel Tower. "Greeted at first by a storm of protest , it has remained (Iuite ugly, though it proved useful for r ese.rc.h on wirelen te.legraphy.... It has been said

that this world exhibition marked the triumph of iron construction . It wouJd be truer to say that it ma rked itB bankruptcy. " Dubech and d ' Espezel, Histoire de Paris , pp. 461-462. [F4a,4)

"Around 1878. it was thought that salvation lay in iron construction . Its ' yea rning

for verticality ' (aa Salomon Reinach put it), the predominance of empty spaces over filled spaces, and the lightness of ita visible frame raised hopes that a style was emerging in which the essence of the Gothic gewus wouJd be r evived and rejuve­

nated by a new spirit and new materials. But when engineer s erected the Galerie des Machines and the Eiffel Tower in 1889, people d e8l)aired of the art of iron.

Perhaps too soon. " Dubech and d ' Espezel, Histoire de Pari. , p. 464. [F4a,5]

Reranger : " Hia sole reproach to the regime of Louis Pbilil>pe was that it put the republic to grow in a hothouse.'" Franz Diederich , " Victor Hup;o,'" Die Delle Zeit. 20, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1901), p . 648. [F4a,6)

"The patlt that leads from the Empire form of the firu locomotive to the fin ­ished objeetive and functional form or today marks an evolution ." Joseph Aug. Lux , " Maschineniisthetik," Die neue Zeit, 27, no. 2 (Stuttgart, 19(9), p . 439.

[F4a,7)

"Those endowed with an especiaUy fine artis tic conscience have hurled down , from the alta r of art , curse after curse on the building engineers. It suffices to mention Ruskin ." A. G. Meyer, Ei.enb(JIuen (Esslingen, 1907), p . 3. [F5,I)

Concerning the artistic idea of Empire. On Daumier : " He d isplayed the grea test enthusiasm for muscular excitation •. Tirele88ly his pencil exalts tbe t~nsion and movement of muscles .... But tilt: public of which he dreamed was proportioned differently from Ihis ignoble ... 80ciely of shopkeepers. He yearnetl for a sodal milieu that would have provided . like that of ancient Grt!Cce, a base frum which

lJe<>ple eould rllille thcm~dve~ . as frolll a Il.edestal , in vigorou~ beauty.... A gro­tei>llue Ili.'l lorlioll mu!1 ... re! lIh when Ihe bourgeoi! ie i~ viewed from the a ngle of s tich idcu llJ. O:lUmicr's ca ricatu re! wcre thus the a lmost involuntary conSC<luence

of II lofly UJllhitiofi Ihal fuilt.~1 in its aim of a tttlncmcni with Ihe milldle-dalJs pub­lic.... In 1835. unullcllIpt 0 11 the life of the king'! prel;cllied an ... opportunity to

I'urluil ... Ihe boldlles~ of the press, which had heen puhlicly blamed for the deed .

Politicil l caricature lH!C:a me iml)oH ible .... Hence, the drawings of lawyers done

i.1I this period are ... by far the most passionate and animated. T he courtroom is

the only pillee where pileh t.~1 battles can stiLi be waged ill aU their fury, and lawyers

:1I'e the onl y lJe<>ple in whom a n emphatically muscular rhetoric and u profession­

uLl y Ilruma tic pose ha"e made for an elaborate phy@iognomy of the body." Fritz

Th. Schuhe, "'Honore Daumier,'" Die neue Zeit. 32, 110. I (Stutt~rt <1913» ,

pp.833-835 . {F5,2J

The miscarriage of Ba1tard's design for Les Halles, built in 1853, is due to the same unfortunate combination of masonry and ironwork as in the original proj­ect for the London exhibition hall of 1851, the 'work of the Frenchman Horeau. Parisians referred to Ba1tard's structure, which was subsequently tom down, as Ie fort dt: fa Hallt:. {F5,3)

0 11 the CrYiOta l Palacl' , Wilh Ihe elms ill its midst : " Under these ~ass arches,

thanks to awnings, "cllti lutors, and ~shillg fountains, visilors revel in a delicious

coolncss. In tile words of one observer : ' You might think you were under the

billows of sOllie fa bulous rivcr, in the crystal palace of a fairy or naiad. ,.' A. Demy,

EUrJi IliJtorillue u ur les expoJitionJ univerJeJfes de Paris (Paris, 1901)~, p . 40. [F5,4]

"After the closing of the London Exhibition in 1851, people in England won· dered what was to become of the Crystal Palace. Although a clause inserted in the deed of concession for the grounds required ... the demolition ... of the building, public opinion was unanimous in asking for the abrogation of this clause.... -The newspapers "''ere full of proposals of all kinds, many of which were distinctly eccentric. A doctor wanted to rum the place into a hospital; another suggested a bathing establishment. .. . One person had the idea of mak· ing it a gigantic library. An Englishman with a violent passion for Bowers insisted on seeing tJle whole palace become a garden." The Crystal Palace was acquired by Francis Fuller and transferred to Sydenham. A. S. de Doncourt, Uj ExpositioTl.l Imiuemll(j (LiUe and Paris d889~), p. 77. Compare F6a,1. The Bourse could rr:pmmt anything; the Crystal Palace could be ujr:d for anything. IF5a, l )

" FIIl'lIillln' making in lulllliar iroll ... rivals furnilure making ill wooIl , 111111evell

;;uqJau I's il . Jo' uruiture of s lIch iron. willI hllkell-on color, .. . ellllllleicil wilh Row­.:r l; ur wi tll plllterll l; imil ul.ing 111O~c of inluid woo.1. is clcgllllt and nicely turned .

like the tOI)Sof Boucher's gates." Edollartl Foucaud. Pliris inventeur: Physiologic de l'indllslriejrall{rJise (Puris, 1844), pp. 92- 93. (F5a,2)

The s<luUI'c opposite Ihe Cu re du Norll wa ll known in 1860 as the Place de

Rouba;'.:. {F5a,3]

In eugravings of the l)eriod. IlOrse& a re prancing across railroad station espla­

IHldell, and s lugccoachcs roll by ill douds of dus!. {F5a,4)

Cu ption for a wOOilcul reprcsenting a catafalque in the Care du Nord: " Last

re.s l)Ct! ts puid to Meyerbecr in Paris at the su re de chemin de fer du Nord."

[F5a,5J

Fllctories wit h gulleries illside and winding irOIl staircases. Ea rly prOSI)Ct!tu8e8 and

illus trations show production rooms and display rooms, which are often under the

same roof, fondly represented in cross-section like do Li houses. Thus a prospectus

of 1865 for the foo twear coml)any Pinet. ot infrequently one sees ateliers , like

t.hose of photographers, with sliding shades in front of the skylight. Cabinet des

[ stumpes. {F5a,6)

The Eiffcl To"'"er : " It is charllcte ristic of this most famous COll8lructioll of the

epoch that , for a ll its gigantic stature, ... it nevertheless feels like a knickknack ,

which ... !!pcaks for the fllct t.hat the secolld*rate artistic scnsibility of the era

could think , ill gener al , only within the fnun ework of genre and the technillue of

filigree." Egon Friedell , Killturseschichte der Nellzeit , vol. 3 (Munich , 1931),

p .363. {F5a,7]

" Micllel Chcvulier sets down his dreams of the new temple in a poem:

1 would have YOIl see my temille, the Lord God lIIid.

The culumn& of the temple Were strong beams;

Of hollow cast· iron ooillmns Wu 'llf: organ of this new temple.

The framework wu of irOll , of molded steel . Of cupper ami of hronze.

The architect had "luced il ul,on Ihe col LImns

Like a Blringed instrlllllent Ill)On a wOOIlwind .

From ll,e lempl.· "an'e. moreo\'cr. a l each mOlllC1i1 of the day. The BOUlids of a new harmony.

The sten,I"r ~ Ili re rose lip like II lightning rod; [t reache<11O l.h" doUlls,

arts-a view which is, unhappily, deeply rooted in him and deeply pondered."Victor Hugo, Oeullm £ompleltJ, novels, vol. 3 (Paris, 1880), p. 5.' [F6,3j

Before the decision to build the Pa1ais de l'Industrle 'Q was made, a plan hadexisted to roof over a section of the Champs-E1ystes-along with its trees-in themaJUler of the Crystal Palace. [F6,4j

Vidor Hugo, in Notre-Dame de Pari8 , on the Bourse: " If it be the rule that thearehiteeture of a building 8hould be adapted to itl function , ... we can hardlywonder enough at a mOllument which might equaUy weU be a king'l palace, a houseof eommOIlS, a lown haU, a coUege, a riding school , a ll academy, a wareboUle, alaw (Jourt , a mu,eum . a barracks, a lepulcher, a temple, or a theater. For thepresent, it is a stock exchange .... It is a Slock exchange in Frallce just as it wouldhave been a temple in Creece.. .. We have the colonn ade encircling the monu·ment , beneath which, on day! of high religiou! solemnity, the theory of stockbro­

La Uwe-tite-oman~> flU fA Fureur dujour (picrure Puu1e Mania, or They're AIl the Rage These kers and jobber! can be majestically expounded. These, for sure, are ver y stately

Days). See F6,2. monuments. If we add to them many fine streets, as amusing and diverse a8 theRue de Rivo Li , then I do not despair but that one day a balloon 's-eye view of Pariswill offer us that wealth of lines, ... that diversi ty of aspect , that 80mehow . _ .

To ~k there electric rorce; unexpected beauty, which characterizes a checkerboard." Victor Hugo, Oeuvre,completel, novels, vol. 3 (Par is, 1880), PI). 206-207 (NOIre-Dame de Po rn)."Storms have charged iI with vitality and ten,ion.

[F6a,lj

Atthe topofthe minareuThe telegraph was wavin&iu ann' ,

Bringing rrom all paruGood newl to the J.e<lple....

Henry-Rene D'Allemagne, 1£$ Saint-Simanieru, 1827-1837 (Paris. 1930), p. 308.[F6,1 ]

The "Chinese puzzle," which comes into fashion during the Empire, reve~ thecentury's awakening sense for construction. The problems ~t. appear, m thepuzzJes of the period, as hatched portions of a landscape, a buildmg, Of a fi~reare a first presentiment of the cubist principle in the plastic am. (fa ve~y:whether, in an allegorical representation in the Cabinet des Estampes, the bram­teaser undoes the kaleidoscope or vice versa.) [F6,2j

"Paris avol d'oiseau" (A Bird's-Eye View of Paris_Nom-Dame ck Paris, vol. I,book 3-concludes its overview of the architectura..l history of the city with an ironic characterization of the present day, which culminates in a description of thearchitectural insignificance of the Stock Exchange. The importance of ~e chap­ter is underlined by a note added to the definitive edition of 1832, which says:"The author ... enlarges, in one of these chapters, upon the CUITeIll decadence ofarchitecture and the now (in his view) almost inevitable demise of this king of the

TIle Paris Stock Exchange, mid-ninc:tc:enth century. Counesy or the Paris Stock. Exdmnge.'keF",,­

The: PalaU de: I'lndustrie: at the: world exhibition of 1855. Sc:c F6a,2.

Palaia de l ' lndualrie: "'One ia atruck by the elegance and lightnel8 of the iron framework; yet the engineer, ... Monsieur Barrault , has ShOWD more skill than taste. As for the domed gla" roof, ... it is awkwardly placed , and the idea evoked ... is ... that of a lar~e cloche: industry in a hothowe.... On each side of the entrancc have been placed two superb locomotivell with their tender .... Thii la81 arrangement Ilrcliumably occasioned by the distribution of priZCII which clollCd the u hibition 0 11 November 15, 1855. Louil Enault, " Le Palail de 1' lndU81rie," in Pari.! et k. Pari.!iem e'll X IX' sieck (Paris, 1856), pp. 313, 315. [F6a,2]

From Cha r l es·Fran\~ois Viel , De 1'lmplliJlance des mathemaliques pour aSl ll rer to .olidite des beifimenlS (11aris, 1805): Viel dislinguishell ordOl.na tlce <planning. lay· out) from COlIstrllCfiOIi alltl faults the younger architects ahove a U for insufficient knowledge of lhe former. Ultimately responsible is " the new direction lhat public inl lruction in this uri has taken. in the wake of our political temlJel ts" (po 9). "At for the gt.'ollleter s who practice architecture, their building8--8!:! rega rds iuvention Hlld cOll lltrUf'lioll- prOVe the nullilY of mathematics where ordonna nce alld struc· tural stahility are concerll(... I" (p o 10). "The mathematiciant ... claim to have ... reconciled boldnCII8 with stability. It is only IlDder the aegis of algebra that these

tWO wordll can meet" h). 25; it remains to be determined whether t.his las t selltence is meallt iconica lly, or whether it distinguishes between algebra alld mathematics). The a uthor criticizell the POlit dll Louvre a nll the Pont de la Cite (both bridgell from 1803) in accorda nce with the principles of Leon BaUista Alberti. [F6a,3j

According to Yael , the fi rs t bridges to be built on a constructive basis would have been undertaken a round 1730. (F7,I ]

III 1855, the Hotel du Louvre was constructed at a rapid tempo, so as to he in p lace fo r the opelling of the world exhibition . " For the firs t time , the entrepreneura u!!ed elt:(; tric light 0 11 the site, in order to double the day's labor ; some unexpected delays occurred ; the city wall just comin~ out of the famou ll carpentera' str:ike, which put an end to wood·frame structures in Paris. Consequently, the Hotel du Louvre ponesses the rare distinction of having wedded , in its design, the wood paneling of old bouses to the iron flooring of modern buildings." V" G. d ' Avenel, " Le Mecanisme de la vie moderne," part I , " leI Grands Magasins," Revue <hs deux mondes (July 15, 1894). p . 340. (F7,2)

" In the beginning, railroad cart look like stagccoachell, autohuses like omnibuses, electric lights like gas chandeliers, and the last like petroleum lamplI." Leon Pier re·Quint, "Significatioll du cinema ," L'Art cinematographique, 2 (Parill, 1927), p . 7. [F7,3]

Apropos of the Empire style of Schinkel: "The building that brings out the 10-­cation, the substructure that emhodiell the true seat of invention, ... these things r esemble-a vehicle. They convey architectural ideals, which only in thia sort of way call stiU he ' practiced.·., Carl Unfert, " Vom Ursprung grosser Baugedanken," Prankfurter Zeituns . J anuary 9, 1936. [F7,4)

On the 'world exhibition of 1889: " We can say of thii festivity that it ball been celebrated, above aU, to the glory of iron .... Having undertaken to give readert of Le Correspondant a rough idea of industry in connection witb the Exposition du Champ de Mars . we have chOllen for our thenle ' Metal Structurell and Railroadt. ,,, Alliert de Lapparellt , Le Si~le dufer (Paris, 1890), pp . vii- viii. [F7,5]

0 11 the Cr ystal Palace: "The architect , Paxton, and the contractors, Messrs. Fox alltl Helide Cl~oll , had systematicaUy resolved not to use parts with large dimCII· siolls. The heaviellt were hollow cast· irOIl girders, eight meters long, nOlle of which weighed more than a 1011 ••.. Their chicf meril was that they were ecollomical.... Moreover, the execution of the pl an was remarkahly rapill, sillce all the partl were IJf a sorl that the factories I;ould ullliertake to deliver quickly." Albert de Lappar­ent , Le Sieck dufer (P8ri~. 1890). p . 59. [F7,6]

Lappaccllt divides iron structures inlU two duues : iroll structures with Slone facings and true iron ~tructu res. He IIlaCCII the followillg example among lhe flr'll t

1I0rt . "Labrouste ...• in 1868•... gave 10 the puhlic the reading room of the

- 8lbliotheque Nationale.... It is difficuh to imagine anything more satill fyin g or more harmonious than this great chantller of 1, 156 '((UIUe meter" with its nine

fretted CUIH>liUl, incorporating a relles of iron lattice Ilnd resting 011 sixteen light

cast-iron colunlPs, twelve of which are lIel against the walls , while (our, cOlllpletely free-standing, rise from the floor on pedestals of the same metal." Albert de La,)­parenl, Le Swck diller (Pans. 1890), Pil . 56-57. [F7a,1]

The engineer Alexis BarrawI , who with Viel built the Palace of Industry in 1855. W88 a brother of Emile Barrauh. (F7a,2)

In 1779, the first call-iron bridge (that of Coalhrookdale). In 1788, iu builderl! was awarded the Gold Medal of the English Society of Am. " Since it was in 1790, furthermore, that the architec:t Louis completed the wrought-iron framework for

the Theitre Frall~ais in Paris, we may say that the centenary of metal construction coincides almost exactly with that of the French Revolution ." A. de Lapparent, Le Siecle dufer{Paris, 1890), pp. 11- 12. [F7a,3)

Paria, in IS22: a " w(H){jwork 8trike." (F'7a,4]

On the 8ubjec:t of the Chinese punic, a lithograph : The Triumph of the Kaleido­scope, or the Demue ofthe Chinese Game. A reclining Chine8e man with a brain­teaser 8pread out on the ground before him. On his shoulder, a female figure bas

planted her foot. In one hand, Ihe carriea a kaleidoscope; in the other, a paper or a IcroU with kaleidoscope patterns. Cabinet del Estampes (da ted ISIS). [F7a,5]

"The head turn8 a nd the heart tighten8 when , for the first time, we vi8it tholc fairy

hall8 where pollihed iron and dazzling copper seem to move and think by them­selves, while pale and feeble man i8 only the humble servant oftho8e 81eeI9antt ."

J . Michelet, Le Peuple (Paris, 1846), p. 82. The author in no way fears that me­chanical production wiU gain the upper hand over human beings. The individual­i8m of the consumer I!eeID.8 to him to spea k against tillS: each " man now ... wantl

to be himseH. Consequently, he will often care leal for products fabricated by cianCI, without any individuality thai speaks to his own" (ibill ., p . 78).13 (F'7a,6]

" Viollct-Ie-Duc ( ISI4-1879) shows that the a rchitectl of the Middle Agel were also engineers and r ellOurceful inventors." Amedee Ozenfant . " La Peinture murale," Encyclopedicfr(JlI~ai",c. vol. 16. Art! Cl lilleralllres da/II ta sociere COlltcmpo­rainc, part I , p . 70. coluUlII 3. (F8,I]

Protest against the Eierel Tower: "We come. as writers . paillleu. sculluors, archi­tects , . .. in the lIa lne of French art and Frellch history, hoth of which are thrcllt­cned , ... to protest against tilt: construction. in the very heart of our capital , of the usclell and JUon~trou~ Eiffel Tower .... Its barharOUI mas~ ol'erwIJdms Notre-Dame, the Sainte-Chapellc, the Tower of Sllint-Jllcques. AJI our monuments

•

Le 1"riQ1//pht du !J.aliidoscOPtJ ou Le 1"omhtau du}eu chinois (The Triumph of the Kaleidoscope, or The Demise of the Chinese Game), 1818. Counesy of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. See F7a,5.

are dehased, our architecture diminished." Cited in Louis CherollDet . " lei Troil

Grand -meres de I'eltpositioll ," Vcmiredi, April 30, 1937. (F8,2]

Supposedly then: were trees within Mill ard's " 1.la nnony H all ," on the Boulevard MOntmartre. (F8,3J

" It was in 1783. in tile COllstruction of the Theatre Fram;nis, that iron was em­" Io)'cd for the firs t lime on a large scale, by the architect Lollil. Never perhaps. hus a work so audacious heen attempted. ~rhen , in 1900, the theater was rehuilt in the aftermat h of a fire, it was with a weight of iron one hundred times greater tban that which the architect Louis hUll IUletl for the same tru8swork . COllstruction ill irou has providell a ~uccellSion of buildings, of which the great reading room of the Bihliothalue Nationale !ly LabrOUl tc was tile first , and olle of the most success­ful. . .. But iron retluires costly maintenance . ... The world exhibition of 1889

lIIar ked the triulllph of exposed ironwork .. . ; at the exhibition of 1900, nearly all the iron frallles were covered ",;th plasterwork." L 'Ell c)'clolH!diefr(l/l{a i~e, vol. 16, 16-68, pp . 6-7 (Auguste Perret, " Les Resoins collectiCs et r architecture").

[Fa., ]

The " triulllpl, of exposed ironwork " ill the age of the gellre: " It may be . .. the ... cntllU s i a~ 1II for lIIachilie techllology a nd the faith in the superior durabilit y of its matcrials that explains why the altribute ' iron ' is used ... whenever ... power and ncccssity are supposed to be manifest. Iron a re the laws of nature, and iron is the 'str idc of the worker battalion '; the ... union of the German empire is suppos­cilly made of iron, aud so is ... the chancellor himself." Dolf Sternberger, Pano­ramo (Hamhurg, 1938) , p. 3 1. [F8,S)

The iron balcony. " In its most rigorous form , the house has a uniform fa{ade .... Ar ticulation results only from doors and windows. In France, the window is, wi thoul exception, even ill the poorest house, a porte{enetre, a ' French window' 0IHllung to the fl oor .. . . This makes a railing llocessar Yi in the poorer houses it is a plain iron bar, but ill the wealthier houses it is of wrought iron .... At a cerlain stage , the railing becomes all ornament. ... It further COlltributes to the articula­tion of the fa ..ade by ... accenting the lower line of the window. And it fulfills both functions without brea king the pla ne of the fa ..ade. For the great architectural mass of the modern house, with its insistent lateral extension, this articulation could not possibly suffice. T he architects' building-sense demanded that the ever stronger horizont al tendency of the house ... he given expression.... And they discovered the means for this ill the traditional iron grille. Across the entire length of the building fro nt, on olle or two stories, they set a balcony provided with an iron grating of this type, which, being black, stands out very distinctly and makes a vigorolls impression. These haiconies, .. . up to the most recent period of build­ing, ""cl·e kept very na rrow; a nd if throngh them the severity of the surface is overcome, what call he called the relicf of the fa ..ade remains nonetheless quite fla t , overcoming the effec t of the wall as little as docs the sculpted or namentation, likewise kept fl at . In the case of adjoining houses, these balcony railillg8 fuse )¥ith one a nother all tl cousolid ate the impression of a walletl streeti and this effect is heightened by the fac t that , wherever the upper stories a re used fo r commercial pu r poses, the proprietors put "I' ... not signhoa nls but matched giltled letters in roman 81yle, ""hich, when well spaced across the ironwork , a ppear purely decora­tive." Fri tz Stahl , Paris (Berlin ( 1929)), pp . 18-19. [F8a)

G [Exhibitions, Advertising, Grandville 1

Yes, when all the world from Paris to China Pays heed to your doctrinc, 0 divine Saint-Simon, The glorious Golden Age will be reborn. Rivers will Bow with dlocolate and tea, Sheep roasled whole will frisk on the plain, And saut~ed pike will swim in the Seine. Fricasseed spinach will grow on the ground, Garnished with aushed fried croutons; The trees will bring forth apple compoles, And farmers will harvesl boots and coats. It will SIIOW wine, it will rain chickens, And ducks cooked with turnips will fall from the sky.

- Ferdinand Langit and Emile Va.nderburch, Lluis-Bronu tl It Saint-Simtmien: Parodit tk Louis Xl (Th~(re du Palais-Royal, Febnwy 27, 1832), cited in Thtodore Muree, L'Histqjf( par It IMom, 1789- 1851 (Pam, 1865), voJ. 3, p. 191

Music such as one gets to hear all the pianofones of Satum's ring.

- Hector Berlioz, A traun-J chants, authorized German edition pre· pared by Richard FbhJ (Ldpl.ig, 1864), p. 104 ("Beethoven im Ring da Salum~)

From a European perspective, things looked this way: In all areas of production, f~m the Middle Ages lIntil the beginning of the nineteenth century, the develop­ment of technology proceeded at a much slower rate than the developmCflt of art. Art could take its time in variollsly assimilating the technological modes of operation. But the transfomlation of things that set in around 1800 d ictated the tempo to an, and the m ore breathtaking this tempo becam e, the morc readily the dominion of fashion overspread all fields . Fmally, we arrive at the present state of things: the possihiliry now arises that an will no longer find time to adapt some­how to teclmological processes. TIle advertisement is the ruse by whicll the dream forces itself on industry. [G 1,1)

Wit.hin the frames of the pictures that hung on dining room walls, the advent of whiskey advcrusem ents, of Van H outen cocoa, of Amieux canned food is her­

alded. Naturally, one ean say that the bourgeois comfort of the dining room has survived longest in small cafes and other such places ; but perhaps one can also say that the space of the cafe, wit.hin which every square meter and every hour are paid for more punctually than in apamnent houses, evolved out of the latter. The apartment from which a caU was made is a pictuTe puzzle (Vixierbild> with the caption: Where is the capital hiding? [G I ,2)

Grandville's ,\-'Orks are the sibylline books ofpu6iicili. Everything that, with him, has its preliminary foml as joke, or satire, attains its true unfolding as adver· tisement. [GI ,3)

HamlLilI of a Pa ri!!ian textiles denier from the 1830s: " Ladies nnd Gentlemen: I I ask you to cas' an indulgent eye on the following observation!!; my de8ire to con­tribute to your eterna l salvation impels me to address you. Allow me to dir ect your attention to the study of the Holy Scripture8, as weU as to the extremely moderate prices which I have bl..'t:n the first to introduce into the field of ho!!.ier y, cotton gootls. and rc.lated products. No. 13, Rue Pave-Saint-Sauveur." Eduard Kroloff, Schilclerllllgell all..!' Pelr;, (Hamburg, 1839), vol. 2, pp. 50-51. [GI ,4)

Superposition a nd adver tising: " In the Palai8-Royal, not long ago , between the columJl~ 011 the upper story, I hapl.ene.1 to see a life-sized oil painting repre­8t:ll ljng, in very li\'e1y colors, a French general in fuU-d reu uniform. I take out my spectacles to examiJle more cl08ely the historical subject of the picture. and my general is sitting in an armchair holding out a bare foot: the podiatrist , kneeling before him , excises the corns ." J . F. Reichnrt.h , Vertraute Briefe all.! Paris (Ham­burg. 1805), vol. I, p. 178. [GI ,S)

In 1861 , the first lithographic poster suddenly appeared on walls hcre and there around London. It showed the back of a woman in white who was thickly wrapped in a shawl and who, in all haste, had just reached the top of a Sight of stairs, where, her head half turned and a finger upon her lips, she is ever so slightly opening a heavy door, through which one glimpses the starry sky. In this way Wtlkie Collins advertised his latest book, one of the greatest detective novels ever writtcn : The Woman in White. See Talmeyr, iA. Citt du Jang (Paris, 1901), pp.263-264. IGI .61

It is significant that Jugcndstil failed in interior design, and soon aftcrward ill architecture too, whereas in the street, with the poster, it often found vcry suc· cessful solutions. TIus is fully confimlcd in Behne's disceming critique: "By no mcans was Jugclldstil ridiculous in its original intentions. It was lookin.g for renewal because it clcarly recognizcd the peculiar contradictions arising bctween imitation Renaissance art and new methods of production deternlined by the machine. But it gr.ldually became ridiculous because it believed that it could resolve the enonnOliS objective tensions fonnally, 011 paper, in the studio." 0 In· terior 0 Adolf Behne, NeUf!J Wohnen-Neua &uen (Leipzig, 1927), p. 15. Of

course in the end, the law according to which an action brings about an opposite reactio~l holds true for Jugendstil. 111(:: genuine liberation from an cpoch, that is, has the structure of awakening in this respect as well: it is entirely ruled by cunning. Only with cunning, not without it, can we work free of thc re.a1n~ of dream. But there is also a false liberation; its sign is violence. From the beguuung, it condemned Jugcndstil to failure. 0 Dream Structure 0 [G t ,7)

I1fficnnost, decisive significance of the advertisement: "Good posters exist ... only in the domain of trifles, of industry, or of revolutio~ ." Ma~ce Talmeyr, ~ Citi du Jang (Paris, 1901), p. 2n. The sanle thought With which the bourgeoIS here detects the tendency ofadvertising in its early period: "In short, the moral of the postcr has nothing to do with its art, and its art nothing to do with the moral, and this defines the character of the poster" (ibid., p. 275). [GI ,S)

J ust as certain modes of presentation- genre scenes and the like-be~, in the coursc of the nineteenth ccntury, to "cross over" into advertising, so also mto the realm of the obscene. The Nazarene style and the Makart style have their black and their <olored lithographic cousins in the field of obscene graphics. I saw a plate that, at first glance, could have passed as something like Siegfried's bath in dragon blood: green sylvan solitude, crimson mantle of the hcro, naked .flesh, a sheet of water-it was the most complicated embrace of three human bodies, and it looked like the frontispiece of an inexpensive book for young people. This is the language of color characteristic of the posters that flourished in the arcades. When we hear that portraits of famous cancan dancers like Rigolette and Fricheue would have hung there, we have to imagine them colored like this. Falser colors are possible in the arcades; that combs are red and green surprises no one. Snow White's stepmother had such things, and when thc comb did not do its work, the beautiful apple was there to help out-half red, half poison­green, like cheap combs. Everywhere gloves play a staffing role, colored ones, but above all the long black variety on which SO many, follo\ving Yvette Guilbert, have placed their hopes for happiness, and which will bring some, let us hope, to Margo Lion. And laid out on a side table in a tavern, stockings make for an cthereal meat counter. [Gla, t]

The writings of lhc Surrealists treat words like trade names, and their texts are:at bottom, a fornl of prospectus for entcrprises not yct off the ground. Nesung today in trade nanles arc figments such as those carlier lhought to be hidden in the cache of "poctic" vocables. [Gla,2)

In 1867 , a wallpapcr tlcalcl· pul up his p08tcr~ 011 the collllllll ~ ofbritlges . [Gl a,3)

Many years ago, on the streetcar, I saw a poster that, if thi.ngs had their due in this world, would have found its admirers, historians, exegetes, and copyists ju~t as surely as any great poem or painting. And, in fact, it was both at the sallle wne.

As is sometimes the case with very deep, unexpected impressions, however, the shock was too violent: the impression, if I may say so, struck with such force that it broke through the bottom of my consciousness and for years lay irrecoverable somewhere in the darkness. I knew only that it had to do with "Bullrich Salt" and that the ongina] watthouse for this seasoning was a small cellar on Flotrn't:ll Strc:~t, w~ere for years I had circumvented the temptation to get out at this point and mqwn:= about the poster. There I traveled on a colorless Sunday afternoon in that northern Moabit, a part of town that had already once appeared to me as though built by ghostly hands for just this time ofday. lbat was when, four years ~go, I had come to Uitzow Sbttt to pay customs duty, according to the weight of Its enameled blocks of houses, on a china porcelain city which I had had sent from Rome. There wen: omens then along the way to signal the approach of a momentous afternoon. And, in fact, it ended with the story of the discovery ofan arcade, a story that is too herfinisd, to be told just now in this Parisian space of remembrance. Prior to this incident, however, I stood with my twO beautiful companions in front ofa miserable cafe, whose window display was enlivened by an arrangement of signboards. On one of these was the legend "Bullrich Sale" It contained nothing else besides the words; but around these written characters there was suddenly and effortlessly configured that desert landscape of the poster. I had it once more. Here is what it looked like. In the foreground, a horse-drawn wagon was advancing across the desen. It was loaded with sacks bearing the words uBullrich Salt." One of these sacks had a hole, from which salt had already trickled a good distance on the ground. In the background of the desen landscape, two posts held a large sign with the words "Is the Best." But what about the trace of salt down the desen trail? It fonned letters, and these letters fonned a word, the word "Bullrich Salt." Was not the preestablished hannony of a Leibniz mere child's play compared to this tightly orchestrated predestination in the desen? And didn't that poster furnish an in1.3ge for things that no one in this mortal life has yet experienced? An image of the everyday in Utopia? (Cla,4)

"The store known as La Chaussee d~ntin had recently atulouuced its new inventory of yard goods. Over two million meters of barege, over five million of grenadine and poplin, and over three million of other fabrics- altogelher about eleven million meters of textiles. Le lInlama"e now remarked, after recolllllend· ing La C haussee d'Antin to its female readers as the 'foremost house of fashion in the world,' and also the 'most dependable' : 'The entire French railway system comprises barely ten thousand kilometers of tracks- that is, only ten million meters.1llis OTle store, therefore, with its stock of tcxtiles, could virtually stretch a tent over all the railroad tracks of France, "which, especially in the heat of summer, would be very pleasant.'" 'Tbree or four other establishments of this kind publish similar figures , so that, with all these materials combined, one could place not on.ly Paris ... but the whole dipar/emm/ of the Seine under a massive canopy, 'which likewise would be welcome in rainy weather.' But we calU10t help asking: How are stores supposed to find room to stock this gigantic quantity of

goods? The answer is very simple and, what is more, very logical : each firm is always larger than the others.

"You hear it said: 'La Ville de Paris, the largest store in the capital,' 'Les Villes de France, the largest store in the Empire; 'La Chaussee d'Antin, the largest store in Europe,' 'Le Coin de Rue, the largest store in the 'A-'Orld.'-'In the world' : that is to say, on the enure earth there is none larger; you'd think that would be the limit. But no: Les Magasins du LoUVTe have not been named, and they bear the tille 'The largest Stores in ~e.unive~.' The. universe! Including Sirius appar_ ently, and n1.3ybe even the disappeanng twUl stars' of which Alexander von Humboldt speaks in his Kosmos. "I

Here we see the cOtulection between capitalism's evolving commercial adver­tising and the work ofGrandville.

.Adolf Ebeling,) Lehauk Bilder aUJ dm modnnm Paris, 4 voIs. (Cologne, 1863­1866), vol. 2, pp. 292-294. [G"l)

"Now then, you princes and sovereign states, resolve to pool your riches, your resources, your energies in order to ignite, as we do our gas jets, long-extinct volcanoes [whose craters, though filled with snow, are spewing torrents of inBam­mabie hydrogen]; high cylindrical towers would be necessary to conduct the hot springs of Europe into the air, from which-so long as care is taken to avoid any premature contact with cooling waters-they will tumble down in cascades [and ~ereby wann th.e atmosphere]. Artificial concave mirrors, arranged in a semi­circle on mountaIntops to reflect the rays of the sun, would suitably augment the tendency of these springs to heat the air." F. v. Brandenburg, VIC/oria! EiN neue Well! Freudaloller AUJrufin Baugdaral!£ daRarif urIJmn PIaN/m, hmmtim ariftkr ~n UTU hewonnlm niirdlickn Halhl1ugel tiN fatale 'TemperaJur-Yeriindnung hinsidzt. lien tkr Ymnehnmg tkr almosphiiriscnen mime eingetrdm isl,' 2nd expanded ed. (Berlin, 1835) <pp. 4-5>. 0 Gas 0

1l:tis fanatasy of an insane mind effectively constitutes, under the influence of the new invention, an advertisement for gas lighting-an advertisement in the comic-cosmic style ofGrandville. In general, the close cOtulection between adver­tising and lhe cosmic awaits analysis. (G2,2)

~bitions. "~ regions and indeed, retrospectively, all times. From farming and m.mmg, from mdustry and from the machines that were displayed in operation, to raw materials and processed materials, to art and the applied arts. In all these we see a peculiar demand for premature synthesis, of a kind that is characteristic of the nineteenth century in other areas as """eU: think of the total work of art. ~P:nt from indubitably utilitarian motives, the century wanted to generate a VlSlon of the human cosmos, as launched in a new movement." Sigfried Giedion, Bauen in FraTlR reich <Leipzig and Berlin, 1928), p. 37. But these "p~mature syn­theses" also bespeak a persistent endeavor to close up the space ofexistence and of development. To p~vent the "airing'Out of the classes." (C2,3)

Apropoll of the exhibition of 1867 , organized according to IItatilltieai principlell: "To take a turn ahout thill place. circula r like the equator, ill literally to travel

aroulul the world , for all mltions have come here; enemies are coexisting in peace. just as, at the origin of things, the divine 8pirit Wil l hovering over the or" of tile waters, so now it Ilovers over this or" of iron." L 'Exposition UlI.jV/u·selle cle 1867 illUMree: PubliClJtion internfltiollale alltorisee IJa r lu commission iml~riale. vol. 2. 1).322 (cited in Giedioll , <Ba/lt1l in FranAreidr,>p. 41 ). (C2,4)

In connl..-.: tion with t.he exhibition of 1867. On Offenhach. " For the past ten years, this verve of the comic author and this joyous illSI)iration of t.he composer have bee.n vying with each other for fantastic and serendipitous dfects; but only in 1867, the year of the Universal Exposition, did they alt ain the height of hila rity, the ultimate expression of their exubera nce.3 The success of this theater company, already so great, hecame deliriou&--something or which our petty victoriee of today ca n fu rnish 110 idea. Pa ris, that summer, euffered sunstroke." From the SIHlech berore the Academic Fran-;:aise by Henri Lavedan, December 3] , 1899 (on the election of Meilhac). [C2a, I)

Advertising is emancipated in Jugendstil. J ugendstil posters are "large, always figurative, refined in their colors but not gaudy; they show balls, night clubs, movie theaters. TIley are made for a frothy life-a life with which the sensual rurves ofJ ugendstil are '....e11 matched." Fran/rfurter <e£/ung, signed F. L. On an exhibition of posters in Mannheim in 192Z 0 Dream Consciousness 0 [G2a,2)

The first London exhibition bring! together industries rrom a round the world . Following this, the South Kensington museum is founded. Second world exhibition in 1862, Iike"" i8e in Loudon. With the Munich exhibition or 1875 , the German Renaissance style comes into fa shion . (G2a,3)

Wiertz on the occa8ion of a world exhibition: " What 8trikes one at first is not at aU the things people are making today Lut the thing! they will be making in the futu re. I The hUlnan spirit begills to accustom itself to the power of matter." A. j . Wiertz, Oeuvres fiueraires (Paris, 1870), p. 374. (C2a,4)

Talmeyr caUs the poster " the art or Gomorrah." La Cite dll sang (Paris, 19(1), p. 286. 0 jugelld8til 0 (G2a,5)

Industrial exhibitions as secret blueprint for museums. Art: industrial products projected into the past. [G2a,6)

J oseph Nash paimed a series of watercolors for the king of England showing the Crystal Palace, the edifice built expressly for London's industrial exhibition in 1851. The first world exhibition and the first monumental structure in glass and iron! From these watercolors, one sees with amazement how the exhibitors took pains to decorate the colossal interior in an oricntal·fairy·taIe sty le, and how­alongside:: the assonment of goods that filled the arcaded walks- bronze monu'

ments, marble statues, and bubbling fountains populated the giant halls. 0 Iron oInterior 0 IG2a,7)

The design for the CryStal Palace is byJ oseph Paxton, chief gardener to the duke of Devonshire, for whom he had built a conselVatory (greenhouse) o f glass and iron at C hatsworth H ouse. His design provided for fireproofing, p lenry of light, and the possibility of speedy and inexpensive assembly, and it p revailed over those of the London Building Committee, whose competition was held in vai.n.~

[G2a,8j

"Yes, long live the bl..'Cr of Vicnna! Is it native to this lanti that produces it? In truth , I do 1I0t know. But or one thing, there can be no doubt: it is a refined and comforting brew. It is not like the beer of Str88bourg ... or Bavaria.... It is divine beer, ... clear as the thought of a poet, light as a 8wallow in flight , robust alld alcohol-charged as the pcll of a German philosopher. It is digested like the purest wa ter, and it refreshes like ambrosia. " Advertisement for Fa nt a Beer of Vienna . No.4, Rue Halevy, near the Nouvel Opera, 'ew Year 's 1866. Almanach

indiealellr parisien (Paris, 1866), p. 13. [G2a,9)

"Another new word : to recto",e (advertisement). W"t11 it make a rortune?" Nadar, Quandj'etais photographe (Paris <190(h), I)' 309. IG2a,l Oj

Between the February Revolution and the june Insurrection: "All the waUs were co\'ered with revolutionar y postere which, some years later, Alfred Oelvau re­printed in two thick volumes under the title Les Murailles revoiutionnaires, so that tod ay we can still get some idea of this remarkable poster litera ture. There was scarcely a palace or a church on which these notices could not be seen. Never before was such a multitude of placa rds on view in any cit y. Even the government made use of this medium to publish its decrees and I)roclamations, while thou· sa nds of.other people resorted to tlffiches in order to a ir thcir views publicly on all IJOssihle questions. As the time ror the opening or the National Assembly drew near, the la nguage of the posters grew ",i ider and more passionate .... T he num­ber of public crier s increased every day; t1lOusands and thousands of Parisians, who had nothing else to do, became news vendors." Sigmund Englander. Cescllich'e der frcmzosischen Arbeiter·AS$ociationen (Hamburg, 18M), vol. 2 , pp.279-280. IG3,I)

"A short merry piece that is customurily jl l'e8cntcd hcre before the pufonnance of a !lew play: Uflrkflllj" flffacheur dla rlet:luin the Bill-Sticken. In one {Iuite funn y alld c1larmillg scene . a pOSler ror the comedy is st uck 0 11 Columbine's house." j . F. Heichanlt , Ver/rflute Briefe fillS Paris (H amllllrg. 1805). vol. 1, p. '1S7. (G3,2)

"These tlaye. a gootlma ny houses in Paris apIH:a r 10 be decoralec.1 i.n the style or Harlequin', costume; 1 mean a patchwork of la rge green, yellow, [a word illegible] and pink pieces of paper. The bill-stickers wrangle over the wall8 a nti come to

hlows over Q streetcorncr. Tile beSI of il is Illal aU Illese poslers cover one anolher up alleaSI len timCll a d ay"· Etluard Kroloff, SciJiJIlerlHl8fm (illS Paris (Ha mhurg, 1839), vol. 2, p. 57. [G3,3)

" I' au l Sirlludin , born in 1814, has In.:cn active in tile theater s ince 1835; he has supplemented this activi ty with practical efforu in the fi eld of confectionery. The re"u!ti of these efforts beckon no ieu teillptingiy from tile large displQy window in the Rue de la Paix than the sugar almonds, bonbolls, honey cakes, a nd sweet crackcr8 offered to the public ill the form of olle-act dramatic ~kctches at the

Palais-Royal. " Rudolf Gottschall, " 0 88 Theater und OramQ d es Second Empire," in U,uere Zei, ; Deutsche Revue-iUolla ,uchrif, Z Uni COIJ vers(j,ioIJslexicolJ

(Leipzig, 1867), p . 933 . IG3,4]

From COPPt.'e', speech to the Academie Frall-.:aise (" Response to Heredia," May

30, 1895) , it can be inferred that a s tra nge sort of writtell image could fomlerly be seell in Pa ris: "'Calligraphic masterpiec:es which , in the old days, were exhibited 011

every strootcorner, alll.l in which we could admire the po rtrait of Beranger or 'The

Taking of the Bastille' in the form of pa ra phs" <p . 46). [G3 ,S)

Lc: Charivari of 1836 has an illustration showing a poster mat covers half a housefroll t. The windows are left uncovued, except for one, it seems. Out of that a man is leaning while cutting away the obstructing piece of paper.

IG3,']

" EIi8enCe d ' Amazilly. fragrallce and antiseptic; h ygienic toiletries from DUIJrat alld Coml)any." " If we have named our essence after the d aughter of a cacique , it

is only to indicate t.hat the vegetal ingredients to which this distillation owes its

surprising effectivene88 come from the same torrid climate as she does. The term 'antiseptic' belongs to the lexicon of science, and we use it only to point out that, apart from the iucollll'a rable benefits Ollr product offers to ladit.'fI. it possesses

hygienic virtues calcula ted to will the confidence of aU those wilJilig to be convinced of its salutary action . For if our lotion, Ilulike the wa ter s of tbe .' ountain of Youth .

has no power to wash away the acculIlulated year s, a t least it docs ha ve, in addi­tion to other merits, the inestimable IIdvantage (we believe) of r estoring to the full extent of its former radiance the lost majesty of tha i consummate entit y, that

masterpiece of Creation which , with the elegallce, purity, and grace of its forms, makes up the lovelier half of huma nit y. Without the providential Stll ){.' r vt.'ntion of our discovery, this most brilliant ami del icate ornament- resembling, in lhe ten­der charms of its mysterious structul·e, a fragi le blossom Ihat v.'ilts althe first hanl rain- would enjoy, at belt , hut a fu gi tive splendor, aft er the falling of which it mmt 111.'t.'ds languish lIIuler the ruinous cloud of illness. the fa tiguing dClllamls of nursing. or the 110 Ic!! injurioU!! clllbruce uf the pitiless corset. Develope!l , a btlvc aU, in tim intereSIS of Indics, our Essellce i1'Amazill y ulIswcrs ttl the mO$t e)(acling ami IIIOs t intimate re{luiremelits of their toilelle. It unih:~, thullk! to a happy infusion, all that is necessary to revive, fos ter, ami enhance nat ural all ract.iolls,

".·ithout the slightcst detriment ." <Citetl in > Cha rles SimOIllI , f'nris de 1800 ii. 1900 (Pa ris. 1900), vol. 2, p . 5 10 (" Une Reclll llle lie parfulII("ur C II 1857'"). ~ [G3a, I)

"Gravely, 11u- sandwich-nllill hears his duuble burdcll , light li S it is. A young lady whose ,·utlilltlity is only tcmporary smiles 1.1 1 the walking poster, yet wishes to read it C\'en as she smiles. The Il appy author of her a bdominal salience likewise bears a hurtlt' li of his own ." <The hushand has his wife 0 11 his r ight arm and a large box under his Icfl. Along with four other people, they arc clustered around a sand_

wich- lII l1 11 H.'t!n from the back .> Te)(t IIccompllllyiug a lithograph entitled " L' Homme-affiche sur la P lace des Victoircs," from Nouveaux Tableallx de Paris. tcxt to pi ute 63 (the lithogra phs a re h y Ma rlel]. This hook is a sort of l:Iogarth ad US IIIII Dell1l1ini. [G3a.2]

Beginning of Alfred Oelva u's prefa ce to Les Alurailles reuo/ut.iollflClires: " These

revolutionary placards-at the bottom of which we set our obscure name-form an immense and unique composition , one \'Iithou t precedent , we believe, in the history of hooks. They are a collective work . The author is Monsieur Everyone-­

Mein Herr Omnes, as Luther says." Les Murailles revolu';ollflUires de 1848, 16th ed. (Puris <1852» , vol . I , p . I . [G3a,3]

"'When , in 1798, under the Direc:: tory, the idea ofpuhlic exhihitions was inaugu­ra ted on the Champ d e Mars, there were 110 exhibitors, of whom twenty-five wer e

awanlcd med als." Patais ele J'lndlUltrie (distributed by H. P ion). [G4,1]

" Begillning in 180 I , the products of newly emerging industries were exhibited in the courlyard of the Lollne." Lucien Oubech and Pierre d ' Espezel, lIistoire de Pari$ (1'"oIris, 1926), p . 335. [G4,2}

"E\'ery five years-in 1834, 1839, and 1844--t he products of industry are exhib­

ited in Marign y S(lua re." Oubech and d'EslH!zel , His,oire de Paris , p . 389. IG4,3]

"T he fi r8t e)(hibition dilies hack to ] 798; set up 0 11 the Chump de Mars, it was ...

3n e)( hihil ion of Ihe products of French industry a nd was conceived h y Frllm;ois d e Neufehii teau . There were three national exhihitions under the .:mpire (in 1801, 1802. "01 1111 1806), the first two in the eourlyard of the Lo uvre, the third at the Im'alide8. There were three du ring the Hesloration (in 18 19, 1823. und 1827), aU

allhe l.Qu vrc ; three during the July Monurch y (in 1834. 1839 , allli 1844), on the Place {Ie la COllcorde a nd tlw Clla mps-E l y~s; a nd olle UllIler the Second Repuh­lic. in 1849. Tllen . followinr; the example of EngIalll l , \\'hich h ad orga nized 1111

illlrrnatiollal exhibition in 1851, IrnlJC!r iul .' ra nce held world exhih itions on the Champ {Ie Mars ill 1855 11 1111 1867. The firs t saw the hirlh of the Pulais de J' lndus­trie. d cmolished tluring the Itepublic; the second WII S u delirious festi v.ll.l marking the high point of the Second Em pire. In 1l178, a new exhibition was orga nized 10

attCll t 10 rebirth after d efeal; il was held on the Champ de Mars in It temporary

palace erected b y Formige. It is characteristic of these enormous fai rs to be ephemeral, yet each of them has It-ft its trace ill Paris. T ile exhi.bilion of 1878 was re~(>onsible for the Trocadero. tha t eccentric palace cllIPI}Cd down 011 I.he tOI) or Chaillol hy Davioud anti Bourdais. and also for the root b ridge at Passy, buih to n:l' lace the Pont d'iena , which WIl S no longer usable. T he cxhihition of 1889 left l}Chilld the Galerie de. Machines, which was e" entually torn down , ahhough the Eifre! Tower stiU sta nds." Dubech and d 'Espezel , lIiMoire de I'uri, (I"ris, 1926),

p. 46 1. [G4.4]

'''Europe is off to view the mer chandise,' said Renan--contemptuously-of the 1855 exhibition. " Paul Morand , 1900 (Paris, 193 1), p . 71 . (G4,5]

"'This yea r has been lost for propagandll ,' says a socialis t ora tor a t the congress of 1900." Paul Morand , 1900 (Paris, 193 1), p . 129. [G4 ,6]

" In 1798, a univer sal exposition of industry was an nounced ; it was to take place

... on Ihe Champ de Mars. The Directory had charged the minisler or the interior, Fran~ois de Neufchateau . with orga nizing a national restival to commemorate the

founding of the Republic. The minister had confern:d with several people, who proposed holding contests and games, Uke greasy~po lc climbing. One person sug~

gested I.hat a great ma rket be set up after the fashioll of country fairs , but on a larger scale. Finally, it was prol)Osed that all exhibition of paintings be included.

These last two suggestions ga ve Fran~o i s de Neufchateau the idea of presenting an exhibition of industry in celebration of the national festival. Thus. the first indus­

trial exposition is born from the wish to amuse the working classes, and it become. for them a festival of emancipation .... The increasingly popular char acter of

industry starts to become evident. ... Silk fab riu are replaced by woolens, and sa tin aud lace by materials more in keeping with the domestic requirements of the

Third Estate: woolen bonnets and corduroys.... Cha ptal, the spokesman for this ex hibition , calls the industrial s ta te by its name for the fir~ t time." Sigmund

Engl iinder, Ce$chichte der fmn:o$i$chen Arbeiter-Anociutiofle fl (Hamburg, 1864), vol. I , pp . 51- 53 . [G4,7]

" In celebrating the centenary of the great Revolution, the French bou rgeoisie has,

as it ....ere, intentionally set out to demonstrate to the proletariat ad OCUW$ the economic possibility and nec::essity of a social upris ing. The world exhibition has givcn the proletaria t an excelleut idea of the unprtM:edented level of deveiolHuelit

which the means of production ha ve reached ill all civili7.cd la nds-a development far exc!!eding the boldest utopia n fantasies of the century preceding this one.... The exhibition has further demollstrated that modern developnu~nt of Ihe forces of production must of neccssity lead to industrial crises that , givcn tile a na rch y cur~ rcntly reigning in production . will only grow more acute ....itll the passage of time, and hence more destructive to IIle course or the world ecollomy." G. Plckhanov. " Wie die Bourgeoisie ihrer Revolution get.lenkt ," Oie lIeue Zei, . 9, 11 0 . I (Stuttga rt , 1891). p. 138. [G4a.I J

" Despite all Ihe posturing with which TeutOllic arroga nce trie. to represenl the capit al or the HeidI as the brighlest beacon of civilization , Berlin has not yet been able to mount a worl,1 exhibition . . To try 10 excuse this d eplorable fa ct by claiming thai world exhibitions have had their day alld now ar e nothing but gaudy aud gr audiose vanit y fairs . and so forth , is a crau evasion . We have no wi,lh to ,Ieny the tlrawbacks of ....orld exhibitions ... ; nevertlleless, in ever y case they relUaili incomparably more I)()",·erful le' ·ers of human culture than tbe countless

barracks a UlI chur ches with ....hicb Berli n has bl.'f:n inundated at such great C08t. The rccurrent ini tintives 10 establish a world exhibitioll ha ve foundered, li rst of nil , on the Inck of energy ... arflicting the bourgeoisie. a nd , 8tM:ond , on the poorly disguised resentment with which an absolutis t-feudal m.ilitarism looks on anything that could thr eaten its-alas!---still germinating rOOI8. " (Anonymous,) "Kla8S~

cllkiimpfe." Die ' leue Zeit , 12, no. 2 (Stuttga rt . 1894), p . 257. (G4a,2)

Ou the occasion or tile world exhibition of 1867 , Victor Hugo issued a manUealo to

the l)flOples of Europe. (G4a,3)

Cbevalier ....as Ii disciple of Enfantin. Editor of Le Globe. IG",' I

Apropos of Holand tie la Platier e's Encycwpedie methodique: " Turning to les

mamifuctllre" ... Roland writes: ' Industry is born of need .... ' It might appea r from this that the term is beillg used in the classical sense of indwtria. What follows provides clarification: 'Sut this fecund a nd l}Crverse riverhead, of irregu~

lar a nd retrogressive disl)()sition , eventually came down from the uplands to flood the fi elds, and soon nothing could satisfy the need which overspread the la od . ' ... What is significant is his ready employment of the word indwtne, more than thirty

years before the work of Chaptal. " Henri Ha user, Le, Debuu du capitawme (Paris, 193 1), pp . 315-3 16. (G4a,5)

" With price tag affixed , the commodity comcs on the ma rket . Its material quaUty alUl individu alit y are merely an incentive for buying and selling; for the social

measure orils value. such qualily is of no importance whatsoever. T he commodity has become all abstraction . Once escaped frOnl tile ha nd of the producer and divesled or its real particularity, it cesse. to be a product and 10 be ruled over by

human beings. It has acquired a ' g1IOStly objecti vity ' and leads a life of its 0101'0 . 'A commodi ty appears, a t first sight , to be a trivial anti easily understood thing. Our analysis 8110ws thut . in reality, it is a vexetl a nd complicated thing, abounding in lIIetapll )'sieal suhtleties a nd theological niceties. ' Cut ofr from the will of man , it

aligns itself in II myster ious hierar chy, develops or declines exchangeability, alld, ill accordance with it l! own peculiar la ws, performs as lin actor on a phantom stage. 1/1 the la ngullge or the commodities excha nge, cotton 'soa rs, ' copper 'slunlps,' corn ' is acth'c: coa l ' is sluggish.' wheat 'is on the road to recovery.' and petro­leum ' ,lispla y a healthy treud .' T hings have gaine(1 autollomy, and Ihey take on human features.... T ile commodity has been transformed into an idol that . al~ though the produci or human hallds, disposes over the llumall. Marx sl)C.aks of the

fetish cha racter of the commodity. ' This feli sh character of t.he comnu)dity world has its origin iJl the pt,'c uli ar social character of the labor th at produces cUlllmod.i_ Li e~ . . .. It is only tile I'art icnla r social relation between pcuple I.hut here au nmes, in the eyes of these IItltIJlle, the phantasmaguriclll form of a rel atiun between things. t· ... 0 110 Riihle. Kurl Marx (Hellerllu ( 1928) , PI" 384-385. [C 5,1]

"According to offi cial es timates, a total of abunt 750 workers. chosen by their

comrades or else named by the entrepreneurs themselves. vis ited London's world e~hibition in 1862 .... Tbe offi cial char acter of this delegation , and the manner in which it was constituted , naturally inspired little confidence in the revolu tiouary and republica u emigres from France. This circumsta nce perhaps explains why the

idea of an organized re<:elltion for this deputation originated with the edi tors of an organ dedicated to the eool)tl ra tive movement ... . At the urging of the editorial

starr of The Working Man , a committee was formed to prepa re a welcome for the French workers .... Those named to p articipate iucluded ... J . Morton Peto, . ..

and J oseph Paxton . . .. Tbe interests of industry were put foremost , .. . a nd the need for an agreement between workers and entrepreneurs , as the sole meam of bettering the difficult condition of the worker s, was strongly underlined ... . We cannot ... rega rd this gathering as the birthplace . .. of the International Work­ingmen's Association . That is a legend . ... The truth is simply that this visit

acquired , through its indirect consequences, momentous iml,ortance as a key step on the way to a n understanding between English and French workers."

D. Rjazanov. " Zur Ceschichte del' er sten Internationale," in M(lrx-Ens elsA rchiv. vol. I <Fr ankfurt a m Main , 1928>, pp. 157, 159-160. [G5.2)

"Alread y, for the fi rs t world exhibition in 185 1, some of the workers proposed by

the entrepreneurs were sent to London at the state's expense. There was 0 18 0 ,

however , an independent delegation d isp atched to London on the initiative of

Biamlui (the econonlis l) and Emile de Girardin . . .. This delegation submitted a gener al report in which , to be sure, we find no trace of the attempt to establish a permanent liaison with English worken, but in which the need for peaceful rela­

l ions between England and France is s tressed . . . . In 1855, t.he second world exhibition took place, Ihis time in Paris. Delegations of workers from the capital ,

as well as from the provinces. wer e now totally bar red . It was fea red that they ....ou.ld gi ve workers 1111 opportunit y for organizing. " O. Rj azanov, " Zur Geschichte der crs ten Intcfn ll lionale," in lIIa rx-E,lsels Archiv • ...-d. Rjazanov, vol. I (Frank­furt lun Mllin). I'p . 150-151. [G5a, J)

The subtleties of Grandville aptly express what Marx calls the "tllcological nice­ties 't7 of the commodity. [G5a ,2]

" T he sense of taste iH a carriage with four wlu,·cb . wbich are: ( I) Gastronomy; (2) Cuisine; (3) COlilpa ny: (4) Culture." FrUin <Fuur icr 's) l\'O Il IJf!.lIU Monde inc/us /riel e/ socie/(jire ( 1829), ci ted in K Puisson , Fourier ( Pa ri il, 1932) . p . 130. (G5a,3)

Cormection o f the 6rst world exhibitio n in London in 185 1 with the idea of free trad e. [G5a,4)

"The world exhibitions ha ve lost Illllch of their origin al ch aracter. The enthusiasm th at, in 185 1, was felt in tllc most dispa rate circles h as subsided , and in its 1)lace has come a kind of cool calculation . In 185 1, ....e were living in the er a of free trade . . . . For some decades now. we have ....itnessed the spread of protection_ ism . ... Particip ation in the exhibit ion ~omes ... a sort of r epresenta tion . _ . ; and ....hereas in 1850 the ruling tenet Wall that the government Deed not concern

itself in this affair, the situa tion today is so far advanced that the government of each country can be considera l a verita ble entrep reneur." Julius Lessing, Da, halbe Jahrhundert del' WellulIssreliuns en (Berlin , 1900), pp. 29-30. {G5a,S)

In London, in 1851, " appea red ... the first cast-steel cannon by Knipp . Soon therea ft er, tbe Prussian minis ter of war pl aced an order for more tha n 200 exem­

plars of this model. " Julius Lessing, Das halbe Jahrhunder"l de r" Weltau,uleUun_ Sen (Berlin , 1900), p . II . [C 5a,6)

" From the same sphere of thought tila t engendered the great idea of free trade

a rose ... Ihe notion that no one would come aWIlY empty-handed- r ather, the contrar y- from an exhibitioll at which he had s taked his best so as to be able to take home the best that other people had to offer.. . This bold conception , in

which the idea for the exhibition originated , wall put into action . Within eight

months. ever ything was finished . 'An absolute wonder lila t h as become a pa rt of history. ' At the foundation of the entire underta king, remarkably enough, re8U

the principle that such a work must be backed not by the s ta te but b y the free

activi ty of its citizens ... . Origin aUy, two private contractors, the Munday broth­er s, offer ed to build , a t their own risk , a p alace costing a million ma rks. But

gr ander proportions wer e resolved on , and the necessary funds for guaranteein~ the enterprise, totaling man y millions, were lIubscrihed in short order. The Veat

new thought found a great new form. The engineer Paxton built the Cr ystal Pal­ace. In every l a~d r ang out the news of something fa bulous and unpre<:edented: a

palace of glass and iron was going to be built , one Ihat would co,'er e.ighteen acres. Not long before this , Paxton had constructed a vaulted roof of glass and iron for one .of the greenhouses at Kew, in which luxuriant palm8 were growing, and thi, achievement gave him the courage to ta ke on the new task . Chosen as a s ite for the

exhibition wIIs the flllest pa rk in London, Hyde Park , which offered ill the middle !I wide open meadow, tra versed !llong its shorter !I ~ ill by a ll avenue of splendid elms . But anxious onlookCI's 800n raised II cr y of ala rm lest these trees be sacrificed for the sa ke of a whim . 'Theil I shall roof o,'cr tile trees ,' was PalCtou's answer, and lIe p roceedCllto Ilesigu the transept. which , wit.h its semicyliudrical vault elevated 11 2 feet above tile ground , . . . accollunodated the whole ruw of elms. It is in the highest degree remar ka ble and significant that this Great Exhibition of Londoll­oorll of modern cOllccptions of stea m " owcr. electrici ty. ami photogra phy. and modern conceptions of free trade--should li t t.he same time have a fford ed the

decisive impetus, within thit period u a whole, for the revolution in artistic forms. To build a palace out of glus and iron teemed to the world , in thOle days, a fa ntastic inspiration for a temporary piece of a rchitecture. We see now that it was the fi rst great advance on the road to a wholly new wor ld of forms .... The con­structive style, as opposed to the historical style, has become the watchword of the nlOdern movement. When did this idea make it. triumphal entry into the world? In the year 1851, with the Cr ysta l Palace in London. At firs t , peolJle thought it impo.­sihle that a Iialace of colossal proportions could be built from glBlSand iron. In the puhBcations of the day, we find the idea of assembling iron components. so fanlil­iur to us now, represented UII something extraordinary. England can boast of hav­ing accomplillhed this quite novel tu k in the space of eight months, ull ing iu existing factories, without any additional capacity. Qne points out triumpbantly that .. . in the . ixteenth century a small glned window wall still a luxury item, whereas today a building covering eighteen acres can be constructed entirely out of glass. To a man like Lothar Bucher, the mea ning of thill new IItructure was clear: it was the undisguised architectural expression of the transver&e strength of slen­der iron components. But the fantastic charm which the edifice exerted on aU lOuls went weU beyond such a characterization, however crucial for the program of the future; and in this regard , the preser vation of the magnificent row of trees for the central transept was of capital importance. Into this space were transported all the horticultural glories which the rich conservatories of England had been able to cultivate. Lightly 1)lumed palms from the tropics mingled with the leafy crown. of the five-hundred-year-old elms; and within thit enchanted forest the decoraton arranged masterpieces of plan ic art, slatuary, large bronzes, and specimens of other artworks. At the center stood an imposing crystal fountain. To the right and to the left r an galleries in which visitors passed from one national exhibit to the other. Overall, it seemed a wonderland , appealing more to the i.magination than to the inteUecl . ' It is with sober economy of phrase that I term the prospect incompa­rably fairy-like. This space is a summer night'. dream in the midnight SIlO '

(Lolhar Bucher ). Such sentiments were registered throughout the world . I myself recaU, from my childhood, how the new. of the Crystal Palace reached us in Ger many, and how pictures of il were hl10g in the middle-class parlors of dis tant provincial towns. It seemed then that the world we knew from old fairy taie8--0f the princess in the glau coffin , of queens and elves dwelling in cr ystal houBelJ-had come to life ..., and these inlpressions have persisted through the decades. The great tranBeI)t of the palace and part of the pavilions were transferred to Syden­ham, where the building sta nds today;' there I saw it in 1862 , with feelings of awe and the sheerest delight. It has taken four decades. numerous fires, a nd many depredations 10 r uin this magic. although even today it is still not completely vanished." Julius Lessing. Das halbe Jahrhunderl der WeltulusuJlwl8en (Berlin, 19(0), pp . 6-10. [G6; G6a,I)

Organizing the New York exhibition of 1853 fell to Phineas Barnum. [G6a,2)

" I..e Play has calculated tha t the number of years rccluired 10 prepare a world exhibition equals the number of months it runs .... There ia obviously a ahocking

Exterior of the Crystal Palace, London. See G6; G6a, l.

disproportion here between the period of gestation and the duration of the enter­prise." Maurice I'ecard , Les Expositions internationales au point de vue ecoRO­mit/lie er social, particuli.e rement en France (Paris, 1901), p. 23 . [G6a,3)

A bookseller 's poster apl»ear s in Le. Muraille. revolurionnaires de 18/18 with the following expl anatory remark : " We offer this affiche, a8 la ter we shaU offer others unrelated to the elections or to the political events oflbe day. We offer it because it lells why a nd how certain manufacturers profit from certain occasions." .' rom the Iwster : " Reatl this imlw rtall t notice against Swindlers. MOlisieur AJexandre Pier re, wishing 10 stop t he daily abuses created by the gelleral ignorance of the Argot and J a rgoll of swindlers and dangerous men, haa made good use of the unhappy time he was forced to spend with them as a victim of the fall en Govern­ment ; now restored to liberty by our noble Republic, he haa juSI published the fruit of those l ad studiell he was able to make in prison . He is not afraid to descend

inlo Ihe midsl of these horrible places, and even inlO the Lions' Den , if by these means ... he ca n she{1 liglu on Ihe principal words of thcir con vcrsatiolls , and thus make il possible 10 avoid ti le mil!fort unes arltl abuses thai result from nOI knowin g these words, which until now were intelligible only to swindlers .... On sale from public vendors a nd from the Autlror." Le. Mltraille. riwollllionnaire5 de 1848 (Paris ( 1852), vol. I , p . 320. [G7,1]

If the commodity was a fetish, then Grandville was the tribaJ sorcerer. IG',' I

mond Empire: "The government 's candidates ... wer e able to print their p roela­mations on white paper, a color reserved exclusivel y for official publications."

A. Malet a nd P. Grillet , XIX' .iecle (Paris, 1919) , I)' 27 1. [G7,3]

InJugendstil we see, for the first time, the integration of the human body into advertising. DJugendstil 0 [G7,4}

Worker delegations at the world exhibition of 1867 . At the tOI) of the agenda is the demand for the abrogation of Article 1781 of the Civil Code, which reads: '"The

employer's word shaD be taken as true in his statement of wages apportioned , of

salary paid for the year ended , and of accounts given for the current year" (I'. 140).-"T he delegations of worken at the exhibitions of London and Paris in 1862 and in 1867 gave a direction to the 80cial movement of the Second Empire,

and even, we may say, to that of the sccond half of the nineteenth century.... T heir reports were compared to the rec:ord8 of the Estates General ; the former

were the signal for a 80cial evolution , just as the latter, in 1789, had been the cause of a political and cconomic revolution" (I" 207).-{Thi8 comparison comes from

1'tUchel Chevalier. ] Demand for a ten -bour workday (I" 121).- " Four hundred

thousand free tickets were distributed to the workers of Paris and various cieparlement• . A barracks with more than 30 ,()(M) beds was pu t at the disposal of the visiting workers" (p . 84). Henry Fougere, Le. Deiegalion$ Quvriere. aax expo­

. itions univer.elle. (Montlut-on , 1905). [G7,5}

Gatherings of worker delegations of 1867 at the " training ground of the Passage

Raoul ." Fougere, p. 85. [G7a,l ]

"The exhihition Ilad long since closed , hut the delegate8 continued their discus­

sions, and the pa rliamen t of workers kept llOlding sessions in the Passage Haoul. " Henry Jo'ougere, Le. DeUgation. oll vriereJ (lUX expo.ition. IIniller.elle. 50118 Ie lIcco/ld empire (Montlu~on , 1905), 1'1" 86-87 . Altogetiler, the sessions lasted from July 21. 1867, until July 14 , 1869. [G7a ,2}

International Assoeiation of Workers. '''The A88ociation ... {IIIICS from 1862, fro m the lime of the world exhibition in LOllllon. It was there that English and French workers first met , to holll discussions a llli Sirek mutu il l cnligiltclllnent. ' Statcment made by M. Tolain on March 6, 1868 •... during the flrlH suit IJrought

b y the government aga inst the International AS8ociation of Workers." Ilcnry Fougerc, 1A!5 lJeUgo tiOJu Ollvrierc. tlll.;c eX/Jo, itio" . IlII ivencllCJ '011$ Ie "ecotld empire (Montlu\'on , 1905), p. 75. T hc fi nll great lIIt:eting in London drafted a (Ieclarat ion of sympath y for the liberal ion of the Polcs. [G7a,3]

In till: three or four reports by the worker delegations who took part in the world exhihitioll of 1867, therc are demauds for the abolition of standing armies anti for geller al disarma lllelll . Delcgations of porcelain painters, pillno repairmen , shoe­

lIIa ken, and mec:hanics. See Fougere. PI'. 163-164. [G7a,4]

1867. " Whoever visited the Chaml) de Mars for the first time got a sillJ,·ular impres­sion. Arriving hy the central a\'enue , he saw at first ... only iron and smoke ... . This initial impression exerted SUell an illfluence on the visitor that , iglloring the

tempting diversions offered by the arcade, he would hasten toward the movement IIntlnoise that attracted him . At every poiut ... where the machines were monlen­

ta rily still , he could hear the s trains of steam-powered organs and t.hc symphonies of brass instruments." A. S. de Doncourt , Les Exposilion$ ILniver.elle. (Lille and I)uris <1889) , PI'. 1 I 1- 11 2. [G7a,5)

T heatrical works pertaining to the world exhil)ition of 1855: Paris trop petit , August 4 , 1855, Tlu!itre du Luxembourg; Paul Meurice, Pu ri. , July 21 , Porte­Saint-Martin ; Theodore Barriere a nd Paul {Ie Koek , L 'lIisloire de Paris and Le. Grand. Siecle5. Sep tember 29; Le. Mode. de l'expo.ition ; Dzim boom boom: Re­vue de l 'exhibition; Sebastien Rheal, La Vision de f'awtw. 011 L 'E:cpositiotl uni­

verselle de 1855. In Adolp he De.my, Eu ai hi810rique . ur Ie. expo. i, ioru

univer.elle5 de Puris (Paris, 1907), p . 90. [C7a,6]

London 's world exhibition of 1862: " No trace remained of the edifying impre88ion made by the exhibition of 185 1. ... Nevertheless, this exhihition had some note­

worthy result8.... T he greatest surprise ... callie from China . Up to this time, Europe had seen nothing of Chinese art except ... tile ordinary I)()rcelains sold OD

the IUllr·ket . Hui 1I0W the Anglo-Chinese war had taken place ... , and the SUlIlmer

Palace had ht.'Cn burnell to the ground , SUPI)()u."d ly a8 punishmenl . ~ In truth , however, the English had succeeded even more d UIll thei r a llies , the French , in

carrying awa y a large portion of tllt~ treasures alllassed in that palnce, and these treasures were 8ubsequently put 0 11 exhihit in London i.1I 1862. For the sake of Iliscretion , il was women r ather than men ... who actcd as exh ibitors." Julius LeS5ing, Da. 'Ultbe jalrrlllmtIerl tier Welltll1881ellllflgen (Ber lin, 1900), p. 16.

IG8,II

Lessing (Do. II (JII..e }trllrllunrlert der Wei,all.stelluflgcn [Berlin. 1900] . p . " ) IHJ illIJi up the difference Iwtwet:1l the ...·orld ex hibi tion;; a lld the fairs. " or the latter, tile IIlcr'cha nts brought II lCir whole s tock of gootl ~ along with thclII . Thc world exhibitiolls pre8UPI)()Se a considcra ble d evelopmcnt of conllllercial as well a8 in­

dtl!~trial credit- that is to@ay,crt:tlit 011 the part of the customcrs. as wdla8 0 11 Ihe part or the firms taking their ordet"8. (G8,2]

" You Iid iherately had to close your eyes in order not to realize Iha llhe fair 0 11 the Champ de Ma rs in 1798. that Ihe supe rh porticoes of tlu: courtyard of tile l..ouvre alld t.he courtyard of Ihe In Vll lidcs cOlis tructetl in the rollowing years, alld . filially, thaI tlte mcmorable royal ordinance or J anuary 13, 18 19," have powcrrull y eOIl­

t r ihutcd to the glorious d evelopment or French industry.... It was reserved rOr the king or France to trallsform the magnificent gaUeries or his palace into a ll immell8C bazaa r, in order that his IH!Opie might contemplate ... thesc ullbioodied

trophics raised up by the gt:uius or the arts and the geuiu! of l)Cal:e." doseph­Charlcs. ChcllOu and H .D., Notice sur l 'exposition des produits de l'indll~trie et

des arts flui a eu lieu aDOlWi en 1827 (Douai, 1827), p. 5. [G8,3]

'1l:tree different delegations of workers "'ere sent to London in 185 1; none of them accomplished anything significant. Two " 'ere official: one represented the National Assembly, and one the municipality of Paris. The private delegation was put together with the support of the press, in particular of Emile de Girardin. The workers themselves played no part in assembling these delegations. [G8,4]

The dimensions of the Crystal Palace, according to A. S. Doncourt , Les Expoli-­

,iolll ilni lJer~e llel (wile and Paris dB89», p . 12. The long sides measured 560 meters. [G8,5]

On the workers' delegations to the Great Exhibition in London in 1862: " Electoral offices were being r apidl y organized when , on the eve of elections, an incident ...

arose to iml)C(le the ol)Crations. The Paris police ... took umbrage at Ihis unprece­dented d evelopment , alld the Workers Commission was ordered to cease its ac­

tivities. Con vinced that this measure ... could only be the resuh or a mis­unders ta nding, members of the Commission took their aplHlal directl y to His Majesty .... The emperor .. . was, in facl , willillg to authorize the Commisssion to

pursue its task. T he e1ectiolls ... resulted ill the selection of two hundred dele­

ga tes .... A lH!riod of len Ilays had been gr anted to each group to accomplish its mission. Each delegate received , on his departure, the sum of 11 5 fra ncs, a 8flCo'

(llul-class round-trip train ticket , lodging, and a meal. as well as a pass to the exhibition .... This grca t popular movement took place witllOut the slightest inci­

de lll tllllt . coulll Ilavt~ bl."Cli termell regrettahle." RlIpporls d es deles"e. del olwrie r., l}(Jri~ ie ll.f (; l'exposi,ioll de umtirel ell 1862, pllbfie. ]Jur 1(1 Commi~lI i01I

oliliriere (Puris . 1862- 1864) [I vol.!] , pp. iii- iv. (The Ilocumcnt contains r.rty­tllrl."C repol·ts by Ilclegutions from the dirferent tralle.... ) [GSa, !]

Pari ..._ 1855 . " Four locolll o tivc~ were gu arding the hall of machines, like those great IlIIlIs or Nineva ll . or like the sphinxes to bc seen a t the entrance to Egylltian temples. T his hall was a land of iron a nd fire and water ; tllc ca r ll were deafellt,.'(I, the e}'t!s (Iazzlell .... All was in motion . One sa .... wool combed , dotl. twis tcll , yarn

clipped. grain threshed . coal extracted . chocolate refined , and on and on . All exhibitors without exception were allowell lIIotil.it y and steam , contrary to what went on in Lolllion in 185 1, when only the English ex hihitot"8 had had the benefit of fire and water." A. S. DonCOlirt . Les EXIJWifion~ univer~elks (LilJe and Paris

<1 889» . 11• 53. [G8a,2]

In 1867 , the " oriental qua rter" was t.he center of atl.raetion . (G8a,3)

Fifteen million \' isitol"8 to the exhibition of 1867. [G8a,4]

In 1855 , for the fi rs t time, merchandise could he ma rked with a price. IG8a,5]

><Le Play had ... under 8l0<K! how neceua ry it would become to find what we caU,

in modern parlance. ' a draw' -lIome uar a ttraction . He likewise foresa",' that this nec.e......ity would lead to misnlanagement of the exhihitions, and this is the issue ... to which l\f. Claudio-J anet addressed himself ill 1889: 'The economist l\f. Frederic

Passy. a worthy man. has for mauy years now, in his speeches to Parliament a nd to the Aeademie, b,een denouncing the ahuscs of the s treet fai rs. Everything he saya

about the gingerbread fair ... call also IH! said (allowing for differences in magni­tude) of the great centennial celebra tiOIl . '" A note at this (loint: " The centennial

celebration. in fact. was 80 successful that the Eiffel Tower, which cost 6 million francs, had alread y earned , by the ftfth or November, 6 ,459,581 francs." Ma urice P~ard , Le~ Expolitio,,~ internafionClk. au point de vue economique et lociak. pClrticul~re~nt en France (Paris , 190 1), I). 29. (G9,l )

The exhibition palace or 1867 011 the Champ de Mar~ompared by some to Rome's Colosscum : " The arrangement conceived b y L..e Play, the head of the exhi­

bition committee, was a most felici tous one. The objects on exhibit were dis trib­uted . according to their materials. in eight concentric galleries; twelve avenues ...

branched out from the center, and the I>rincipal nations occupied the sectors cut by those radii. In this way, ... by strolling around the gaUeries, one could ...

survey the s tate of one particula r industry in all the different countries, whereas, by strolling up the avenuC1l that crossed them, one could ...urvey the sta te of the different branches of industry in each particula r country." Adolphe Dimy, Euai

historique l ur k l eX]Jo.ilion~ univer~elkl de Pa ris (Paris, 1907), p. 129.-Cited here is Theophile Gautier 's article about the palace in Le Moniteur of September

17, 1867: " We have before liS, it seems, u monument created 011 another planet, 011

Jupiter or Saturll , according to a taste we do not recognize ami with a coloration to which our eyes arc lIot accllstomed ." Ju st berore this: " The grea t azure gulr, with its hlood-colored rim , prolluces II vcrtiginous erfect a ud unsettles our idcas of architecture. " . (G9,2]

Hesis tance to the world exhihition of 185 1: "The king or Prussia forbade the royal prince anti princell ... from traveling to London.... The diplomatic corps re­fu sed to addreu any word of congratulations to the (Iueell . 'At this mome"t ,'

wrote ... Prince Albert 10 his mother 011 April IS, 1851, ... ' Ihe opponents of the Exhihition are hard al work.... The foreigner l, they cry, will start a r adical revolution here; they will kill Vicloria and myself and proclaim a red republic. MOI·cover, t.he plugue will surely reault from the inAu" of such multitudes a nd wiD devour tholle wllO have not been drivell away by the high prices on everything. ' .. Adolphe Dimy, Euo.i hu ,orique Sllr te, expo.irion. Itlliverselle. (Paris, 19(7),

p.38 . [G9,3)

Frall~ois de Neufchateau on the exhibition of 1798 (in Demy, Euai hutorUiue . ur tes exposition. univer.elle. ). "'The French ,' he d eclared, .. ' have amazed

EurolJe by the swiftness of their military successes; they should launch a career in commerce and the arts with just the l ame fer vor '" (p . 14). " This initial expo8ition ... is really an initial ca mpaign, a campaign disastrous for English industry"

(p . 18).-Martial characler of the opening procefl8ion: "(1) a contingenl of trum· peter s; (2) a detachment of cavalry; (3) the first two squads of mace bearers; (4) the drums; (5) a military marching hand ; (6) a 8quad of infantry; (7) the heralds; (8) the festival marshal ; (9) the artis18 regis tered in the exhibition; (10) the jury"

(p . 15).-Neufchateau awards the gold medal to the most heroic anauh on Eng.l.ieb

industry. [G9a,I)

The lIec!ond e"hibition, in Year IX," was supposed to bring together, in the court· ya rd of the Louvre, works of industry and of the plastic artll. But lhe artilltll

refu sed 10 e"hibit their work alongside thai of manufacturers (Demy, p . 19).

(G9a,2)

Exhibition of 18 19. '""fhe king, on the occallion of the exhibition , conferred the

title of baron on Ternaux and Oberkalllpf. ... The granting of a ristocratic titlea to

industrialis tll had provoked Home crit icillms. In 1823, no new titles were con­ferred ." Di my, Eu ai hutorique, p . 24. (G9a,3]

Exhibilioll of 1844. Madame de Girardin 's conunenlS on the event , <in> Vicomte de

l..aunay, uttres paru iennes, vol. 4, p. 66 (cited in Demy, Euai hu torique. p. 27): .... ' It is a pleasure, ' she remarked, 'strangely a kin to a nightmare.' And II he went OD

to enumerate the singularities, of which ther e waa no lack: the fl ayed horlle, the colo88al het:tlc, Ihe moving jaw, the chronometric Turk who ma rked the hours by

the number of his somersaults, and- Iall t but not least- l\1 . and Mme. Pipelel , the concierges in u. Mystere. cle Paris , 1: ill angelll." (G9a,4)

World exhibition of 1851 : 14,837 ex hibitors; that of 1855: 80,000. [G9a,S)

In 1867, the t:gyptiall e"hiiJit was housed ill a IlUilding whose design Will based on a n Egyplialll elilple. [G9a,6)

In his 1I0"e! The Fortren , Wall)Ole dellcribeathe precautions Ihat ....ere taken in a lotlging-house sl)eCially designed 10 ....elcome visitors to the ....orld exhibition of

1851. These preca utions included continuolls 1)OIice surveillance of the dormito­ries, the pn:llellce of a cha plain , ami a regular morning visit by a d octor. [GIO, I)

Walpole describes the Crystal Palace, with Ihe g1asll fount ain at its cenler and the old e1m;;--the laller " looking a lmost like Ihe lions of Ihe forest caught in a net of glass" (p . 307) . He deKribes the booths decorated with expensive carpets, and above aU the machines . " There were in Ihe machille· r OOIll the 'self-acling mules,' the J aCtlua rd lace machines, the envelope machines, the power looms, the model

10comOlivC1l, celltrifugal pumps, the vertical 81eam--e.ngines, aU of Ihe3e ....orking like mad , while Ihe thousand s ncarby, in their high hats and bonnela. sat patiently wailing, passive, unwillillg that Ihe Age of Man on this Plunet was doomed. " Hugh

Walpole, "he Forrren (Hamburg, Parill, a lld Bologna <1933», p. 306.13 (GIO,2)

Delvau speaks of " men who, each evenillg, have their eyes glued 10 the display

....indow of I..a BeUe J a rdinere to watch the day's receilll8 being counted ." Alfred Delvau , us Heure. paruienne. (Pa ris, 1866). p . 144 ("Huit heures dll soir").

IGIO,']

In a speet':h to Ihe Senate, on January 31,1868, Michel Chevalier makes aD effort to save the previous year 's Palace of Industry from de3truction . Of the various

posllibilitiell he lays out for lIalvaging the building, the most noteworthy ill that of using the interior-which , with its circular form , ill ideally lluited 10 such a pur­pOIle--for practicing troop maneuvers. He also proposes developing the structure

into a lH!rmanent merchandise mart for in1l)Orts. The intention of the opposing party seemll to have been to keep the Champ de Mars free of all construction- this

for mililary reallons. See Micliel Chevalier. Dilcours .fUr line petition reciamo.nt conlre ia de$truCliotl du pailli. cle l 'Expo.ition IIniversette de 1867 (Paris, 1868).

IGIO,. ]

"T he world exhibitions ... cannot fai l to provoke the mosl exacl comparisons 1H!lween t.he prices a nd the qualities of the same article as produced ill different

countriC1l. fl o .... tlie school of abllolute freedom of trade rejoices then! The world exhibitiunll contribute ... 10 the reduction , if nottlie a bolition , of cllslom duties. " Achille de Colusont (?>, lI i3toire de$ exposition. cles proouiu cle t 'indlUtrie frt.in~uue (Paril, 1855), p. 544. [G l Oa, I)

E,·ery inclu ~ lr)", in u hihil ing itll trophics

In liIi" ha1!aar of Uni llC r8ll1 Jl rogrcu. Seem~ to ha"'l horrowed a fairy's magic wand To hlc&!I lhe Cr)"S1al Palaer: .

Rich men . ""llOlar8. arli s l ~ . proklarillnll-­Each on.· lahort for Ihr: co mmon I!!OV(I; '\nd. joinin! together like nohle hrolhcr •. ,\11 loa lie at hcltrlthe ha l' l,inetl' of each.

Clairville anti Jules Cordier, Le Pulail de Cris tal, Ol~ IA!~ Paris ie ,,~ ;; Londre~ [Theatre de la Porte-SainI-Mar tin , May 26, 185 1J (Paris, 185 1), p. 6 . [GlOa,2)

The laS! two tablea ux from Clairville's Pala is de Crillal take place in f ronl of a nd illside Ihe Cr ystal Pa lace. T he stage directions for the (llext to) laSI tableau : ''The main gallery of the Cr ystal Palace . To the left , d ownstage, a bcd , at the head of ...hich is a la rge dial. At center stage , a 8ma1l ta ble holding small sacks and pots of ea rth . To the right , an electrical machine. Toward the rear, an exhibition of vari­ous products (b ased 0 11 the descriptive engraving done in Londoll)" (p . 30).

[CIOn,3]

Ad vertisement fo r Marquis Chocolates, fro m 1846: " Chocolate from La Ma ison Marquis, 44 Rue Vivienne, at the Passage des Panoramas.-The time has come

... hen chocolate praline, and all the other va rieties of chocolat de fa ntail ie, will he available ... from the House of l\1a rqu.is in the most varied and gr aceful of

fo rms.... We are privileged to be able to aDliounce to our readers tha t, oltce again , a ll assortment of pleasing verses, j udiciously selected from a mong the year's

purest , most gracious, and most elevated publications, will accompan y the exqu.i­site confections of Marquis. Confident in the favora ble advantage that is ou rs

alone, we rejoice to bring together that puissant name with 80 much lovely verse." Cabinet des Estampes. [GlOa,4]

Palace of Industry, 1855: "Six pavilions bonier the b uilding on four sides, and 306 ar cades run tbrough the lower story. An enormous glass roof provides light to the interior. As mater ia ls, only stone, iron , a lld zinc have heell used ; building costs

amounted to II millioll francs .... Of p articular interest are two lar ge paintings on glass at the eastern and western ends of the ma in gallery.... T he figures rep re­

sented 011 tbese appear to be life-size, yet ar e no les8 than six meters high ." Acht

Tage in Paris (Pa ris, July 1855), PI' . 9-10. The pa intings on glass show fi gures representing industrial Fra nce and Justice. {GI I ,I]

" I have ... written , together ... ith my collabora tor s on I. 'A telier, tha t the moment for economic revolution has come ... , although we had all agn-ed some time

previously that the workers of Europe had acbieved solidarity and that it was necessa r y now to move 0 11 , before an ything else, to the idea of a political federation

of peoples. " A. Corbon , Le Secret tlu peuple de Pa ris (Paris, 1863), p. 196. Also p. 242: " In sum , the poli t ical att itude of the working class of Paris consis ts uhllost entirely in t.he pas~ io ll ate desire to ser ve the movement of federation of nationali­ties ." [C I I ,2]

Nina Lassave, Fieschi 's bdol'ed, was employed . aft cr his execution on February 19, 1836, as a cashier al Ihe Cafe de la HeJl ai~sance 0 11 tilt: Place tie la Bourse.

{Gll ,3]

AII.imal symholism ill TonssclleI: the mole. " T he mole is .. . not the emblem of a s ingle character. II is the emblem of a whole social perioa: the period of industry 's

infancy. the Cyclopean pcriod .... It is the .. . allegor ica l expression of the ah so­lu te predomin ance of hrule fO I·ce over illtcllt.-eilial force ... . Man y estimable analobtlsts find a marked resembla nce betW(''C1I moles, ... hich II pllll·1I the soil a nd pierce passages of 6ubielTanean conuuunication , ... and the monopolizers of r ail· roads and stage I·outes.... The extreme ner vous sen8ibility of tile mole, whicb fea rs the light . . . , admi rably cha racter izes the obstinate obscu rantism of t.hose

monopolizers of banking and of trallsportation , who also fea l· the light ." A. Toussenel , I~ 'Esprit des oo' es : Zoologie passiOllllelle-l'tfammiferes de France (paris, 1884), pp. 469, 473--474.].1 [G ll ,4]

Animal symbolism in Toussellei: the marmot . "The ma l·mot .. . loses its hair a t its

work- in allusion to the paillfullabor of the chimney sweep , who rubs and spoils his clotbes in his occupation ." A. Toussenel , L 'Esprit des /Je' es (Pa ris, 1884), .=" ~l l~

Plant symbolism ill Toussend : the vine. " The ViJle loves to gossip ... ; it mounts fa milia rly to the shoulder of plum tree, oBve, or elm, and is intimate with all the

trees." A. Toussellel , L'Esprit (le~ betes (Paris, 1884), p . 107. [C Il ,6]

Toussenel expounds the theory of the circle and of the parabola with reference to the different childhood games of the two sexes. This recalls the anthropo­morphisms of Grandville. "The figures preferred by childhood are invariably round- the baH, the hoop, the marble; also the fruits which it prefers: the cherry, the gooseberry, the apple, the jam tart. ... The analogist, who has observed these games with continued attention, has not failed to remark a characteristic differ­ence in the choice of amusements, and the favorite exercises, of the children of the two sexes .... \Vhat then has our observer remarked in the character of the games of feminine infancy? He has remarked in the character of these games a decided proclivity toward the ellipse. I I observe among the favorite games of feminine infancy the shuttlecock and the jump rope.... Both the rope and the cord describe parabolic or elliptical curves. \Vhy so? \Vhy, at such an early age, this preference of the minor sex for the elliptical curve, this manifest contempt for marbles, ball, and top? Because the ellipse is the curve of love, as the circle is that of f~endship . The ellipse is the figure in which God ... has profiled the form of His favorite creatures-woman, swan, Arabian horse, dove; the ellipse is the essentially attractive form .... Astronomers were generally ignorant as to why the planets describe ellipses and not circumferences around their pivot of attrac­tion; they now k.now as much about this mystery as I do." A. TousselleJ, L'Espn·, des biles, pp. 89-91. '6 (Glla,I)

TousselleJ posits a symbolism of curves, according to which the circle represents friendship; the ellipse, love; the parabola, the sense of family; the hyperbola, ambition. In the paragraph concerning the hyperbola, there is a passage closely related to Grandville: "The hyperbola is the curve of ambition.. . . Admire the detennined persistence of the ardent asymptote pursuing the hyperbola in head­

long eagem ess: it approaches, always approaches, its goal .. . but never attains it ." A. Toussenel, L'Espn'f des beles (Paris, 1884), p. 92.'1 [Gll a.2]

AJlimal symbolism in Toussenel : the hedgehog. "Gluuollous allli repulsive , it is also the portrait of the scurvy slave of tile IH:n, trafficking with all subjects, scUing postmaster's appoiJltments and theater passes, ... and drawing .. from Ilis sorr y Chr istian conscience pledges and apologies at fixed prices . . .. It is said that Ihe hedgehog iS lhc only quadruped of France on which the venom of the viper has no effect. I should have guessed this exception merely from analogy. .. For ex pl ain . .. how calumny (the vilJer) can stillg the literary blackguard." A. Toussene!, L 'Esprit des Mtes (Paris, 1884). PI" <1, 76, 478 .' ~ [G II a,3)

" Lightning is the kiss of clouds, stormy but faithful. Two lovers who adore each other, and who will tell it in spite of all obstacles, are two clouds animated with opposite electricities, and swelled wilh tragedy. " A. Toussenel. L 'Esprit des betes: Zoologie passionnelle-Mammifi~res de Frallce, 4th ed . (Paris, 1884), pp. 100­IOI. I ~ [G12 ,l)

The first edition of Toussenel's L'Esprit des be fes appeared in 1847 . IGl2,' 1

" I have vainly questiolled the archives of antiquit y to fi nd traces of the setter dog. I have appealed to the memory of the most lucid somnambulists to ascertain the epocll when this race appeared. All the information I could procure . . . leads to this conclusion: the setter dog is a creation of modern times." A. Toussenel, L'Es­prit des Mtes (Pa ris, 1884), p. 159. :0 [G12,3)

"A beautiful young woman is a true voltaic cell , ... in which the captive fluid i8 retained by the form of surface8 and the isolating virtue of the hair; 80 that wheD this fluid would escape from its sweet prison, it must make incredible efforl8, which produce in turn, by inRuence on bodies differently a nimated , fearful rav­ages of att raction . . .. The history of the human race swarms with examples of intelligent and learned men, intrepid heroes, ... transfixed merely by a woman's eye . ... The holy King David proved that he perfectly understood the condensing proper ties of polished elliptical surfaces when he took unto himself the young Abigail. " A. Toussencl, L 'Esprit des befes (Paris. 1884). pp. 101_ 103.11 {G12,4]

TOllssenei explains the rotation of the earth as the r esultant of a centrifugal force and a force of attraction. Further on: "Tile star. . begins to wah7. its fre lletie wa ltz . . .. E\'er ything rustles, stirs, warms up , shines on !lIe sllrface of the globe, whicll onl y the eveni ng before was entombed in the frigid silence of night . Marvel­OilS spectacle for the well-placed observer--change of scene wonderful to behold . For the revolution took place between two suns und, that very evelling. un ame­thyst Slu r malle its fir st aplJeara nce in our skies" (p. 45). And , alluding 10 the volcanism of earlier epochs of the earth ; " We know the effects which the first walt lE usually ha~ 011 delica te con~titutiulI';.. .. The Earth, too. "" as rudely awakened by

its first ordeal. " A. Toussenel , L'Esprif des befes; Zoologie Pll.SS iOflnelle (Paris, 1884). pp. 44-45. [G12 ,5)

Principle of Toussenel 's zoology; "The rank of the species is ill direct proportion to its resemblance to the human being. " A. Toussellel, L'E$pril des beres (Paris, 1884), I)' i. Compare the epigraph to the work: '''The best thing about lIIall is his dog. '-Charlet ." [Gl2a,l )

The aeronaut Poitevin, sustained by great publicity. ulldertook a n " ascent to Ura_ nus" accompanied in the gOlldola of his balloon by young women dressed as mythological figures. Paris $OU $ la Republique de 1848: Expositioll de la Bib­fiotheque el des Iravaux historiques de fa Ville de Pa ris (1909). p. 34. [GI2a,2)

We can speak of a fetishistic autonomy not only with regard to the commodity but also-as the following passage from Marx indicates-with regard to the means of production: "Ifwe consider the process of production from the point of view of the simple labor process, the laborer stands, in relation to the means of production, ... as the mere means . . . of his own intelligent productive activ­ity . ... But it is different as soon as we deal with the process of production from the point of view of the process of surplus-value creation. The means of produc­tion are at once changed into means for the absorption of the labor of others. It is now no longer the laborer that employs the means of production, but the means of production that employ the laborer. Instead of being consumed by him as material elements of his p roductive activity, they consume him as the ferment necessary to their own life process . . . . Furnaces and workshops that stand idle by night, and absorb no living labor, are a 'mere loss' to the capitalist. Hence, furnaces and workshops constitute lawful claims upon the night labor of the workpeople.":12 Tl1is observation can be applied to the analysis of Grandville. To what extent is the hired laborer the "soul" ofGrandville's fetishistically animated objects? [Gl 2a,3)

"Night distributes the steUar essence to the sleeping planlS. Every bird which flies has the thread of the infinite in its claw." Victor Hugo, Oeuvres completes (Paris , L88I). 1I0vels, vol. 8, 1' .114 (Les Miserables, book 4).23 [G12a,4)

Drumont ca Us Toussenel "one of the greatest prose writers of the century. " Edoua rd Drumont , Les Heros et les pitre$ (Pa ris (1900) , p. 270 ("Toussenel").

[G12a ,5)

Technique of exhibition: "A fUlld umeli tal rule, Iluickly lea rnell through observa­tion , is that 110 object should he placed direet1y on the fl oor, on a level with the walkways. Pianos, furniture, physical apparatus, and machines are better dis­played on a pedestal or raised platform. The hest exhibits nlake usc of two quite distinct systems: displays under glass and open displays. To be sure, some prod­ucts , by their very nature or because of their value, have to he protected from

COlltll~:t with the a ir or the hand ; o illen! benefit (rom being left uncovered ." Expo­

- . ilion unilJc rselle de 1867, ci Pm';,, : Album dell in.tluiJalion.J Ie. pllU rerrwrquablu de l'Exposition de 1862. a Lolldres, publii par lu commiuion impe riale pour

.ervir de renseigrlemcnl UlU eXpO,cHlt, des diver,e' "(llium (Pari" 1866) <I). 5>. AJhum of plate. in lar ge folio. widl very interesting illustrations. l ome in color, sho..... ing-in cross-section or longitudinal section , 81 the case Dlay be--the pavil. iOllt of the world exhibition of 1862. Bibliothi!<lue Nationale. V.644. [G 13,1 J

Paris in tile year 2855: "Our many visitors from Sa turn and Mara have entirely forgotten , since a rriving her e, the hori :l:Olls of their mother planet! Paris is hence­forward the capilal of creation! ... Where are you, Champs-Elysees, favored theme of newswritenl in 1855? ... Buzzing along this thoroughfa re that is paved

widl 1I01l0w iron and roofed with crystal are the bees and hornets of fmance! The capitalists of Ur sa Major are conferring with the stockbrokenl of Mercury! And

coming on the market this very day are shares in the debris of Vellus half con­sumed by its own Aames!" Anlene Houssaye, " L.e Paris futur," in Porn et lu Pari.s iem au XIX' .siecie (Paris, 1856), pp. 458-459. IG13,2)

At the time of the establishment , in London , of the General Council of the Workenl Intern ationa l /~ the following rema rk circulated: " The child born in the work­

shops of Paris was nursed in London ." See Charles Benoist , " L.e ' My the' de I. classe ouvriere," Rellue des deux mOrldes (March I , 1914), p. 104. [GI3,3)

"Seeing that the gala ball is the sole occasion on which men contain themselve8, let

us get used to modeling all our ins titutions on gatherings such as these, wbere the woman is queen ." A. Toussenel, Le Monde de, oi.seaux, vol. I (Paris, 1853). p . 134. And: "Man y men are courtcous and gaUant at a ball, doubting not tbat

gallantry is a commandment of God" (ihid. , p. 98). [GI3 ,4)

On Gabriel Engelma nn : " When he published his Euail lithogrophique.s in 1816, great care was taken to reproduce this medallion as the frontispiece to his book, .....jth the inscription: 'Awarded to M. G. Engelmann of Mulhouse (Upper Rhine).

Lurge-8cale execution, and refinement , of the art of lithography. Encouragement. 1816. '" Henri Bouchot , 1..« Lithographie (Paris (1895» , p. <38>. (G13,5)

On the London world exhihition: " Ill making the roundli of this enormous exhibi­tion , the observer soon realizell that . to avoid confusion , . .. it has been necessary

to cluster the different nationalities in a certain number of groups, and that the on ly useful way of establishing these industrial groupings was to do so on the basis of--oddly enough- religious beliefs. Each of the great religious divisions of hu­ma uity corresponds, in effect •... to a particular mode of existence and of indus­trilli llct ivi ty. " Michel Chevalier. Du Progre~ (Paris, 1852), p. 13 . [GI 3a, l )

Frum t.he fi nll cha pter of Cnpifnl: " A cOllllllodity ap pears, at first sight. a very trivial thing II lId easi.ly unders tootl. 118 analysis shows that in reality it is a very

(Iueer thing. abounding ill metaphysicai liubdeties and theologicailliceties. So far as it is a value in use, there is nothing mysterious abullt it. . . . The form or wood is altered h y making a table out of it; ncw:rtlleles8, thi ~ table remains wood , an ordinary material thing. As soon as it stcps forth as cOlllmodity, however, it is transforlll ed int o alllat crial immaterial thing. It not only s tands with its feet on the ground , but . in the fa ce of all other comlllO(lities, it s tands on ita Ilead . and out of its wOO(len bra in it evolves notions more whimsically than if il had suddenly begun 10 dauce:-:' Cited in Franz Mehring, " Ka rl Marx und das Gleichnis," in Karl M(lrx (115 Dellker, Mcn.scll , IIfU/ RevolufiOlliir, ed. Rjazanov (Vienna and Berlin

(1928» , p . 57 (firs t puhlished in Die "eue Zeit, March 13, 1908). (G I3a,2)

Henan compares Ihe world exhibitions to the great C r eek feslivals, the Olympian

games, and the Panathenaea. But in contrast to these, the world exhibitions lack poclry. " Twice, Europe hilS gOlle off to view the merchalldise and to compare

products and materials; and on returning from this new kind of pilgrimage, no one has complained of missing anything." Some pages later: " Our century tends to­ward neither the good nor the bad ; it tends loward the mediocre. Whal succeeds in

e,'ery endeavor nowadays is mediocrity." Ernest Henan , Eu oi.s de morale et de critique (Paris. 1859), PI' . 356-357, 373 ("Lu Poesie d e n : xposition"). [G I3a,3)

Hashish villion in the casino at Aix-la-ChalH!lIe. '"'The ga llling la ble at Aix-Ia­

Chapelle is nothing short of an international congress, where the coins of all king­doms and all countries are welcome.... A storm of Leopolds . Friedrich Wilhelms,

Queen Victorias, and Napolcons rain down ... on the lable. Looking over this shining alluvium, J thought I could see ... the effigies of the sovereigns ... irrevo­cably fade from their respective ecus, guineas, or ducals, to make room for otber

visages entirely unknown 10 me. A great many of these fa ces ... wore grimaces .. . of vexation , of grOOtI , or of fur y. There were happy ones 100 , but only a few ... .

Soon this phenomenon ... grew dim ami passed away, and anOlher sort of vis ion, 110 less extraordinary, now loomed before me .... The bourgeois effi pes which

had supplanted the monarchll began themselves to move about .....ithin the metallic disks ... that confined them. Before long, they had separaled from the disks. They

appeared in full relief; then their heads burgeone<1oul into rounded forms. They had taken 0 11 .•• nol only fa ces but living fl esh . They had all sprung Lilliputian

hodi~s. Ever ything assumed a shalH! ... somehow or olher ; and cr eatures exactly like us, except for their siZe, ... began to enliven the gamillg tahle , from which all currency had vanished . I heard the ring of coins struck by the s teel of the crou­pier 's rake , hut this was all that remained of the old resollance .. . or louis and ticus, whicll Ilud become men . These poor myrmidons were now laking to their heels, franti c lit the approach of the murderous rake of the croupier; but escape .....as impossible ... . Then ... the d .....arfish s ta kes, ohliged to ad mil defeat, .....e re ruthlessly cllpture(l hy the fUla l rake, ..... llicll gat here(1 them inlo the croupier'! cl utching halld . The croupier-how horril,IC!-IOok up each smull hody {Illintil y hetween his linger s and de'·ou.red il ..... ith gusto. I.n Icss thun half Iln hour, I sa ..... some h alf-tlozen of these imprudent LiUipulianli Imrleo.l intu the ahY8ll of this lerri­

hie 101nb.... 8111 what appallctl me the mosl was thai , on rnising my cyc~ (alto­gcther by chance) to the ga lJcry surroundiJlg this valley of <Iealh , I nOl iced nOI jusl all extraordin ary likeness but a complete identit y betwCtln the several kingpins playing the life-sho:ed game and the miniature humans struggling there 0 11 the ta­hie.... What ', more, these kingpins ... appeared 10 me ... to collapse in des­peration precisely as their childlike facsimiles were overtaken by tile fOrlni<lable rake. They sccmed to share ... aU the sensa tions of their lillie double; and never, for as long as I live, will I forget the look and the gesture-full of hatred and despair-which one of those gamblers di re<: ted toward the bank at the very mo­

ment that his tiny simulacrum , coralled by the rake, went to satisfy the ravenous appetite of tile croupier." Felix Mornand , La Vie des eallX (Paris, 1862), pp . 219­22 1 ("Aix-Ia-Cbapelle"). (C I4)

It " 'oul? b~ useful to ~ompare the way Grandville portrays machines to the way Chevalier, III 1852, still speaks of the railroad. He calculates that tv.·o locomo­tives, having a total of 400 horsepower, would correspond to 800 acrual horses. How would il be possible to harness them up? How supply the fodder? And, in a note, he adds: "It must also be kept in mind that horses of flesh and blood have to rest after a brief journey; so that to furnish the same service as a locomotive , one must have on hand a very large number of animals." Michel C hevalier Chemins def": Extrail du dicliontuziT( de l 'tconomi( politiqu( (Paris, 1852), p. 10. '

[C14a,l ]

The principles informing the exhibition of objects ill t.he Calcrie des MnchinCi of 1867 were derived from Le Play. [GI4a,2]

A divinatory representation of architectural aspects of the later world exhibitions is found in Gogol's essay "On Present-Day Architecture," which appeared in the mid-lbirties in his collection ATah(JqU(J. "Away with this academicism which commands that buildings be built all one size and in one stylel A city should consist of many different styles of building, ifwe wish it to be pleasing to the eye. Let as many contrasting styles combine there as possible! Let the solemn Gothic and the richly embellished Bytantine arise in the same street, alongside colossal Egyptian halls and elegantly proportioned Greek structures! Let us see there the slightly concave milk·white cupola, the soaring church steeple, the oriental miter, the Italianate fl at roof, the steep and heavily ornamented Flemish roof, dIe quad­rilateral pyramid, the cylindrical column, the faceted obelisk!"Z6 Nikolai Gogol, "Sur I~chitecture du temps present," cited in W1adimir \\kidlc, Ul Abdllu d'AriJti( (paris d936~) , pp. 162-163 ("L~gon.ie de I'art") . [GI 4a,3)

f.~ourier ref"r8 to the fo lk wis<iumthat for some time ha~ <Iefined "Civiliza tion" as Ie mOllde (I rebollrs <I he world cOlltrariwi ~e). (G 14a.4)

Fourier Cel llnOI resist <lcKribing a hunquel held on the bank8 of t.he Euphrllics 10

honor Ihe victors in hOlh a cOmpetilion among l'.Calous dam workcrs (600,000) alld

a contest of paUry cook~ . The 600,000 utMete8 of ind u8try are furnished with 300,000 boules of c1lumpugnc, whosc co rks, III a signal from the "command tower," arc 11 11 popped simult aneously. To echo throughollt the " mountains of the Euphrate8. " Cited in <Armand and > Mauhl<anc, Fourier (Paris, 1937», vol. 2, pp . 178-179. [GI4a,5]

"Poor sw-s! Their role of resplendence is really a role of sacrifice. Creators and servants of the productive power of the planets, they possess none of their own and n~ust resign themselves to ~e thank.l~s and monotonous career of providing torchlight. They have luster wuhout enjoyment; behind them shelter, invisible, the living crearures. These slavc-queens are nevenheless of the same stuff as their happy subjectS.... Dazzling flames today, they will one day be dark and cold, and only as planets can they be reborn to life after the shock that has volati1i.z.ed the retinue and its queen into a nebula." A. Blanqui, L'EIm/iti paTI~J a;tru (Paris, 1872), pp. 69-70. Compare Goethe: "Euch bedaur' ich, ungliickselge Sterne" d pity you, unhappy stars~. :17 [G IS,I)

"The sacristy, the stock exchange, and the harracks-those three musty lairs tbat together vomit night , misery, and denth upon the nations. October 1869." Auguste Blanqui , Critit/lle socinie (Paris, 1885), vol. 2, p. 351 ("f.' ragments et notes").

[G l5,']

"A rich death is 11 closed abyn. " From the fifti es. Auguste Blanqui, Critique so­ciule (Paris, 1885), vol. 2 , p . 315 (""' ragments et notes"). [CI5,3)

An image d 'Epinal by Sellerie shows the world exhibition of 1855. [GI 5,' ]

Elements of intoXication at work in the detective novel, whose mechanism is described by Caillois (in (em u that recall the world of the hashish eater): "The characters of the childish inlagination and a prevailing artificiality hold sway over this ~trangely vivid world. Nothing happens here that is not long premeditated ; nothing co~ponds to appearances. Rather, each thing has been prepared for use at the nght moment by the omnipotent hero who wields power over it. ~ recognize in all this the Paris of the serial installments of FantOmllJ." Roger Cail­lois, ~Paris , mythe modeme," NouudJe R(uu(/ra1lfaiu, 25, no. 284 (May 1, 1937), p.688. [GI5,5]

" Every day I SLoe passing heneuth Illy will<low II certain ntlluher of Kalmueks, Osages, Ilidialls, C himIl Ut~n , 111111 uncicllt Crl:eks, alllllorc or less Purisianize(I. " Charles Baudclllin·, Oeu vres. <",I. and ulinOlate<1 hy Y.-G. l..e Dantec (Paris, 1932),> "01. 2, p . 99 (--5alon de IK46:' section 7, " Dc I'Idca l et du mOlle l~"). 211

[GI5.6)

Ad" cr tisiJIg IImlt'r tile EIIIJlin', uccording to Fenliruu1<1 Brunot. Ili!ltoire de I I I

IU1Ig uefrtllH;uise de$ origi1les ii 1900. vol. 9, La Rewilll.iofl el I'EmpiTe. part 9,

" Les Evellements, les institutions et la langue" (Paris, 1937): " We shall freely imagine tlull a mall of geniuli conc:eived the idea of ellllhrining, wi thin the banality uf the vernacular, certain vocahles calculated 10 seduce readers alltl buyer ,., and Ihat he cho5e Greek 1I0t only beca use il furllishe,. ine:dlllllstihie resources to work with 11111 also IleCalue, less widely known than Latin. it has the advuntage of being . . . incoml'rehell!~i "'e to a gelleration le,.s l'ersed in the study of allcieot Gn :ece.... Only, we know neither who this man wa s, nor wbat his nationality might he . lIor even whether he existed or not. Let us suppose that ... Greek words ga ined currency Iiule by little until , one day, ... the idea ... was horn ... that, by their own intrinsic virtue, they could serve for advertising ... . I myself would like 10 think tha t .. . several generations and several na tiOIiS went into the making of that verhal billboard , the Greek monster that entiCefl hy lIurprise. I believe it wall during the el)(}Ch I' m speaking of that the movement began to take shape.... The age of 'comagenic' ha ir oil had arri l'ed ." Pp . 1229-1230 ("Lea Causes du triomphe du grec"). [eI5a,l)

"What would a modern Winckelmann say. were he confronted by a product from China-sometbing strange, bizarre, contorted in forlll , intense in color, and somelinles so delicate as to be almost evanescent ? It is, nevertheless, an example of universal beauty. But in order to understand it , the critic, the spectator, must effect within himself a mysterious transformatioo; and by lIIt!ans of a phenomenon uf the will acting on the imagination, he must learn by himself to particiJlate in the milieu which has given birth to this strange flowering." Further along, 0 11 the same page, al)pear " those mysterious f1 0wcn whose deep color enslaves the eye and tall tali:res it with its shape." Charles Baudelaire , Oeu vres, <ed. L.e Dantec (Paris, 1932),) vol. 2, PI" 144-145 (" EXIJOsitioli universeUc. 1855").:<! (G15a,2)

" In French poetry before Baudelaire, as ill the poetry of Europe gencraUy, the style lind accents of the Orient were never more Ihall a faintly puerile a nd facti­tious ga me. With Les Fk ur$ du m(l/ , the strange color ill not produced without a kt.'t;1I sense of escape. Baudelaire ... invites himself to absence .... In making a journey, he gives us the feel of ... unex plored nature. where the tra l'eler parts company with himself.... Doubtlcll8 , he leaves the mind and spirit ullchanged ; but he presents a new vision of his soul. It is tropical, Mrican, black, enslaved. Here is the t.rue country, an actual Africa, an authentic Indies." Andre Suares, Prefu ce to Charles Baudelaire , Les f'lell rs till mul (Paris, 1933). JlJl . xXl'- xxvii.

IGlO,! ]

Prostitution of space in hashish , where it serves for all that has been:lO IG!',' ]

Grandville's masking of nature with the fashions of midccntury- nature under· stood as the cosmos, as well as the world of animals and plants-lets history, in th e guise of fashion, be derived from the eternal cycle o f nature. \oVhen Grand· ville presents a new fan as the "fan of Iris," when the Milky Way appears as an

"avenue" illwninated at night by gas lamps, when "the moon (a self.portrait)" reposes. 011 fashionable ~dvet cushions instead of on clouds, then history is being secuJanzed and dra'Nll Into a natural COntext as relentlessly as it was three hun­d red years earlier with allegory. (G16,3)

The planetary fashions of Grandville arc: so many parodies, drawn by nature, of human history. Grandville's harlequinades rum into Blanqui's plaintive ballads.

IG!',' ]

"The exhibitions li re Ihe only proJlerly modern fe stivals." Herlllann Lotze , Mi­J,' rokosmos, vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1864), p. ? IG!',S]

The world exhibitions were training schools in which the masses, barred from consuming, learned empathy with exchange value. "Look at everything; touch nothing." IG16,6)

The entertainment industry refines and multiplies the varieties of reactive behav.

ior ~~ng the I~asses. In this way, it makes them ripe for the workings of advem smg. The link between this industry and the world exhibitions is thus well established. (G16,7)

Proposal for urba n planning in Paris: " It would bC! advillahle to vary the forms of the houses and, as ror the districts , to employ different architectural orders, even those in no way clallll ical--f;uch as tbe Gothic, Turkish, Chinese, Egyptian, Bur­mese, and so forth ." Anu!dee dC! Tissot, Paris el Lone/res compares (Paris, 1830), p. 150.-The architecture of futu re exhibitions! (G16a,1)

" As loog as this ullspe"kable COlistructioll [the Palace of Industry] survives, ... I shall take satisfaction in renoullcing the title ' man or leiters' . ... Art and ilulus­try! Yes, it was in fact for them alone thai , in 1855, this impossible tangle of galleries was reserved, this jumble where the poor writer s have not evt:n been granted six square fee t- the space of a grave! Glory to thee, 0 Sta tioner. , .. Mount to the Capitol, 0 Publisher .. . ! Triumph , you art ists a lld industrials, you who ha ve bad the honors a nd the profit of a world exhibition, whereas poor Iit t:r a­ture. ' . . " (Pl' . v-vi). "A world exhibition for the man of leiter s, a Crystal PalacC! for the author-mollistt:!" Whispe rings of a scurrilous demon whom Babou , accord­ing to his " Lettre uCha rles Assdineau," is supposed to have encountered one da y alollg the Champs- Elysees. Hippolyte Bahol! . Les Hire /IS imlOcelils (Pllris, 1858), p. xiv. [G16a.2)

Exhihitions. "Such lrunsitory installations, as a rule. have had 110 infiuelll.:e 011 the configuratiull or ci ties.... It is otherwise ... in Paris. Precillcly in Ihe racl tllUt here gian t exhibitiolls could he sel up in the middle of town. and thai nearly always they would leave hehind a IIl01l1ll1lt:nt well suilt:!1 to 1.lIe city's gent:ral aSIH.'c: t- pre­

cisely in this, one CIHl re<:ognize the blessing of a great origin al layout ami of a continuing tradition of urball planning. Paris could . .. orlilanize even the m08t immense exhibition st) as to be ... acceuwle from the Place de la COllcorde. Along the quays leading west from this squ are, for a distance of kilometers, the curbs have beell set b ack from t.he river in ~uch a way that vcr y wide lanes a rc olMmed, which , abundantly plaliled with rows of trees, make for the loveliest ponihle cxhillitioll routes. " Fritz Stahl , Paris (Berlin (1929), p. 62. [GI6a,3[

D [The Collector]

All these old things have a moral value.

- Charles Baudclain:L

I believe ... in my soul: the 1hing.

- Unn Deubel, (kIlVrtJ (Paris, 1929), p. 193

Here was the last refuge of those infant prodigies that saw the light of day at the time of the world exhibitions: the briefcase with interior lighting, the meter·long pocket knife, or the patented umbrella handle with built-in watch and revolver. And near the degenerate giant creatures, aborted and broken-down matter. ~ followed the narrow dark corridor to where-between a discount bookstore, in which dusty tied-up bundles tell of all sorts of failure, and a shop selling only buttons (mother-of-pearl and the kind that in Pam are called defan/aisie)- tbere stood a SOrt of salon. On the pale-colored wallpaper full of figures and busts shone a gas lamp. By its light, an old woman sat reading. They say she has been there alone for years, ,and collects sets of teeth "in gold, in wax, and broken." Since that day, moreover, we know where Doctor Miracle gOt the wax out of which he fashioned Olympia.' 0 Dolls 0 {H l ,l )

"The crowd throngs to the Passage Vivienne, where people never feel conspicu­ous, and deserts the Passage Colbert, where they feel perhaps too conspicuous. At a certain point, an altempt was made to entice the crowd back by filling the rotunda each evening with hannonious music, which emanated invisibly fro m the ..vindows of a mezzanine. But the crowd came to put its nose in at the door and did not enter, suspectin g in this novelty a conspiracy against its customs and routine pleasures." Le Livre des (enl-e/-ulI, vol. IO (Paris, 1833), p. 58. Fifteen years ago, a similar altempt was made- likewise in vain-to boost the (Berlim department store W. ""=.rtheim. Concerts were given in the great arcade that ran through it. [1-11.21

Never Inlst what writers say about their own writings. When Zola undertook to defend his 7h&tse Raquin against hostile cri tics, he explained that his book was a scientific study of the temperaments. H is task had been to show, in an example,

exaoJy how the sanguine and the nervous temperaments act 011 one another-to the derrimem of each. But this explanation could satisfy no one. Nor does it explain the admixture of colportage, the bloodthirstiness, the cinematic goriness of the aclion. Whidl-by no accident- takes place in an arcade.3 If this book really expounds something scientifically, then it"s the death of the Paris arcades, the decay of a type of architecture. The book's annosphere is saturated with the poisons of this process: its people drop like flies. [Hl ,3]

In 1893, tile cot:t1I1 t.'S were dri\'ell rrom the arcaJ e!l. [HI.']

Music secms to have settled into these spaces only with their decline, only as the orchestras themselves began to seem old-fashioned in comparison to the new mechanical music. So that, in fact, these orchestras wouJd just as soon have taken refuge there. (Tbe "theatrophone" in the arcades was, in certain respects, the forerunner of the gramophone.) Nevertheless, there was music that confomled to the spirit of the arcades-a panoramic music, such as can be heard today only in old-fashioned genteel concerts like those of the casino orchestra in Monte Carlo: the panoramic compositions of <Fe1iciem David, for example-Le Dis(rt, ChriJtoph Colomb, Hmulallum. When, in the 1860s (?), an Arab political delega­tion came to Paris, the city was very proud to be able to mount a perfonnance of u Dis(rt for them in the great Theatre. de l'Opera (?). [Ht ,S)

"Cillooruma!l. The Grantl Globe Celeste: a gigantic sphere rorty-six meters in di- / allleter, where you can hear the music or Saint-SaclIl!." JuJes Claretie, Ln Vie ii "nri.t 1900 (Parill, 1901), p . 61. 0 Diorallla 0 [Ht ,6]

Often these inner spaces harbor an tiquated trades, and even those that are thoroughly up to date will acquire in them something obsolete. They are the site of infonnation bureaus and detective agencies, which there, in the gloomy light of the upper galleries, follow the trail of the past. In hairdressers' windows, you can see the last women with long hair. TIley have rich.ly undulating masses of hair, which are "pennanent waves," petrified coiffures. They ought to dedicate small votive plaques to those who made a special world of these buildings-to Baudelaire and Odilon Redon, whose very name sounds like an all tOO well­tumed ringlet. Instead, they have been betrayed and sold, and the head of Salome made into an omament-u that which dreanlS of the console there below is not the embalmed head of Anna Czyllak.' And while these things are petrified, the masonry of the walls above has become brittle. Brittle, tOO, are 0 Mirrors 0 <Sec Rl ,3.> [Hla, l]

f rWhat is decisive in collecting is thal the object is detached from all its original functions in order to enter into tlle closest conceivable relation to things of the same kind. TIlis relation is the diametric opposite of any utility, and falls into the peculiar category of completeness. What is this "completeness"? It is a grand attempt to overcome the wholly irrational character of the object's mere presence

at hand through its integration into a new, expressly de~d historical system: the collection. And for the true collector, every single thing in this system be­comes an encyclopedia of all knowledge of the epoch, the landscape, the indus­try, and the owner from which it comes. It is the deepest enchantment of the collector to enclose the particular item within a magic circle, where:, as a last shudder runs throUgll it (the shudder of being acquired), it tums to stone_ Every­thing remembered, everything thought, everything conscious becomes socle, frame, pedestal, seal of his possession. It must not be assumed that the collector, in panirular, wouJd find anything strange in the topru hyjxrouranios-that place beyond the heavens which, for PlatO ,~ shelters the unchangeable archetypes of things. He loses hinlSelf, assuredly. But he has the strength to pull himself up again by nothing more than a straw; and from out of the sea of fog that envelops his senses rises the newly acquired piece, like an island.-Collecting is a fonn of practical memory, and of all the profane manifestations of "nearness" it is the most binding. Thus, in a certain sense, the smallest act of political reBection makes for an epoch in the antiques business. ~ construct here: an aJann clock that rouses the kitsch of the previous century to "assembly." [Hla,2]

Extinct nature : the shell shop in the arcadcs. In "The Pilot's Trials," Strindberg tells of "an arcade ,vith brighcly lit shops." "Then he went on into the arcade .... Tho-e was every possible kind of shop, but not a souJ to be seen, either behind or before the counters. After a while he stopped in from of a big window in which there was a whole display of shells. As the door was open, he went in. From Boor to ceiling there were rows of shells of every kind, collected from all the seas of the world. No one was in, but there was a ring of tobacco smoke in the air .... So he began his walk again, following the blue and white carpet. The passage wasn't Straight but winding, so that you could never see the end of it; and there were always fresh shops there, but no people; and the shopkeepers were not to be seen." The unfathomability of the moribund arcades is a characteristic motif. Strindberg, Miirchen (Munich and Berlin, 1917), pp. 52-53, 59.' [Hla,3J

One must make one's way through us Fleurs du ma/with a sense for how things are raised to allegory. The use of uppercase lettering should be followed carefully.

[HJa,4)

At the conclusion of Malihe el mimQire, Bergson develops the idea that perception is a function of time. If, let us say, ......e were to live vis-a.-vis some things more calmly and vis-a-vis others more rapidly, according to a different rhythm, there would be nothing "subsistent" for us, but instead everything would happen right before our eyes; everything would strike us. But this is the way things are fOT the 1-1 great collector. They strike him. How he hinuelf pursues and encounters them, what cllanges in the eJl5emble of items are effected by a newly supervening item- aU this shows him his affairs in constant flux. Here, the Paris arcades are examined as though they were properties in the hand of a collector. (At bottom, we may say, the collector lives a piece of dream life. For in the dream, tOO, the

rhythm of perception and experience is aJtered in such a way that everything­even the seemingly most neurraJ-comes to strike us ; everything concerns us. In order to understand the arcades from the ground up, we sink them intO the deepest stratum of the dream ; we speak of them as though they had struck us.)

(Hla.5]

"Your understanding of allegory assumes proportions hitherto unknown to you; I will note, in pass~g, that allegory- long an object of our scorn because of maladroit painters, but in reality a most Jpin'luaJ an fonn , one of the earliest and most natural forms of poetry-resumes its legitimate dominion in a mind illumi­nated by intoxication." Charles Baudelaire, Ul Paradis artfficieb (Paris, 1917), p. 73.' (On the basis of what follows , it cannot be doubted that Baudelaire indeed had allegory and not symbol in mind. The passage is taken from the chapter on hashish.) The collector as allegorist. 0 Hashish 0 [H2, I]

"The publication ~ in 1864>o( L'Uisroirede la societefram;aisependontlo Revola­tion el SOlU k Directoire opens the era of the curio--and the word 'curio' . hould 1I0t be taken as pejorative. 1.11 those days, the historical curio was called a ' relic. , .. Hemy de GOllnllollt , Le Deuxiiime Livre des "'(m/lles (Paris, 1924), p. 259. This passage concerns a work hy Edmond and Jules de Goncourt. (H2 ,2]

The true method of making things present is to n:present them in our space (not to n=present ourselves in their space). (!be collector does just this, and so does I lhe anecdote.) Thus represented, the things allow no mediating construction from out of "large contexts." The same method applies, in essence, to the consid­eration of great things from the past- the cathedral of Chartres, the temple of Paestum-when, that is, a favorable prospect presents itself: the method of re­ceiving the things into OUT space. "'* don't displace our being into theirs; they

~~-. ~

Fundamentally a very odd fact- that collector's items as such were produced industrially. Since when? It would be necessary to investigate the various fash­ions that governed collecting in the nineteenth century. Characteristic of the Biedemlcier period (is this also the case in France?) is the mania for cups and saucers. "Parents, childn:n, friends, relatives, superiors, and subordinates make lheir feelings known through cups and saucers. The cup is the preferred gift, the most popular kind of knickknack for a room. Just as Friedrich WlIhclm III filled his study with pyramids of porcelain cups, the ordinary citizen collccted, in the cups and sauccrs of his sideboard, the memory of the most important events, the most precious hours, of his life." Max von Boehn, Die MOlk im XIX. Jahrhun­(Jut, vol. 2 (Munich, 1907), p. 136. [H2,4]

Possession and having are allied with the tactile, and stand in a certain opposition to the optical. CoUcctors are beings with tactile instincts. Moreover, with the receOl tum away from naturalism, the primacy of the optical that was detenni­

nate for the previous century has come to an end. 0 Flftneur OThe Baneur optical, the collector tactile.' (H2 .5J

Broken-down matter: the elevation of the commodity to the status of allegory. Allegory and the fetish character of the conullodity. (H2 ,6]

O ne may start from the fact that the true collector detaches the object from its functionaJ relations. But that is hardly an exhaustive description of this remark­able mode of behavioT. For isn't this the foundation (to speak with Kant and Schopenhauer) of that "disinterested" contemplation by virtue of which the col­lectoT attains to an unequaled view of the object-a view which takes in more, and other, than that of the profane owner and which we would do best to compare to the gaze of the great physiognomist? But how his eye comes to rest on the object is a matter elucidated much mon: sharply through another consid­eration. It must be kept in mind that, for the collector, the world is present, and indeed orden=d, in each of his objectS. Ordered, however, according to a surpris­ing and, for the profane understanding, incomprehensible connection. lbis con­nection stands to the customary ordering and schcmatization of things something as their arrangement in the dictionary stands to a natural arrangement. "'* need only n:call what importance a particular collector attaches not only to his object but also to its entire past, whether this concerns the origin and objective charac­teristics of the thing or the details of its ostensibly extemal history: previous owners, price of purchase, ClUTCIlt value, and so on. All of these-the "objective" data together with the other-come together, for the true collector, in every single one of his possessions, to foml a whole magic encyclopedia, a world order, whose outline is the fate of his object. Here, therefore, within this circumscribed field, we can understand how great physiognomists (and collectors are physiog­nomists of the world of things) become interpreters of fate . It suffices to observe JUSt one collector as he handles the items in his showcase. No sooner does he hold them in his hand than he appears inspired by them and seems to look through them into their distance, like an augur. {It would be interesting to study ~e bibliophile as the only type of collector who has n Ot. completcly withdrawn his treasures from their functional context.) [H2.7 ; H2a,1]

The great coUector Pachinger, \o\blfskch1's friend, has put together a collection ~Ult;in its array of proscribed and damaged objectS, rivals the Figdor collection u~ Vienna. H e hardly knows any more how things stand in the \\--add; explains to

~ visitors- alongside the most antique implements- the use of pocket handker­duefs, hand mirrors, and the like. It is related of him lhat, one day, as he was crossing the Stachus, he stooped to pick something up. Before him lay an object he had been pursuing for weeks : a misprinted streetcar ticket that had been in circulation for only a few hours. (H2a,2j

An apology for the collector ought not to overlook this invective: "Avarice and old age, remarks Cui Patin, are aJways in collusion. With individuaJs as with

societies, the: need to accumulate is one of the signs of approaching death. TIlls is confinned in the acute stages o f prtparalysis. There is also the mania for collec­tion, known in neurology as 'collcctionism,' I From the collection o f hairpins to the cardboard box bearing the inscription: 'Small bits of string are useless?" us &pt Pichis (apilaux (Paris, 1929), pp. 26-27 (paul Morand, "L'Avarice"). But . compare collecting donc by children! [H2a,3)

" I am 1I0t sure I . hould ha\-,been 80 thoroughly possessed by Ihis one . uhjecl . but= (or the heaps of fantastic things I hall seen huddled together in the curiosity. dealer 's warehouse. These, crowding 0 11 my mind , in connection with the child , and gathering round her. 8 8 it were, brought her condition palpably before me. I had her image. without any effort of imagination , surrounded and beset by ever y­

thing thai was for eign to il8 nature, and farthest remov~1 from the sympathie. of her sex a nd age. If tJlelle helps to my fancy had all been wanting, and I had been

forced to imagine her in a common chamber, with nothing unusual or uncouth in its appearance , it is very probable that ( should have been less impressed with her

strange and solitary stale. All it was, she seemed to exist in a kind of allegory." Charles Dickens, Ocr RlIritiitetlladen (Leipzig, ed. Insel), pp . 18-19.9 {H2a,4]

Wiesengrund, in Ill! unpublished essay on The Old Curiosity Shop, b y Dicken. : " Nell's death is decided in the sentence that reads: ' There were some triJlell

there--poor useless thinp-that she wouJd have liked to take away; but that was I impou ible.'... Yet Dickens recognized that the posllibility of transition and dia­

lectical rescue was inherent in this world of things, this lost , rejected world ; and he exprel8ed it , hetter t.hon Romantic nature-worship was ever able to do. ill the

powerful allegory of money with which the depiction o( the industrial city ends: ' ... two old , hattered , smoke-encrusted penny pieces. Who know. but they shone

as brightly in the eyes o( angels , as golden gifts that have been chronicled on tombs?""O [H2. ,5]

" Most enthusiasts let themselves be guided by chance in forming their collection , like bibliophile. in their browsing .... !\t . Thiers has proceeded otherwise: hefore

auembling his collection . he (ormed it as a whole in his head; he laid out his plan in advance. and he has slJelit thirty years executing it .... M. Thiers p088esse.

what he wanted to pOlIse.s.... And what was the point? To arrange a round him­self 8 luinialure of the universe--that is, to gather, within an ellvironmellt o( eighty ~ (I uare melers. HOllle and Florence, Pompeii and Venice, Dresden and the Hague, the Vaticall li nd the Eseorill. l , the British Museum and Ihe Hermitage, the A1II/Hu­

hra lind the Summer ['lI laee .... Anti M. T hiers has been ahle tu rcalize this VII~ I

pruject with only modcSI expenditures malle each yell r over a thirty-yellr I)C­riod .... Seeking. ill IHlrtieul li r. lu allurn Ihe wall!! u( his residence with t.he IIIOSI pn·(,ious sou\'eniu of his voyages. M. Thiers had reduct...1 copies made o( the tIIu~ 1

(a lnous paintings.... Allil ~o, Ull enlering his hOlne, you find yourself illllllctlill.tely i urroundl:d lIy In ai>terl'it."t:cs creal t...J in haly during the age o( ko X. The wall racing the wimlow~ i ~ occupietl by The W Il ' Judgme",. hUlig belween TIIf~ Dispute

of t/ie 1I0ly Sucrulllc"t 811tl l 'lIe ScllOol ofA,/iefili. Titian ', ASIlllmpti() fI adorns the nUHlld piece, belwt.'1!n 'nle Commullioll ofS11itl' J erome and Tile Trtl1l1lftgllration.

l '/ie Mm/o mlll ofSailll SiXIUll ll1akes a pair with SlIi1ll Cecila , alltl on the pilaster arc frallIell the Sibyls o( Haphad , IJelwt.'Cu the Spolluli~io aud the picture repre­S(' IILillg Gregory IX Ilelh' l~ring the d ecreta Is to a delegate o( the Consistory... . Thest· copies all beillg ~Iuccd in accordance wilh the satlle scale, or nearly so, .. . the eye discu\'ers ill tllem, with pleasure, Ihe relative propo rtions o( the originals . Tht'y arc painted in ",·ater culor." Charlell Blanc, Le Cabinet rle M. Thiers (Paris.

ISiI ). PI" 16-18. {H3,1]

"Casimir Perier sai(1 one (l ay, while viewing the art collection o( an illustrious

cnlliu.s ias t . .. ; ' All thcse I)a intill~ are very pretty- but they're d onnant capi­tal.· ... Today, ... one could say 10 Casimir Perier ... that ... paintings ... ,

""hen they are indeed authentic, that drawings, when recognizably by the hand o( II masler, ... sleep a sleep that is restorati ve alld profitable .... The ... sale o( the curiosities and paintillgs of Monsieur n.... has proven in round figu retl that

works of genius possess a value just as solid as the Orleans <Railroad Co.) and a little more ~C(!ure than bonded warchouses." Charles Blanc, Le l'resor de la en ... riosite, vol. 2 (Paris, 1858), p . 578. [H3 ,2]

The positiut countertype to the collector-which also, insofar as it entails the liberation of things from the drudgery of being useful, represents the conswruna­tion of the collector-can be deduced from these words of Marx: "Private prop­erty has made us so stupid and inert that an object is ours only when \\'C have it, when it exists as capital for us, or when ... we use it." Karl Marx, Der historische Malmalismus, in Die Friihschnj/en, ed. Landshut and Mayer (Lcipzigd932) , vol. 1, p. 299 ("'NationaJokonomie und Philosophie"). 11 (H3a,l]

"All the physical a nd intellectual sell8e8 have been replaced by the simple aliena· lion o( all these senses, the .cnse or ha ving . ... (On the category of lIa ving , see 1·less in Twenty-One SlIeets)." Karl Man, Der histori.tche Materio lumw

(Leipzig), vol. I, p . 300 ("NationaWkonomie IIlul PlwosoJlhie").I! {H3a,2]

" 1 can , in p ractice. reillte myself humanly to an obj et! t only if the object relates itsd(. hUJlIanl y 10 ma n." Karl Marx, Der hillfori.sche Ma'eriaiismull (Leipzig), vol. I. p . 300 ("Nn tionaWkunolnic lIlItl £·hilosophie").'l [H3a ,3]

The cullections of Alt'): lIndre dn SOlllmel'lIni in the holdings o( the l\1usce Clu ny. [H3a,4]

-n IC quodlibet has somelhing of the genius of both collector and fhincur. {H3a.5]

Tbe collector actualizes latent archaic represelltations of property. These repre· sentations lUay in fact be COlmectcd wilh taboo, as the following remark indio

cates: "It ... is ... certain that taboo is the primitive foml of propeny. At first

- emotively and 'sincerely; then as a routine legal process, declaring something taboo would have constituted a title. To appropriate to oneself an object is to render it sacred and redoubtable to others ; it is to make it 'participate' in oneself. ... N. Gutcmmn and H . Lefebvre, In CollJa'ellu lIIJJtifite (Paris, 1936), p. 228.

[H3a,6}

P-"dssageli liy Marx from "NalionaWkollomie und Philosophic": " Private property= hsslIlade 111180 8tupid and incrt"181 HII obje<:1 ill ours only when we ho ve it. " " AU

the physical and intellectual !ellses ... have been I'cplucetl oy the ~imple aliena. tioll of all these senses, the sense of having. "I I Ciled in Hugo Fischer, Karl Marx lind lci" VcrMiltnu zu StUll' lind WirflCh(ifi (Jella , 1932), p . 64. [H3a,7]

The ancestors of Balthazar Clacs were collectors. [H3a,8]

Models for Cousin Pons : Sommcrard, Suuvageot, Jacaze. (H3a,9]

The physiological side of collecting is important. In the analysis of this behavior, it should not be overlooked that, with the nest-building of birds, collecting ~c­quires a clear biological function. There is apparently an indication to this effect in Vasari 's treatise on architecture. Pavlov, too, is supposed to have occupied himself with collecting. [H4 ,J)

Vasari is SUPI)osed to have maintained (in his treutise 011 architecture?) that the term "grotesque" comes from the grolloc'll ill which collectors hoard their treasures. [H4,2]

Collecting is a primal phenomenon of study: the srudent collects knowledgt=. [H',3]

In elucidating the rdauon of medieval man to his affairs, Huizinga occasionally adduces the literary genre of the " testament": "This literary fonn can be ... appreciated only by someone who remembers that the people of the Middle Ages were, in fact, accustomed to dispose of even the meanest [!l of their possessions through a separate and detailed testament. A poor woman bequeathed her Sun­day dress and cap to her parish, her bed to her godchild, a fur to her Ilurse, her everyday dress to a beggar woman, and four pounds tournou (a sum which constituted her entire fortune), together with an additional dress and cap, to the Franciscan friars (Champion, ViI/on, vol. 2, p. 182). Shouldn't we recognize here, too, a quite trivial manifestation of the same cast of mind that sets up every case of virtue as an eternal example and sees in every Qlstomary practice a divinely willed ordinance?" J. H uizinga, Hu b;1 de; Mille/a/1m (Munich, 1928), p. 346Y What strikes one mOSt about this noteworthy passage is that such a relation to movables would perhaps no longer be possible in an ab'C of standardizcd mass production. It would follow quitc naturally from th.is (0 ask whether or not the

fomlS of argumentation to which the author alludes, and indeed certain fonus of Scholastic thought in general (appeal to hereditary authoritary), bdong together wlth the fornlS of production. The collector develops a similar relationship with his objects, whicll arc enricllcd through his knowledge of their origin and their duration in history-a relationship that now seems archaic. [H4,4]

Perhaps the most deeply hidden motive of the person who collects can be de­scribed this way : he takes up the struggle against dispersion. Right from the start, the great collector is struck by the confusion, by the scatter, in which the things of the world are found. It is the sanle spectacle that so preoccupied the men of the Baroque; in particular, the world image of the allegorist cannOt be explained apart from the passionate, distraught concern with this spectacle. The allegorist is, as it were, the polar opposite of the collector. He has given up the attempt to

elucidate things through research into their properties and relations. He dis· lodges things from their context and, from the outset, relies on his profundity to illuminate their meaning. The collector, by contrast, brings together what be­longs together; by keeping in mind their affinities and their succession in time, he can eventually furnish infonnation about his objects. Nevertheless-and this is more imponant than all the differences that may exist between them-in every collector hides an allegorist, and in every allegorist a collector. As far as the collector is concerned, his collection is never complete; for let him discover JUSt a single piece missing, and everything he's collected remains a patchwork, which is what things art for allegory from the beginning. On the other hand, the allege­rist-for whom objects represent only keywords in a secret dictionary, which will make known their meanings to the initiated-precisely the allegorist can never have enough of things. With him, one thing is so little capable of taking the place ofanother that no possible reSection suffices to foresee what meaning his profun­dity m.ightlay claim to for each one of them. I

' [H4a,1]

Animals (birds, ants), children, and old men as collectors. [H4a,2]

A SOrt of productive disorder is the canon of the mimcire inoo/cnlaire, as it is the canon of the collector. "And I had already lived long enough so that, for more than one of the human beings with whom I had come in contact, I found in antipodal regions of my past memories another being to complete the picrurt .... In much the sanle way, when an an lover is shown a panel of an altar screen, he remembers in what church, museum, and private collection the other panels are dispersed Oikewise, he finally succeeds, by following the catalogues of an sales or frequenting antique shops, in finding the mate to the object he possesses and thereby completing the pair, and so can reconstruct in his mind the predella and the entire altar)." Marcel Proust, Le Temp; retrouui (paris), vol. 2, p. 158. 11 The ~bnoire fIO/ollta ire, on the olher hand, is a registry providing the object with a clas· slficatory number behind which it disappears. "So now we've been there." ("I've had an experience.") How the scatter of allegorical properties (the patchwork) relates to this creative disorder is a question calling for further study. [HS,I]

I [The Interior, The Trace]

" In 1830, Romanticism was gaining the upper hand in literature. It now invaded archi tecture and placarded house fa-;ades with a fantastic gothicism, ODe aU too

often made of pasteboard . II in1lJO&ed itself on furniture making. ' AU of a l udden ,' lay. a relwrter on the exhibition of 1834, ' there is boundleu enthusiasm for strangely shaped furniture . From old chiteaux, from furniture wareliou8e8 and

junk . hops, it has been dragged Ollt to embellish the salons, which in every other resped are modern.... ' Feeling inspired, furniture manufacturers have been

prodigal with their ' ogives 'and machicolations. ' You see beds and armoires bris­tling with battlements, like thirteenth-century citadels.'" E. Levaueur, <Histoire

des claues ouvrieres et de l 'indlutrU! en France, de 1789 a1870 (Paris, 19(4),) vol. 2, PI) ' 206-207. [1I ,1]

Apropos of a medieval annoire, this interesting remark from Behne: "Movables <furniture> quite clearly developed out of immovables <real estate)." The annoire is compared to a "medieval fortre5s .Jwt as, in the latter, a tiny dwelling space is surrounded in ever-widening rings by walls, ramparts, and moats, fanning a gigantic outwork, so the contents of the drawers and shelves in the armoire are overwhehned by a mighty outwork." Adolf Behne, N(ueJ Wolmen-N"eueJ Bauen (Lcip,ig, 1927), pp. 59, 61-62. (ll ,']

The importance of movable property, as compared with immovable property. Here our task is slightly easier. Easier to blaze a way intO the heart of things abolished or superseded, in order to decipher the contours of the banal as picture puuJe-in order to start a concealed William Tell from out of wooded entrails, or in order to be able to answer the question, "Where is the bride in this picture?" Picture puzzles, as schemata ofdreamwork, were long ago discovered by psycho­analysis. we,however, with a similar conviction, are less on the trail of the psyche than on the u-ack of things. we seek the totemic tree of objects within the thicket of primal history. The very last-the tOpmost-face on the tOtem pole is that of kitsch. (11 .3]

1"l1e confrontation with furniture in Poe. Snuggle to awake from the collective dream. [11 ,4]

How the interior defended itself against gaslight: "Almost all new houses have gas today; it bums in the inner courtyards and on the stairs, though it does not }'et have free admission to the apartments. It has been allowed into the antecham­ber and sometimes even into the dining room, but it is not welcome in the dra\ving room. Why not? It fades the wallpaper. "Ibat is the only reason I have run across, and it carnes no weight at all." Du Camp, Paro, vol. 5, p. 309.

(II ,S]

Hessel speaks of the "dreamy epoch of bad taste." Yes, this epoch ~wholly_ adapte~the dream, was furnished in dre~ms. TIle alternation in styles­Gothic, Persian, Renaissance, and so on-signified : that over the interior of the middle-class dining room spreads a banquet room ofCesare Borgia's, or that OUt

of the boudoir of the mistress a Gothic chapel arises, or that the master's study, in its iridescence, is transfomled into the chamber of a Persian prince. The photo­montage that fixes such images for us corresponds to the most primitive percep­tual tendency of these generations. Only gradually have the images among which they lived detached themSelves and settled on signs, labels, posters, as the figures of advertising. [II ,6J

A series of lithographs from 18<-) showed women reclining voluptuously on ottomans in a draperied, crepuscular boudoir, and these prints bore inscriptions: On the Banlts 0/the Tagtll, On the Banlu 0/tne Neva, On the Banlts rifthe &ine, and so forth. The Guadalquivir, the Rhone, the Rhine, the AM, the Tamis-all had their tum. lbat a national costume might have distinguished these female figures one from another may be safely doubted. It was up to the ligende, the caption inscribed beneath them, to conjure a fantasy landscape over the represented interiors. [11 ,7]

To render the image of those salons where the gaze was enveloped in billowing cu.rtains ~d swollen cushions, where, before the eyes of the guests, full-length lllJITOrS dISclosed church doors and settees were gondolas upon which gaslight from a vitreow globe shone down like the moon. [11 ,8]

" We have witnessed tile unprec:edented- marriages bet .....een styles tha t olle would have belie \'ed eternall y incolllpatible: hats of ti le Firs t Empire or the Restoration worll with Louis XV jackets , Directory~s t y l e gO\O'IIS paired with high-heeled ankJe boots-IlIHI. still heller, low-wais ted coats worn over high-waisted ,Irenes." J ohll G ralld~Cartcrct , I.es Elegonces de ia toiietle (Pa ris), p . )(vi. [II a, I)

Nallle~ of differcnt types (If traveling ear frOIll the curly yea rs of the railroad: hcrlin (closed uml Olk:n). diligence, furnishcll (·ouch. unfurnislled coach . 0 Iron COIISIructiOIl 0 Il1 a,2]

" This year, too. spring arrive!1earlier lind more beautiful than ever. so thaI. to teU lile truth , we could not rightly remember the (:X.iSIClice of winter in ti,ese parts. lIor

whether the fireplace wall there for any purpose other than supporting on illl manlel the timepieces and candelabra that are known to ornament every room here ; for tbe true Paris ian would rather eat one course leu per day than forgo his

' mantelpiece arrangcmenl. ", Lebende Hilder "11$ den! modeN.en Puru, 4 voill.

(Cologne. 1863-1866), vol. 2 , p. 369 ("Ein kaiserliches Famiuenbild") . [lla,3]

1breshold magic. AI the entrance to the skating rink, to the pub, to the tennis coun, to resort locations: Pt:TUllf:s. The hen that lays the golden praline-eggs, the machine that stamps our names on nameplates, slot machines, fortunetelling devices, and above all weighing devices (the Delphic gn6rhi seau(rm1 of our day)­- these guard the threshold. Oddly. such machines don't Sourish in the city, but rather are a component of excursion sites, of beer gardens in the suburbs. And when, in search of a little greenery, one heads for these places on a Sunday afternoon, one is ruming as well to the mysterious thresholds. Of course, this same magic prevails more covertly in the interior of the bourgeois dwelling. Chairs beside an entrance, photogrp.phs Banking a doorway, are fallen housdlold deities, and the violence they must appease grips our heans even today at each ringing of the doorbell. Try, though, to withstand the violence. Alone in an apartment, try not to bend to the insistent ringing. You will find it as difficuk-as an exorcism. Like all magic substance, this too is once again reduced at some point to sex-in pornography. Around 1830, Paris amused itself with obscene lithos that featured sliding doors and windows. These were the Image; dite.s Ii portu et iz fenitU5, by Numa Bassajet. [lIa,4]

Concerning the dreamy and, jf possible. oriental interior: " Everyone here dreams

of instant fortune; everyone alms to have , at one stroke, what in peaceful and industrious times would cost a lifetime of effort. The creations of the poett are full

of sudden metamorphoses in domestic existence; they all rave about marquises and princesses, ahout the prodigies of the l'howand and Om! Nights. It is an

opium trallce that has overspread the whole population , and industry is more to blame for tltis than poetry. Industry was responsible for the swindle in the Stock Exchange, the exploitation of all things made to serve artificial needs, and the . . .

dividends." Gutzkow, Briefe Ull.! Paris <Leipzig, 1842), vol. I , p. 93. [l1a,5]

While art seeks out the intimate view, ... industry marches to t.he fore ." Oc· tave Mirbeau , in Le Fignro (1889). (See E/lcycwpedie d 'architecmre [1889] p.92.) (lIa,6]

On the cxhibition of 1867. " These high galleries, kilometers ill length, were of an undeniable grandeur. The noise of machinery fLIled them. And it should IIOt be forgotten that, when this exhibition hdd its famoll s galas, guests stiU drove up to the festivitics in a eoach-and-cight. As was usual with rooms at this period , at­tempt s were made-through furn iture-like installations-to prettify these twenty­five-meter-high galleries allli to relieve the austerity of their design. One stood ill fear of olle's own magnitmle ." Sigfried Giedion , Ballen in f'rtlllkreicli <Leipzig and Berlin , 1928), p. 43 . [Ila,7]

Under the bourgeoisie, cities as well as pieces of furniture retain the character of fortifications. "Tdlllow, it was meJortiJied city which constantly paralyzed town planning." Le Corbusicr, Urbanisme (paris (1925»), p. 249.2 [I1a,B]

The ancient correspondence betl':een house and cabinet acquires a new variant through the insertion of glass roundels in cabinet doors. Since when? '\\ere these also found in France? [Ila,9]

The bourgeois pasha in the imagination of contemporaries: Eugene Sue. He had a castle in Sologne. There, it was said, he kept a harem filled with women of color. Mter his death, the legend arose that he had been poisoned by theJesuits.3

[12,1]

Gutzkow reports that the exhibition salons were full of oriental scenes calculated

to arouse enthusiasm for Algier s. [12 ,2]

On the ideal of "distinction." "Eyerything tends toward the 80urish, toward the curve, toward intricate convolution. MIat the reader does not perhaps gather at first sight, however, is that this manner of laying and arranging things also incor­porates a setting apart-one that leads us back to the knight. / The carpet in the foreground lies at an angle, diagonally. The chairs are likewise arranged at an angle, diagonally. Now, this could be a coincidence. But if we were to meet with this propensity to siruate objects at an angle and diagonally in all the dwellings of all classes and social strata-as, in fact, we do-then it can be no coincidence ... . In the first place, arranging at an angle enforces a distinction-and this, once more, in a quite literal sense. By the obliquity of its position, me object sets itself ofT from the ensemble, as the carpet does here .. . . But the deeper explanation for all this is, again, the unconscious retention of a posture of struggle and defense. I In order to defend a piece of ground, I place myself expressly on the diagonal, because then I have a free view on two sides. It is for this reason that the bastions of a fortification are constructed to form salient angles .... And doesn't the carpet, in this position, recall such a bastion? . . . IJust as the knight, suspecting an attack, positions himself crosswise to guard both left and right, so the peace· loving burgher, several ccnruries later, ordcrs his art objects in such a way that each one, if only by standing out from all the rest, has a wall and moat surround· ing il. He is thus truly a Spir:55biirgr:r, a militant philistine." Adolf Behne, Nr:uu Wohnr:n-Nr:uu Bauro. (Leipzig, 1927), pp. 45-48. In elucidating this point, the author remarks half-seriously : "The gentlemen who could afford a villa wanted [0 mark their higher standing. What easier way than by borrowing feudal fonus, knightly fonns?" (ibid., p. 42). More universal is Lukacs' remark that, from the perspective of the philosophy of history, it is characteristic of the middle classes that their new opponelU, the proletariat, should have entered the arena at a mOment when the old adversary, feudalism, was nOt yet vanquished. And they will never quite have done with feudalism. [12,3]

Maurice Banes h.u characterized ProUSt as "a Persian poet in a concierge's box." Could the first person to grapple with the en.igma of the ninclccnth-ccmury interior be anything else? (!be citation is inJacques-Emile Blanche, M e; M odele;

[Paris, 1929] 1)' (12,' 1

AJlIIOUnCCllll!lIt puhLished in tile neWSp SIH!f S: " Notice.-Monsieur Wiert:r; offen to

paint a picture free of charge (or a llYlovers of painting who , p085cssing 8n original

Rubens or Raphael , would Like 10 p lace his work as a pend ant beside the work of either of these masters." A. J. Wiertz , Oeuvres lilleraires (Paris. 1870), II. 335.

- (12,51

Nineteenth-ccnrury domestic interior. The spacc...disgWgsjlScif::=.puts ~7lik< ",,"_~~g creature, the costwnes of moo$;. The self-satisfied burgher should know something of the feeling that the next room might have witnessed the coronation of Charlemagne as weU as the assassination of Henri Iv, the signing of the Treaty of Verdun as well as the wedding ~f Otto and Theophano. In the end, things are mercly mannequins, and even the great moments of world history are onl;: costumes beneath which they exchange glances of complicity with nOlhingn~ with the petty and the banal. Such nihilism is the innennost core of bourgeois coziness-a mood that in hashish intoxication concentrates to satamc content· ment, satanic knowing, satanic calm, indicating preciscly to what extent the nineteenth-century interior is itself a stimulus to intoxication and dream. 'Ibis mOO(! involves, furthennore, an aversion to the oPen air, the (so to spe~ ra­man amlosphere, which throws a nC\v light on the extravagant interior design of the period. To live in these interiors was to have woven a dense fabric about oneself, to have secluded oneself within a spider's web, in whose toils world events hang loosely suspended like so many insect bodies sucked dry. From this cavern, one does not like to stir.$ [12,6J

During my second experiment with hashish. Staircase in CharlotteJoi:l's srudio. I said: "A strucrure habitable only by wax figures . I could do so much with it plastically; Piscator and company can just go pack. \\buld be possible for me to change the lighting scheme with tiny levers. I can transfonn the Goethe house into the Covent Garden opera ; can read from it the whole of world history. I see, in this space, why I collect colportage images. Can see everything in this roolll­the sons of Charles III and what you will."6 [12a. 1J

" The serrated collurs alltl puffed sleeyes . , . whk h were mis takeuly thought to be

the gal"li of metlieyu llutl ies." Jacob Falke, Ceschichte <les mo<lerlle ll GesclltlUick s (Leipzig. 1866). p . 347. {12a,2]

;'Since the gi iltering a rcades ha\'C I-.n cut through th.: stn.-ets . t l.e Pailli ll. ){oya l

has cfftlClivd y lost Ollt . Some wou ld lIay: s iuce the times havc grown more yirtuous. What were once II lIIa ll Cllbi,leu l}tIrlielliie r. of ill repute haYe now become II moking

rooms in cofft.-ehouses. Each corfeehollse hUll II smoking room known li S the di­V/lfI ." Gutzkow. Briefe /lU", I'Cl ri., (Leipzig. 1842). vol. I. p . 226. 0 Arcades 0

[12a,3]

" T lle great Berlin intlulltrial e)(hihition ill full of illll)osing Renaissance rooms; eYen

Ihe ashtraYIl are in a ntique style. the curta ins haye to be secured with halberds,

alld the bull's-eye r ules in window a nd cabinet." 70 J ahre deutsche Mode (1925),

p. i2. [12a,4]

An observation from the year 1837. "In those days, the classical style reigned, just as the rococo does today. With a stroke of its magic wand, fashion . .. uansfonned the salon into an atrium, armchairs into curule seats, dresses with trains into tumCS, drinking glasses into goblets, shoes intO buskins, and guitars into lyres." Sophie Gay, Der Salon tier Friiulein Conte! (in Europa: Chrrmilt der gtbildeten Welt, ed. August !..ewald, vol. 1 [Leipzig and Stuttgart, 1837], p. 358). Hence the following: "What is the height of embarrassment?" "When you bring a harp to a party and no one asks you to play it ." 'Ibis piece of drollery, which also illuminates a certain type of interior, probably dates from the Frrst Empire.

[12a,5]

"As to Baudelaire's 'stage properties'-which Wert no doubt modeled on the fashion in interior decoration of his day-they might provide a useful lesson for those elegant ladies of the past twenty years, who used to pride thcrnsclves that nOt a single ' false note' was to be found in their town houses. They \'\'Quld do well to consider, when they contemplate the alleged purity of style which they have achieved with such infinite trouble, that a man may be the greatest and most artistic of writers, yet describe nothing but beds with 'adjustable curtains' ... , halls like conservatories ... , beds 6lled with subde scents, sofas deep as tombs, whatnots loaded with Bowers, lamps burning so briefly ... that the only light COmes from the coal fire." Marcel Proust, Chrrmiquts (Paris <1927», pp. 224-2257

(the tides of works cited arc: omitted). These remarks are important because they make it possible to apply to the interior an antinomy fonnu1ated with regard to museums and town planning-namely, to confront the new style with the mysti­cal-nihilistic expressive power of the traditional, the "antiquated." Which of these tv.·o alternatives Proust would have chosen is revealed not only by this passage, it :.nay be added, but by the whole of his ","'Ork (compare renfirmi-"closed·up," musty"). [12a.6J

Desideratum: the derivation of genre painting. What function did it serve in the rOOms that had need of it? It was the last stage-harbinger of the fact that soon these spaces \\'Ould no longer, in gener-..tI , welcome pictures. "Genre painting .... Conceived in tllls way, an could not fail to resOrt to the specialtics so suited to the m~ketplace: ead} artist wants to have his own specialty, from the pastiche of the Middle Ages to microscopic painting, from the routines of the bivouac to Paris fashions . from horses to dogs. Public taste in this regard docs not discrimi­

nate .... The same picrure can be copied twenty times lVithout exhausting de­mand and, as the vogue prescribes, each well-kept drawing room wants to have onc of these Cashionablefumirhing.r," Wicrtz, CkUUTtJ littiraires <Paris, 1870), pp. 527- 528. 112a,7]

Against the annature of glass and iron, upholstery offers resistan~ with its

textiles. 113, 1]

-One need only srudy with due exactitude the physiognomy of the homes of great collectors. Then onc would have the key to the nineteenth-century interior. Just as in the fonner case: the objects gradually take possession of the residence, so in the latter it is a piece of furniture: that wou1d n:mevt: and assemble the styJ!.stic traces of the centuries. 0 W:>rld of Things 0 [13,2)

Why does the glance intO an unknown window always find a family at a meal, or else a solitary man, seated at a table under a hanging lamp, occupied with some obscure niggling thing? Such a glance is the germ cell of Kafka's work. [13,3]

The masquerade of styles, as it unfolds across the nineteenth century, resul- ts from the fact that relations of dominance: become obscured. The holders of power in the bourgeoisie no longer necessarily exercise this power in the places where they live (as renben), and no longer in direct unmediated fonns. The style of their residences is their false inunediacy. Economic alibi in space. Interior alibi in time. (13,<J

"The art would be to be able to fed homesick, even though one is at home. Expertness in the use of illusion is required for this." Kierkegaard, Slimtliche Werke <properly: Gejilmmelte Werkn, vol. 4 g ena, 1914), p. 12 <Stage; on Lift'; ~J>" This is the fonnula for the interior. [13,5]

" lnwar duess is the histor ical p risou of primordial human nature. " Wiesengrund­

Adorno , Kierkegaarcl (Tiibingell , 1933), p . 68.9 [13,61

S«ond Empire. " It is tlus epoch tha t sees the birth of the logical specialization ~y genus and species that &till prevails in moS( homes, and that r eserves oak and sO.lid walnut for the dining room and study, gilded wood and lacquer s for the drawlIIg room, marquetry and veneering for the bed room." Louis SOllolet , La Vie

po ri"iellne " 011..1 Ie Second Empire (Paris . 1929), p . 251. [13,71

" \l(hat d omin ated this co nception of furnishing. in a manner so pronounced as 10 epilOmi'1.I' the whole . wa~ tile taste for draped fa hr ics . ample hll l1gings, a nd the art of hll rmonilliing them 11 11 in a visual cnsemble." Louis Sonolet , LAI Vif! lJllri.t ie /l1lf~ $0 11..1 Ie Second Empire ( Puris, 1929). p . 253. [13,8J

" The d rawing rooms of the Second Empire contained ... a piece of fu r niture (Iuite n:ceutiy invented and tod ay completely cxtinct : it was the fllmell.se. You sat on it as tride . while leaning lJack on uphoLs ter.:tl a rlll- rests and enjoying a cigar." Louis 50nolet , LA, Vie parij ie,we $011" If! Second Empire (P:lris, 1929), p. 253. [13,9)

On the ,·ftl igree of chimneys" as "'fata 1II0rga na" of the inter ior : " Whoever raises his eyes 10 the housetops, with their iron ra ilings tracing the upper edge of the long

gray bouleva rd blocks. discovers the variety and inexhauslibility of the concept ·chimlley.' In all degrees of hc.ight , breadth , lind length , the ~mokestacks rise from their base in the common stone flues; they range from simple clay p ipes, oftentimes half-b roken and stoolH:d with age, a nd those tin p ipes wilh flat plates or pointed caps, ... to re\'olving chimney cowls a rtfull y ltertora ted Like visors or ol)Cn 0 11 one

side, with bizarre soot-blackened metal fl aps ... . It is the ... teuder irony of the one single form hy which Pllris .. . has been able tu prcscr ve tile magic of inti­macy .. . . 50 it is as if the urbane coexistence, .. that is characteristic of tlus city

were to be met with again UI) ther e Oil the rooftops." J oachim von 1:Ie.!mersen , " Pariser Kamine," Frankf urter Zeitung. Febr uary 10, 1933. {13,lO)

Wiesengrund cites and commcnts on a passage from the D;(lry of a Seducer-a passage tha t he considers the key to Kierkegaard's " en tire oeuvre" : " Environment and setting still have a great influence u pon one; there is something about them

which s tamps itself fl""l y a nd deeply in the memory, or r ather upon the whole souJ , and which is therefore never forgotten . However old I may become, it will always be impossible for me to think of Cordelia amid surroundings different from this Li t tle room. Wilen I come to visit her, the maid admits me to the ha ll ; Cordelia herself cOllies in from her r oom, and , just as I open the door to enter the Living

room, she opens her door, so that our eyes meet exactly in the doorway. T he living room is small , comfortahle, Linle more tha n a cabinet. Ahhough I ha ve now seen it from ma ny different viewpoints, the olle dea rest to me is the view from the sofa.

She sits there by my side; in front of us s tands a round tea table, over which is draped a rich talll« lolh . O n the table s tands a lamp shal.oo Li ke a Rower, which

shoots up vigorously to bea r its crown , over which a dcLicately cut paper shade hangs dowli so lightly that it is never still. T he lamp's form rcminds olle oforiental lallds; the "lUde 's movement , of mild oriental breezes. T he fl oor is concealed b y a

carpet wo"en froni II cer tain kind of osier, which imnu,..iiately betrays its foreign origin . For the moment . J let the lamp become the keynote of my lalU.lscape. I am sitt ing ther~ with Iter outstretched 0 11 the fl oor, under the I II II1P 'S fl owering. At other tillles I let the osier rug evoke thoughl8 of a ship . of 11 11 offi cer 's ea hin- we sail out into the middle of the grea t I)t;elln . When we sit a t a liista nee from the window, we gaze directly in to hea\'cn 's vast horizon .... Cordelia 's 1~lI v i ronment lIlust have no foreground . b ut only the infi nite boldness of far horizons" (Cesa m ­melte Sch riften <Jl rOllCrly: Werke (J enn . 19 11» , \·0J. I , pp. 348-349 [Bither/Or )). W· lesengrlUl(l rema rks: " Just as external histor y is "'cRected ' ill illternul history, semhlanee <Sclre;l!) iii in th l) illler ielir space . Kierkegnar(1 110 more discerned tim d emellt of semhlance in all Ilu:rely rdlL'Clcd and refl ecting irllrasuJ)jecti ve reaLil y

than he leel through the semblance of the spatial in the image of the inlerior. But

here lIe is exposed by the mate ria l. ... The contenls of I.he interior are mer e decor ation. a liena ted from IIle purposes they represent , deprived of their own lise value, engendered solely by the isolated dwelling-Ip ace.... The self is ove;:=-­

whelmed in its own domain by commodities and their historica l eUCRee. T heir

semblunce-character is historically-economicaUy produced by the alienation of thing from lise value. But in the interior, things do nol remain aUen .... Foreign-=-­ness transfornlA: iuelf from alienated things into expreuion ; mute things speak 88

', ymhols.' The ordering of thinge in the dwelling-space is called 'arrangement.' Historically illusor y <wJdlichllich JdI~inho.fio objecll a re arranged in it as the aem­- b1anceof unchangeahle nature. In the interior, archaic images unfold : the image of

the flower al tilat of organic life; the image of the orient as specificlilly the home­land of yearning; the image of the sea as that of eternity itself. For the semblance

to which the historical hour condenlllS things is eternal." Theodor Wiesengrund­Adorno, K~rke8aard (Tiibingen , 1933), pp. 46-48. 111 {13 a]

The bourgeois who came into ascendancy with Louis Philippe sets store by the transfonnation of nature into the interior. In 1839, a ball is held at the Britisll embassy. Two hundred rose bushes'jll"e ordered. "The garden," so runs.Jgl eye:­witness account, "was covered by an awning and had the feel of a drawing room. But what a drawing room! The fragrant, well-stocked Hower beds had turned into enonnous jardiniem, the graveled walks had disappeared under sumpruous carpets, and in place of the cast·iron benches we found sofas covered in damask and silk; a round table held books and albums. From a distance, the strains of an orchestra drifted intO this colossal boudoir." (14,11

Fa8hion journals of the IJeriod contained instructions for preserving bouquets. [14,2]

" Like an odalisque upon a shimmering bronze divan , the proud cilY Lies amid warm , vine-dad hills ill the scrpentine valley of the Seine." Friedrich Engels, " Von l:taris nach Bern," Die neue Zeit . 17, no. 1 (Stuttga rt , 1899), p. 10. {14,3]

The difficulty in reHecting on dwelling: on the one hand, there is something age-old-perhaps eternal-to be recognized here, the image of that abode of the human being in the maternal womb; on the other hand, this motif of prima1 history notwithstanding, we must understand dwelling in its most extreme fonn as a condition of nineteenth-century existence. The original foml of all dwelling is existence not in the house but in the shell. The shell bears the impression of its occupant. In the most extreme instance, the dwelling becomes a shell. The nine­teenth century, like no other century, was addicted to dwelling. It conceived the residence as a receptacle for the person, and it encased him with all hls appurte­nances so deeply in the d",'elli.ng's interior that one might be reminded of the inside of a compass case, where the instnullent with all its accessories lies embed­ded in deep, usually violet folds of ~l~t. What didn't the nineteenth c::en tury

invent some sort of casing for! (\)eket watches, slippers, egg cups, thermometers, playing cards- and, in lieu of cases, there were jackets, carpets, wrappers, and covers. The twentieth century, with its porosity and transparency, its tendency toward the well-lit and airy, has put an end to dwelling in the old ~nse. Set ofT against the doll house in the residence of the master builder Solncss are the "homes for hwnan being!."11 Jugendstil unsettled the world of the shell in a radical way. Today this "-arid has disappeared entirely, and dwelling has dimin­ished : for the living, through hOld rooms; for the dead, through crematoriums.

[14,4]

"To dwell" as a transitive verb-as in the notion of "indwelt spaces";ll herewith an indication of the frenetic topicality concealed in habirual behavior. It has to do with fashioning a shell for oursdves. {14,5]

" From under aU the corlll branches and bushes, they Iwam into view; from under

every table, every chair; from oul of the drawers of tile old-fa shioned cabinets and wardrobell that l>lood within Ihis stra nge clubroom- in short , from every hand's­breadth of hiding which the 8pOt provided to the smallest of fi sh , they suddenly

came to Life aud showed themselves." Friedrich Cer stiicker, D~ verlunkene Stadt (Berlin : Neufeld and Benius, 1921), p. 46. {14a, l]

From a review of Eugene Sue's Juiferrant <Wandering J ew>, cri ticized for various

reasons, including the d enigration of the Jesui ts and the unmanageable abundance of cha racters who do nothing bUI al)pear and disappear: "A novel is not a place one passes through ; it is a place one inhabits." Paulin Limayr ac, " Du Roman

BCtUe! et de nos romanciers," Revue del deux mondel, 11 , no. 3 (Paris, 1845), p.951. {14a,2]

On literary Empire . Nel)OmuCfme Lemen.:ier brings onto the s tage, under allegori­

cal names, the Monar ch y, the Church , the Aristocr acy, the Demagoguel, the Em­pir e, the Police, Liter ature, and the Coali tion of European powers. His artistic means: " the fantastic applied emblematically." His maxim : " Allusions are my weapolIs; aUegory, my buckler. " NepoDlucime Lenlercier, Suite de la Panhy. pocriJiade. ou Le Spectacle infernal du dix-neuvieme l iecie (Paris, 1832), PI) ' ix , vii. {I4a,3]

FrUIn tile " Expose prClimillairc" 10 I..elllcr cier 's uJIllpelie et Daguerre: "A short prea mble is lu:cessary 10 introduce my audiellce to tile compositional strategy of this POCIII , whose subject i ~ prnise for the ~liscovery "lIule h y Ihe i.lIl1 slriou~ artist

M. Daguel' re; this il; a tliscover y of equ al inlerest to the Academy of Science and the Academy of Finc Arts, for it cOllcerns the stud y of drawing as much ItS the Slutly of physics.... On the oceallion of such an homage, I would Like to see a IICW

in velltiOIl in 1)t}Clry applied to Ihi~ cxtraortlinary discovery. We know Ihlll ancient mythulogy ... explained nalura l plu~nomena by symbolic beings. active repre­selltations of the parlicula r principles cmbtKlied in things.. . . Mot.Iern imitations

h ave, up 10 !lOW, borrowed only the forms of clauicallH>etry ; I am endeavoring to

appropriate for 11 8 I.hc principle and the subs tance. The lendellcy of the versifiers of our cenlUry ill 10 retl uce the a rt of the mus~ to practica l aud trivial rcnlilic8,

easily compreilcn8ible by the average person. This is not progreu hUI decadence. The origiJl li1 enthusiasm of the ancienls, by contras t , tcutlet! to elevate the 1111man

illtcUigcllce by initiating it into thosc secrets of n ature revealed by the elegantly

ideal fables.... It is 1101 without encouragement that 11ay bare for you the fouD­

dations of my theory, which I ha ve a pplied ... to Newtonian philosophy in my A,'an.im/e. T he learned geometer Lagruuge has been 110 generous as 10 voice 8P­

proval of my alte rnp! to creale for our modern muses tha t great ra rity: a theoso­

phy ... conforming to acquired knowledge.'" Nel)Qmucene I...cmereier, Sur fa -Decouverte ele r ingenieux pe intre du diorama: Seance publiqlle atulllelle de! cinq

academies de jemli 2 rnai 1839 (Paris, 1839), pp. 21-23. [14a,4)

On the illusionistic painting of the J us te Milieu : 13 ' 'The painter must ... be a good

dramatist , II good cos tumer, a lld a skillful di rec: tor.... T he public ... is much

more inte rested in the 8ubject than in the artistic qualities. ' Isn' t the most diffieult

thing the ble lltling of colors?-No, responds a connoisseur, it 's gelling the fish 's

scales right . Such was the idea of aesthetic creation alllollg professors . lawyers,

doctors ; everywher e one admired the miracle of tromIHl-I' oeil . AllY mi~mally successful imitation would garner praise. '" Gisela Freund , " I..a Photographie du

point d e vue 8ociologi«ue" (ManIl8cript , p . 102). The Iluota t ion is from Juletl

Breton . No! pcintre. du sieck. p . 4 1. [15,1)

Plush-the material in which traces are left especially easily. [!S.2[

Furthering the fa shion in knickknacks are the advances in metallurgy, which has ill! origins in the First Empire. " During this period , grOUp8 of cupids anti bacchan­

tes aplleared for the first time .... Today, a rt owns a shop and displays the mar­

vels of its creations on shelve;; of gold or crysta l . wherea8 in lbme days

ma8terpiet:cs of statuary, reduced in prec:ise proportion . were sold a t a di8coMt .

The 1·hree Cruces of Canova found a place in the boudoir, while the B(l cclwntes and the Falin of Pradier had the honors of the b r idal ch amber." Ed ouartl Fou­

ca ud , Pm"is inve"teur: Pllysiologie de l'industriejrum. (li!c (Paris, 1844), pp . 196­

197 . [1S.3[

" The science of tile poste r .. . has a tta ined that r a re tlegrce of llerfcctioll ul which

skillturn8 into art . And here I a lii IIQt speaking of those extruol·dinury placa rds

. .. un which ex perts ill c.II lligraphy ... undertake to r epresent Na poleon on

horseback by all iugcniulis combination of (jIl CS in which the course of his histor y

is simuh ullcolisly narrated and depicted . No. I shall confllle IIIYscI£ to ordinury p...stt' r l. JII ~ t sce how fu r these ha ve been aLle to push the eloquence or typQ' graph y. the st:tluclions of the vignette. the fu scin a tiol18 of coiur, h y us ing I.hl: 1II08t va rictl .II. lId br illiant of huell 11.1 iCllli perflfiious support to 11m ruses of du: l'uh li8h­

era!" Victor FOUfnel , Ce qu '1.1 11 lJOil l i tUl S leJ r ues de Priri.s (Paris . 1858), pp . 293­

294 ("Ellseib'llclI ct uffi chu"). [15,4J

Interior of Alphouse Karr', apa rtment : " 'Ie lives li.ke 11 1.1 Q II C else. These days he'.

1.111 the 5ixth or seveuth fl oor above the Rue Vivienne. The Rue Vivienne for an

artist! His apa rtment is hung in black ; he has windowpanes of viole t or white

frosted glass. He has neither ta bles lIor chain (at mM t, II s ingle chair for excep­

tional vis itors), and he slet:p8 on a djvan- fully d ressed, I' m toltl. He lives like a

Turk, on cushions. and writes s itting on the fl()Qr... . Hi8 waUs are det:ora ted with

,.adou .!! old things ... ; Chinese va8es, dea th-heads, fe ncer 's foils, and tob acco

pipes ornament e,·e ry corner. For a 8ervant , he h aa a mulatto whom he outfits in

scarlt:t fro m head to toe!' Jules Lecomte, u s Lettre, de Von Engelsom . cd . AI­

meras (Pari.!!, 1925), pp. 63-M. 115,5)

From Daumier 's Croquis pri.! ou S%" (Sketches Made a t the Salon>. A solita r y

art-lover indicating a picture 011 which two miser able poplars are represented in a

fl a t la lldscape: " What society could be as degenerate and corrupt as ours? ...

Everyone looks a t pictures of more or less monstrous scenes, but no one stops

before an image of beautiful lind pure lIa ture." [I5a,l ]

On the occasioll of a murder case in London which turned on the discovery of a

sack containing the victim 's body parts, together with remnanll! of clothing; from

the latter. the police we re able to draw Ct!rtain conclus ions. "'So many things in a

minuet!' a celebra ted daucer u.!!ed to say. So many things in an overcoat!-wben

circumstances a nd men make it Slleak . You will say it ' , a bi t much to expect a

person , each time he acquires a topcoat, to consider tbat one day it may sene him as a willding sheet . I admit tha t my slIPI)Qsitions a re not exactly rose-colored. But,

I relHlat , ... the week's e"enlS have been doleful ." H . de Pene, Pori.! intlme

(Paris, 1859), 1' .236. 115a,2J

Furniture a t the time of the Restor a tion : "sofas, divans, o ttomans, love sea ts,

recliners, settees ." J acques Robi(luet . L'A rt et legoul SOIlS la Restouralwn (Paris, 1928). p . 202. [15a.3)

" We h llve alread y sa id ... Iha t hum anity is regressing to the sta te of cave dwelle r,

and so all- hut tha t it is regressing in an estranged . malignant form . T he savage in

his ca,·c ... fL'tJ ls ... III home there .... But the h asement apartment of the poor

JUa n is a hostile dwell ing, ' a n IIlic lI . rest ruining power , which gives itself up to him

0111 '1 insofa r as he gives up to it II is hlood and sweat .' Such a (Iwclling can never feel

like home. II pi llce where he miglll a t las t excl a im . ' Here I am at home!' Ins tead ,

the poor lIlan find l himself in someone d se's home. . . someone who d aily lies in

wai t for him a nd til row. him Ollt if he d ocs not pay his rent . He is a lso aware of the Contrast i.n «lIl1lh y between hia dwell ing 11111111 hUlllan dwdling-a residence ill tha t other world , the heaven of wealth ." Ka rl Ma rx. lJe,. hislorische M(Jteriaiismw ,

ed. Landshut and Mayer (Leipzig ( 1932) . vol. J. p . 325 ("NationalOkoliomie und

- Philosophic" )." [15a.4J

Valer y 011 Poe. He IImlerlines the American writer ', incomparable illSight into the

conditions and effects of liter ar y work in general: " What distinguishes a truly gener al phenomenon i8 its fertility.... It i8 therefore not surprising that Poe, posscningllo effective and l ure a method , became Ihe inventor of several different

litera r y fonns-that he provided the fi rst ... examples of the scientific tale. the modern cosmogonic poem, the detective novel , the literature of morbid psycho­

- logical 8tates .'· Valer y, " Introduction" to Baudelair e. LeIJ FLeur. du mal <PariB, 1926), p . xx. I ' [15a,5]

In the following description of a Parisian salon, Gautier gives drastic expression to the integration of the individual into the interior: "The eye, entranced. is led to the groups of ladies who. Buttering their fans . listen to the talkers half·reclining. Their eyes are sparkling like diamonds ; their shou1ders glisten like satin; and their lips open up like flowers." (Artificial things come forth!) Pari; e/ leJ PariJinu aux X IX' Jiecie (Paris, 1856), p. iv (Theophile Gautier, "Introduction,,). [16,1]

/ Balzac's interior decorating in the rather ill-fated property Les J ardies :15 "This house ... was one of the romances on which M . de Balzac worked hardest during his life. but he was never able to finish it . ... 'O n these patient walls: as M. Gotlan has said, 'there were charcoal inscriptions to this effect: "Here a facing in Parian marble"; "Here a cedar stylobaten

; "Here. a ceiling painted by Eugene Delaooix"; "Here a fireplace in cipolin marble ...•.. Alfred Nettement, H islom de La littiralurt ftanfaUt JOU; Ie gouumzcnmJ de j uilk J (Paris, 1859), vol. 2. pp. 266­267. (16,21

Development of "The Interior" chapter : entry of the prop into 6lm. [16,3]

E. R. Curtius cites the foUowing passage from Balzac's Pth"tJ &urgtflu: "The hideous unbridled speculation that lowers, year by year, the height of the ceilings, that fits a whole apartment into the space fonnerly occupied by a drawing room and declares war on the garden, will not fail to have an influence on Parisian morals. Soon it will become necessary to live more. outside the house than within it.n Ernst Roben C urtius, Baluu: (Bonn, 1923), p. 28. Increasing importance of the streets. for various reasons. [16.4]

~rhaps there. is a connection between the shrinking of residential space and the elaborate furnishing of the interior. Regarding the first, Balzac makes some telling observations : "Small pictures alone are in demand because large ones can no longer be hung. Soon it wiU be a formidable problem to house one's library .... O ne can no longer find space for provisions of any son . Hence, one buys things thal are not calrulated to wear well. 'The shirts and the books won't last, so there.

you are. The durability of products is disappearing on all sides!" Ernst Robert Curtius, & Juu: (Bonn, 1923), pp. 28-29. [16,5]

"S unsets cnt their glowing color~ on the walls of din.ing room a nd drawing room, filtering softl y through lovely ha ngingil or intricate high windows with nmllioned panes. An the furniture is immense, fantastic , strange, armed with lock! and te(:rets like aU ch·i.lized 801l1s. Mir rors, metals , fabrics , pottery, and works of the goldsmith 's art playa mute mysterious symphony for the eye." Cha rlcs Baude­lai.re, Le Spleen de Paris , ed . R. Simon (Paris), p. 21 ("L' lnvitation all voyage")Y

[16a,I)

Etymology of the word "comfort ." " I.n EngLish, it used to mea n eanJoMtion ('Com­rorter ' is the epithet applied to the Holy Spirit). T hen the sense became. instead, well-being . Today, in aU languages of the world, the word designates nothing more than rational convenience. " Wladimir Weidle, Les Abeilks d 'A ristee (Paris ~ 1 936) , p . 115 ("L' Agonie de I' a rt"). [16a,2]

"The artist-midinettes . .. 110 longer occupy rooms; rather, they live in studios. (More a nd more , you hear ever y place of habitation caUed a 'studio,' as if people ",ere more and more becoming artists or u udents .)" Henri Polles, "L'Art du com­nlerce," Vendredi , Febr ua ry 12 , 1931. [16a,3]

Multiplication of traces through the modem administrative apparatus. Balzac draws attention to this : "Do your uttnost, hapless Frenchwomen, to re.main unknown, to weave the very least little romance in the midst of a civilization which takes note. on public squares, of the hoW' when every hackney cab comes and goes;which counts every letter and stamps them twice, at the exact time they are posted and at the time they are deliven=d ; which numbers the houses ... ; which ere long will have every acre of land, down to the smallest holdings . . . , laid down on the broad sheets of a survey- a giant's task, by command of a giant." Balzac, ModeJ/~ Mignon,LI cited in Regis Messac, U "Dtltch"ue Novel" «I I'irifluma de Ja ptnJit JcitnJifiqun (Paris, 1929), p. 461. [16a,4)

" Victor Hugo works standing up, and , since he cannot find a suitable antique to serve as his desk, he writes 011 a stack of 8tools and la rge books which is covered ....ilb a carpet . It is on the Bible. it is on the Nuremberg Chronicles, that the poet lea ns a nd spreads his Ilaper." Louis Ulhach, LeJ Contemporaim (Paris, 1833), cited ill Uaymond Escholier, Victor Hugo ra COnle par ceux qui I'ollt vu (Paris , 193 1), p. 352. [17,1]

The Louis Philippe style: "The bto:Uy overspreads everything, even the time­pieces." [17,2]

There is an apocalyptic interior- a complement, as it were., of the bourgeois interior at midcentury. It is to be found with Victor Hugo. He writes of spiritual­

isoc manifestations: "I have been checked for a moment in my miserable human alllour.propr~ by a,crual revelation, coming to throw around my little miner's lamp a streak of lightning and of meteor." In us Contnnp/o6onJ, he writes:

'* liste~ for any sounds in these dismal empty spaces; Wandenng through the shadows, """e listen to the breath

1'bat malta the darkness shudder; And now and then, lost in unfathomable nights, 'W: sce lit up by mighty lights

The window of etentity.

(Cited in Claudius Grillet, Vu/or Hugo Jpidle <Lyons and Paris, 1929~, pp. 52, -22.) [17,3J

Lodgings around 1860: " The 8 ,)ilrtmenl ... was situated on the Rue d ' Anjou . It was decorated ... with Cll rjH: t8, door curtains , fringed valances, double draper_ ies, 8 0 thai yOIl would think the Stone Age had been succeeded by an Age of Hangings." Louise Weiu, Souvenirs d'u"e en/ance republicaine (Paris <1937», p. 2 12 . [17,41

The relation of the jugendsti1 interior to its predecessors comes down to the fact that the bourgeois conceals his alibi in history with a still more remote alj,bi in natural history (specifically in the realm of plants). [17,5)

Th: eruis, dust covers, sheaths with which the bourgeois household of the pre­cedmg century encased its utensils were so many measures taken to capture and preserve traces. [17,6]

On the history of the domestic interior. The residential character of the rooms in the early fact.o~es, though disconcerting and inexpedient, adds this homely touch : that WIthin these spaces one can imagine the factory owner as a quaint figurine in a landscape of machines, drnming not only of his own but of their future greatness. With the dissociation of the proprietor from the workplace, this characteristic of factory buildings disappears. Capital alienates the employer, too, from his means of production, and the dream of their future greatness is finished. This alienation process culminates in the emergence of the private home.

[I7a,l )

" During the first ~l ecade8 of the nineteenth century, furniture and the objects that Surrounded liS for lise and pleasure were relatively simple a nd durable , and ac·

t'onle{1 with the need s of both the lower and the u"per stnlla. This resulted ill people's altaciullcnt. as they grew u" , to the object s of their surroumlings.... The differ entiation of objects has broken down this situation in three different way •. . .. Fir;H, Ihe sill.:er quuntil Yof ...cry specifi cally formed objt.:t:ts make II close .. . relationship to eaclt of them more djfficuit .... This is expreued ... ill IIIC hou sewife'. cumplai.nl Iha l Ihe care of the household becomes ceremonial felis h­ism .... Thi. concurrenl differ entiation has the same effect a8 cOllsC(:uti ...e differ ­

clltiation. Changes in fa shion disrupllhal ... procell of ... assimilalion between subject and object. . . . [In the third "lace. there is] the multitude of style. thai confronts us whell we view Ihe object8 I.bal surround us ." Georg Simmel , Philo!o_

pllie tie! Geldes (Leipzig, 19(0). PI>· 491-494. ~~ [17a,2)

On the theory of the trace. To "the Harbor-Master, ... [as] a son of ... deputy­Nepnme for the circumambient seas, ... I was, in common with the other sea­men of the port, merely a subject for officia1 writing, filling up of fonns with all the artificial superiority of a man of pen and ink to the men who grapple with realities outside the consecrated walls ofofficia1 buildings. What ghosts we must have been to him! Mere symbols to juggle with in books and heavy registers, without brains and muscles and perplexities; something hardly useful and decid­edly inferior." j oseph Conrad, Die Schaltm/inie (Berlin <1926» , p. 51.20 (Compare with the Rousseau passage <cited below>.) [17a,3)

On the theory of the trace. Practice is eliminated from the productive process by machinery. In the process of administration, something analogous occurs with heightened organization. Knowledge of human nature, such as the senior em­ployee could acquire through practice, ceases to be decisive. TIlls can be seen when one compares Conrad's observations in "The Shadow-Line" with a pas­sage from u; OmftJJioru. [18,1)

On the theory of the trace: administration in the eighteenth century. As secretary to the French embassy in Venice, Rousseau had abolished the tax on passpons for the French. "As soon as the news got around that I had refonned the passpon tax, my only applicants were aowds of pretended Frenchmen who claimed in abominable accents to be either from Provence, Picardy, or Burgundy. As I have a fairly good ear, I was not easily fooled, and I doubt whether a single Italian cheated me out of my ;equin, or a single Frenclunen paid it." jean:Jacques Rous­seau, u; Confts.sioru, ed. Hilswn (Paris ~193h), vol. 2, p_13Z21 {18,2]

Baudelaire, in the introduction to hi. tran81ation of Poe'8 " PhiloliOphy of Furni­ture," which originaUy appeared in October 1852 in Le Magluin des famiiles : "'Who among U8, in hi8 idle houn, has not taken a delicious plea8ure in construct­

ing for himself a model apartment. a dream house. a house of dream8?" Cbarles Baudelaire, Oeu vres completes, ed . Crepet, Ilistoire! g rotesques et serieuses par Poe (Paris, 1937), p . 3(H. {I8,3]