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Buddhitm in India 9
been influential, have never seriously shaken the hold of the form of Buddhism which Ceylon looks on as particularly its own.
I t is probable tha t, by the end of the th ird century b .c . , th e doctrines of Theravada Buddhism were in essentials m uch as they are now. T h e monks taught a dynamic phenom enalism , m aintaining th a t everything in the universe, including th e gods and the souls of living beings, was in a constant state of flux. Resistance to the cosmic flux of phenom ena, and craving for perm anence where perm anence could no t be found, led to inevitable sorrow. Salvation was to be obtained by the progressive abandonm ent of the sense of individuality, until it was lost com pletely in the indescribable state known as N irvana (Pali, N ibbana, “blowing ou t” ). T h e B uddha him self had reached this state, and no longer existed as an individual; nevertheless he was still rather inconsistently revered by his followers, and th e less-learned B uddhist layfolk tended to look on h im as a sort of high god.
ESSENTIALS OF THERAVADA BUDDHISMT h e fundam ental tru ths on which Buddhism is founded are n o t metaphysical o r theological, b u t rather psychological. Basic is th e doctrine of the “ Four N oble T ru th s” : i ) th a t all life is inevitably sorrowful; 2 ) th a t sorrow is due to craving; 3 ) th a t it can only be stopped by th e stopping of craving; and 4 ) th a t this can only be done by a course of carefully disciplined and moral conduct, culm inating in the life of concentration and m editation led by the Buddhist monk. These four tru ths, which are the com m on property of all schools of B uddhist thought, are part of the true D octrine (Pali, dhamma; Skt. dharm a), which reflects the fundam ental moral law of the universe.^
‘ The word dharma is employed in Buddhism a little differently from its use in Hinduism, and is strictly untranslatable in English. One leading authority has translated it as “the Norm” ; in our extracts it is translated “the Doctrine,” “Righteousness,” or “The Law of Righteousness” according to context. The term dharma in Buddhism also has other connotations. Phenomena in general are dharmas, as are the qualities and characteristics of phenomena. Thus