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Author Biography

Charlène Cabot (born 1988 in France) completed herundergraduate studies in Political and Social Sciences atSciences Po Paris at the University of Sydney. Ms Cabotsubsequently obtained a double Master’s degree in Interna-tional Relations from Sciences Po Paris and the FreeUniversity of Berlin with a major in sustainable Development

and Environmental Politics (2011). Ms. Cabot joined theUnited Nations World Food Programme (WFP) in 2011.After working in Germany, Senegal, the Central AfricanRepublic, Cameroon, and in the Policy and ProgrammeDivision at WFP headquarters, she is currently based inN’Djamena (Chad).

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017C. Cabot, Climate Change, Security Risks and Conflict Reduction in Africa, Hexagon Serieson Human and Environmental Security and Peace 12, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-29237-8

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Index

AAbuse(s), 127–128, 134, 142, 144–146Access/Access to land tenure, 77, 91–92, 96–100, 105, 108, 114, 124,

128–134Accommodating, Accommodating/decentralized regimes, 103, 143,

145–146Accountable/Accountability, 102–104Armed Conflict Database (ACD), 118Armed Conflict Location and Event Dataset (ACLED), 119Adaptation strategies, 70Adaptive capacity, 20Administration (local, central), 96, 106–107, 131Agreements (international), 127, 148Agricultural (sector/GDP/production/yield), 19–21, 25–27, 52–53, 67,

71, 77, 104, 116, 136, 140, 160Agriculture, 16, 26, 32, 67, 127Agro-pastoral (ist/ism), 4, 19–20, 32–36, 57, 69, 73, 79, 88, 90, 98,

101, 107, 114, 119, 141, 160–161Aid, 79, 127Alienation, 98–99, 131, 135Allocation/Allocate, 30–32, 34–36, 49–50, 91, 97, 103, 105, 123,

129–133, 140–142Anthroposphere, 47Anthropogenic (climate change), 3, 15, 23, 35, 45, 68, 72Anthropology/Anthropological studies, 23, 113, 115Appropriation (rules), 76, 89, 94, 104, 121, 130, 136Arid/Semi-arid land, 13, 16–19, 53Association, 121, 142–145Asymmetry, 31–32, 36, 93–95Attempt, at equitable access, 131African Union (AU), 128, 136Authority(ies)

central, 95–96competing, 140–141, 144–145customary, 97, 131, 137, 141–145decentralized, 6, 87, 90–92, 101–105, 107, 108, 113, 114, 120, 131,

132, 136, 137–149, 151, 160, 161government, 89, 137, 139indigenous, 20, 106local, 124–125traditional, 105, 132, 145

BBedié, Konan, 122, 140Bella (population group), 142Biodiversity/Biodiversity loss(es)/Biological diversity, 21, 26, 68, 73,

74

Boundaries, 22, 34, 89, 104, 135, 145Buffer(ing), 20, 47, 103Bundle of rights, 98, 100Burkina Faso, 5–6, 16, 20–23, 25, 29, 33–35, 51, 80, 108, 113–151,

162Burkinabè, 59, 122, 124, 131, 146Burton, John, 5, 31–32, 52

CCapacity, adaptive capacity, 20, 55, 70, 75Capital, 47, 76–78, 93, 106

human capital, 66social capital, 47, 76, 78, 93, 106technical capital, 47

Capture (power, resources), 47, 89, 105Case studies, 5–6, 88–92, 113–151Casualties, 13, 48, 119Cattle, 11–15, 19, 26, 33–34, 69, 72, 97–98, 118, 121, 125–128, 137,

144–145Cattle-raising, 13, 94, 97, 120, 127Cattle theft, 12, 32, 128Causal/Causality, 50, 54–56, 70–71, 114Causal chain, 6, 29, 54, 63, 69–70, 74, 80Central

administration, 32authorities/authority, 20, 107, 123–125government, 97, 105, 121–122, 145level, 121regime, 103, 117, 140, 143–144state, 36, 92–96, 108, 123–124, 126

Centralized conflict management, 104–105Centralized regime, 143Challenge

security challenge in West Africa, 27–30Chiefs, land-chiefs, 97, 130–131, 140, 144–145Chieftaincy, 132–133, 141Child mortality, 77

infant mortality rate, 22, 117Choice, collective-choice, 89, 93, 100, 104, 107Citizen, citizenship, 64, 88, 102, 105–106, 122, 133–136, 144Civil conflict, 47–48, 53–55, 88, 130, 140, 143Civil society, 77, 88, 101–106, 136, 138, 140, 142–143Civil war, 48, 50, 55, 130Claimant, 98, 129, 137, 139Clientelist/Clientelism, 107, 130, 139Climate

Agro-pastoral conflicts impacted by, 4

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and soil security, 68change and conflicts, 3–4change and farmer-herder conflicts in West Africa, 11–37, 160–162change, in Africa, 15–27change, related threats to food security, 67climate change induced/aggravated conflicts, 75–77, 87–108effects on economy, 53–54projected trends in, impacts of, 22–24unpredictability, 53variability, 53volatility, 53vulnerability to climate change impacts, 116

Climate change (anthropogenic, natural), 3, 15, 23, 29, 45CO2 emission, 15–16, 25Code, 122, 136, 142Coexistence, 35–36, 142, 146, 160Collective-choice, collective action, 93, 100, 103, 107Colon(ies)/Colonial/Colonialism/Colonization, 20, 23, 49–50, 97, 115,

117, 120, 127, 130, 133–135, 141Co-management, 107Committee(s), 67, 121, 126, 131Common private property, 99, 129–130Common property (system of), 93, 99–101, 134–135Common-Pool Resources (CPRs), 33, 88

CPR management, 85, 87, 89–91, 93–95, 99, 100, 104, 107, 108,124, 126, 128, 129, 149

CPR management school or environmental peace approach, 51design principles, 89–90, 100–101, 103–104, 135ownership for, 94property for, 99

Commons, 32–33, 46, 78, 99Communal conflict, 53, 105Communal land, 100Community, 89–90, 94, 115, 131–146Comparison/Comparative study

comparison between and within cases, 117–118comparison between most-similar cases, 115–117controlled comparison, 115–117focused and qualitative comparison, 114research design and methodology, 114–115

Competitionover natural resources use, 11over resources, 11–12, 29, 35, 51, 58, 70–72, 122, 127, 130

Competing authorities, for conflict management, 140–141, 144–145Complementarity/Complementarities, 14, 65, 94, 101, 127, 148Complex linkages between climate change and conflict, 3–4, 11–37,

159–161Conflict constellations, 69

climate-induced decline in food production, 77climate-induced degradation of freshwater resources, 77climate-induced increase in storm and flood disasters, 77environmentally-induced migration, 77

Conflict party/parties, 16, 31–32, 35, 93–94, 120, 123Conflict(s)

Agro-pastoral conflicts, 4conflict constellations, 69conflict management, 31, 75–76, 93, 101, 104–105, 138–141,

144–145conflict prevention, 31conflict reduction, 4–5, 30–36, 74–79, 92–101, 103–104conflict resolution, 31, 105conflict transformation, 31

climate-change –induced or –aggravated, 11, 35, 48, 53, 58, 63, 68,71, 75, 76, 78, 80, 85, 87, 88, 91, 105, 108, 113, 114, 116–118,159, 162

farmer-herder conflicts in West Africa, 11–37, 160–162large-scale armed, 48, 160level of conflict, 97, 105, 114–115, 118, 139–140, 150non-violent, 53, 119pathway to conflict, 70provention, 31small-scale, 53, 55, 73, 143–144social, 49societal, 31steps to conflict, 92

Conflictive situation, 4, 33, 57–58Congruence, 89Consensus/Consensual, 23, 46, 57, 80, 100, 104–108, 142, 147Constitution, Constitutional design, 103Constitutional Design and Conflict Management (CDCM), 77, 91, 96,

103, 117, 143, 145–146Consultation, 142–148Context, contextualize, 4, 20, 33, 46, 49, 52, 58, 65, 68, 71, 90, 114,

129, 135, 145Controversial/Controver(sy/sies), 23, 54–57, 57, 105, 108, 143Cooperation, 33–34, 51, 53, 58, 69, 73, 87, 93, 107, 120, 125, 138, 141,

142, 160Coping

capacity (negative coping strategy), 20, 46, 65mechanism(s), 29strategies/strategy, 139

Corridor (transhumance), 94, 127, 128Corruption/Corrupt, 20, 49, 88, 103, 127, 133, 134, 146, 161Côte d’Ivoire, 5–6, 14, 16, 21–22, 32, 34, 80, 115–118, 120–131, 135,

136, 138–140, 146, 149Coup, 143Court, 94, 95, 105, 107, 132, 133, 145Crisis, crises, 21, 69–71, 80, 117, 122Crop, 20, 25–27, 32–34, 68, 98, 120, 121, 123, 126, 129, 144Crop destruction, 32, 125Cross-border or trans-border, 12, 14, 123, 127, 128, 148, 161, 162Cross-national, 148Cross-scale, 107, 148Culture/Cultural heritage, 13, 34, 51, 52, 66, 70, 87–90, 94, 97, 106,

138, 141, 161Customary

authorities/authority, 129, 131, 133, 137, 140, 141, 144–147institutions, 106, 145land, 97, 129, 131, 134property/property rights, 132, 137rights/rights systems, 105, 129, 130, 133, 135rule(s)/law(s), 131, 142system, 99, 129, 132–136, 142

DDamage/Damaged, 12, 23, 34, 52, 66, 67, 121, 123, 126, 127, 139, 144,

161Darfur, 5, 12Dataset, 54, 118–119, 161Dead/Death, 12, 32, 73, 118–122, 139, 144Decentralization/Decentralized political system, 101–108, 137–149Decentralized and participative institutions, 103–105Decision-making/Decision-maker, 4, 36, 98, 102, 106, 126, 129, 132,

138, 140–142

184 Index

De-escalation/Escalation, 30Degradation, 4, 12, 14, 18, 20, 25–29, 47–58, 66–77, 89–90, 123, 127,

149Democracy/Democratic systems, 19, 49, 54, 75, 78, 101–107, 139–149Democratic decentralization, 141, 144, 149Dependence/Dependent (on resources), 19–20, 29, 71, 103, 116–117,

120Desert/Desertification, 12, 14, 21, 25–26, 68–72, 91Design principles

CPR design principles, 90eight CPR design principles, 89–90

Destabilization, 4–6, 36, 57, 67–71, 75–76, 103–104Destruction, 5, 12, 31–32, 37, 66–67, 88, 99, 125Determinism/Determinist, 31, 57Development, 76

pastoral, 141, 147policies, challenges, 5, 17, 75, 101, 107, 116, 123, 128

Devolution/Devolved authorities, 138–140, 144Deconcentration/Deconcentratred authority, 144Dilemma

prisoner’s, 32–33, 51survival, 34

Disaster(s)disaster risk reduction, 16, 80disaster sociology, 51, 53natural disaster, 20, 27, 52, 58slow or rapid-onset disaster, 70

Discrimination/Discriminatory policies, 92–97, 103, 122–125,129–131, 134–139, 161

Diseases, 17, 27, 64, 74Disparities, 30, 32, 52, 76Displace/Displacement, 25, 29, 31, 46–47, 66, 71, 88, 119, 133–134,

143, 160Dispute, 12, 20, 35, 88, 95, 104–105, 120–121, 127, 133–145Distributionist approach, 12–13, 30, 50, 75, 98, 128–131, 161Districts, 139, 144–145Diversity, 56–58

biodiversity, loss, 21, 26of land tenure system, 97

Driver/Drive/Driven, 31, 49, 51, 54, 68, 76, 100, 116–121, 128Drought, 11, 14–17, 21, 25-27, 51–55, 68–78, 115Dry season, 14, 16, 34–36, 53Drylands, 127

EEarly-warning, 56, 75, 76, 80, 88East Africa, 12, 48, 51, 53, 91, 96Economic growth, 53–54, 54Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 14, 16, 122,

127, 128, 148Education system, 19–20, 77, 106, 141Elders, 105, 130, 134Elected government, 105–107, 113–114, 122, 133, 138–139, 141, 143,

147Election, 102, 105, 122, 139, 141, 143, 147Elite, 13, 89–90, 140, 145Emissions (CO2, greenhouse gases), 15–16, 54Empirical studies, 5, 36, 46–50, 55, 57, 87, 104, 120Empower/Empowerment, 76, 106Energy, 15, 19, 97Entrant (authorized), 98, 141Environment and Conflicts Project (ENCOP), 49–50, 53Environmental impacts, 51Environmental security, 5, 63–68, 72

Equitable (access to land tenure), 6, 91–92, 96–101, 128–137, 149, 160Equity (principles of), 98, 100Erosion, 23, 26, 74Escalation/De-escalation (ladder), 31Ethnic/Ethnical/Ethnicity/Ethnically, 12–13, 34–36, 49–53, 71, 91–94,

106, 116–123, 129, 135, 138–140, 142–144Eviction, 144–145Evidence, (in)conclusive evidence, 149Exclusion/Exclude, 32–33, 67, 89, 93, 98, 104, 105, 133, 135–142Exit option, 93, 125Expel/Expulsion, 97, 121, 125, 127, 133, 139, 142, 144–145Explanatory

factors, 48–50, 54, 68power, 25, 55, 77, 89, 92, 114, 117, 143, 162

Exposure, 75, 117

FFair/Fairness, 89, 97, 100, 103, 105–106, 131–132, 137, 139, 147–149Fallow, 14, 33, 70, 131, 137Famine, 17, 46, 73Farmers, farmer-herder conflicts, 5, 10, 11–36, 87–109, 113–151Fear, 64–68, 127, 131, 159–160Feature, 6, 29, 99–100Feedback/Feedback loop, 23, 71, 92Fight, 79, 119, 142Financial resources, 20, 123Floods/Flooding, 17, 50, 52, 69, 74, 143Food

access, 18, 67and soil security, 66–67availability, 67, 80food production (systems), 69, 74–75, 116foreign/foreigner, 120, 122–123, 130, 134, 139, 144–146prices, 19, 67, 124quality, 67, 69stability, 67utilization, 67

Freedomfrom fear, 64–66, 77from hazard impacts, 64–66, 77from want, to live in dignity, 64–68, 77

Free-rider/riding, 33, 88, 90, 95, 104Frequency and intensity (of conflict), 11, 120Fresh water, 33, 37, 47Frustration, 30, 52, 93, 138FulBe, 11–12

herders, 34, 35nomads, 14–15, 36pastoralistst(s), 13–15, 116–117

GGDP, 15–17, 20, 25, 53, 74Gender, 21, 36, 49, 52, 68, 77, 91, 104, 106Generalize, generalization (theoretical), 19, 56, 161, 162Ghana, 4–6, 12, 14, 16, 20, 23, 29, 33, 79, 87, 108, 113, 115–118,

124–126, 132–135, 143–147, 149, 160, 161Ghanaian, 124, 125, 132, 133, 144, 145Global Hunger Index, 21Goods

club, 33common, 32, 33private, 33public, 32, 33

Index 185

Governance, governance levels, 19, 20, 21, 49–51, 68, 71, 76–79, 88,90, 94, 95–96, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 117, 118, 136, 144, 148

Government, 12, 20, 55, 56, 67, 68, 77, 78, 88, 89, 92–94, 96, 102,105, 119–126, 130, 132, 133, 136–141, 144, 145, 149

Grazinggrazing land, overgrazing, 12–14, 70, 99, 101, 129, 137, 141grazing rights, 65, 121, 129, 136, 142

Greening (of the Sahel), 24Growth

economic, 19, 52, 53, 54, 162GDP, 15–17, 20, 26, 53, 74population, 18, 19, 29, 46, 47, 51, 72, 74, 116

HHarvest, 26, 32, 34, 68, 69, 89, 100, 118, 160Human development index (HDI), 17, 18, 22Health, 19, 25, 27, 29, 54, 67, 68, 76, 77, 117, 141, 147Herd(s), 53, 93, 118, 120–122, 125, 139Herders, 128–134, 137–139, 142–147, 149, 160–162Heterogeneity (of user group), heterogeneous, 56, 93–95, 125Hierarchy, hierarchical, 13, 36, 107Homer-Dixon, Thomas, 47, 52, 56, 72, 159Homogeneity (of user group), homogeneous, 36, 106, 117Host, 29, 33, 114, 121, 122, 160Hostile, hostility, 30, 31, 123, 124, 126, 127, 129, 135, 139, 145, 149,

151Hot spot, 29, 30, 68, 69Houphouët-Boigny, Félix, 121, 122, 139Human needs theory, 52Human security, 4, 6, 49, 64–66, 69, 75, 76, 160–162Hunger, hungry, 18, 21, 25, 52, 67, 68, 69, 72Hunters’ associations, hunters, 139, 140, 146Hypothesis 1/first hypothesis, 91, 92, 96, 101, 107, 108, 114, 118, 120,

125, 126, 146, 161Hypothesis 2/second hypothesis, 91, 96, 101, 108, 114, 118, 128, 124,

141, 151Hypothesis 3/Third Hypothesis/Last Hypothesis, 91, 92, 101, 103, 107,

108, 113, 114, 118, 137, 149, 151

IIdentity, 13, 35, 47, 52, 56, 97, 103, 106, 122, 142, 143Immigration, immigrant, 120–123Impacts of

climate change, 3, 4, 11, 16, 20, 21, 23, 25, 29, 35, 54, 56, 58, 65,67, 74, 76, 116, 159, 161

environmental, 69, 76, 80political impacts of climate change, 27, 75social, 159

Impetus, 37, 95, 96, 124, 126, 147, 149Incentive, 33, 52, 88, 89, 90, 93–95, 99, 104, 106, 126, 135, 139Incident, 118–120, 148Increasing temperatures, 4, 25Independence, 13, 115, 120, 122, 127, 130, 143Indigenous, 20, 98, 102, 103, 106, 133, 135, 145–148Individual private ownership, 94Individualized

private property, 94, 99, 129–131, 137property rights, 97property, 97–99rights, 94, 97

Inequitable, 52, 92, 97, 132, 133, 147, 149Infant mortality/Child mortality rate, 22, 77, 117Infrastructure, 19, 20, 54, 56, 66, 71, 74, 77, 79, 121, 124, 147

Insecurity, 12, 21, 49, 56, 63, 64, 66–70, 73, 76–79, 116, 117, 130,131, 134, 137

Institutionalarrangements, 53, 93, 104design, 58, 78, 114framework, 161structures, 9, 19, 63, 76, 78, 91, 93, 95, 104, 160

Institutionalized, institutionalize, 32, 93, 97, 100, 122–125Institutions

central, 151customary, 106, 145decentralized, 6, 85, 87, 103, 104, 107, 113, 120, 138for collective action, 34, 51local, 103, 107, 127, 138reform of, 63, 160state, 147

Instrumentalized, instrumentalization, 65, 122, 130, 151Integration

economic, 121, 123, 125, 140, 147policies, 6, 87, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 108, 120, 125

Integrative/centralized, 68, 92, 94, 103, 106, 117, 126, 138–140, 143,146

Intensity, 11, 13–15, 29, 30, 37, 55, 56, 78, 118, 120Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC), 4International agreements, international regimes, 127, 161International certificate of transhumance, 127Inter-state, intra-state (conflict), 47, 57Interval, time interval, 25, 53, 113, 115, 117, 161Irregular rainfall/precipitation, 3, 4, 21, 23, 25, 29, 33, 35, 37, 50, 53,

55, 58, 67, 68, 69, 74, 77, 128, 160Islam, 13, 120Ivoirité, 122, 129, 139, 161Ivorian, 120–122, 124, 129, 130, 136, 139, 140

JJus sanguinis, 122Jus solis, 122, 136

KKnowledge, 4, 20, 22, 46, 47, 51, 58, 88, 90, 91, 94–96, 102–104, 106,

107, 113, 119, 141, 142, 145–147

LLand (customary), 97, 98, 129, 131, 133, 134, 137Land degradation, 11, 24, 25, 46–49, 52, 55, 72, 75, 78, 160Land governance, 97, 101, 136, 137, 148Land reform, 129, 131, 140, 151Land rights/Land rights systems, 32, 87, 97–100, 102, 108, 113, 118,

123, 128–137, 141, 149, 161Land tenure (and systems of land tenure), 78, 91, 92, 96, 97, 100, 101,

108, 128–131, 134–137, 147–149, 160–162Land-chiefs, 97, 130, 131, 140, 144, 145Landowner, landowning, landownership, 131, 133Law, 88, 95, 101, 105, 106, 123, 129, 130–134, 136, 137, 161Layers of nested enterprises, 126, 149Lease, 98, 131, 134Legal, 22, 77, 95, 97, 99, 105, 115, 125, 126, 130, 132, 134, 136, 137,

147, 148Legitimate/Legitimacy, 30, 74, 89, 92, 94, 95, 102, 105–107, 125, 130,

131, 137, 141, 142, 146, 147Less-developed countries, 17Level(s) of conflict, 105, 114, 115, 117, 118, 130, 139, 140, 151Lever, 79

186 Index

Life expectancy, 17, 117Linkage

causal, 49, 51complex, 88, 159linkage between climate change and conflict, 9, 53, 159

Literacy, 17, 19, 117Livelihoods (agropastoral), 5, 14, 19, 20, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 35, 49, 52,

56, 63, 65, 66, 69, 70, 78, 90, 91, 93, 100, 103, 127, 128, 136,141, 160

Livestock, 12–15, 17, 19, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 65, 90, 120, 123–129, 136,141, 144, 145, 148, 160

Livestock-raising, 13–15, 19, 121, 123, 127, 129, 151Loan, 131–133, 137Lobby, lobbying, 941, 102, 105, 138, 140Lobi (population group), 4, 9, 11, 14, 29, 35, 53, 60, 70–72, 87, 117,

121–124, 127, 129, 138, 140, 142, 144, 145, 149, 162Local

actors, 52, 88, 95, 103–105, 107, 139, 147–150administration, 106, 131, 139, 142, 143, 162authorities, 89, 124–127, 131, 132, 137, 140, 142, 144–146, 149government, 76, 102, 144issues, 102level, 4, 48, 89, 94, 95, 102, 104–107, 121, 122, 125, 126, 136–138,

140, 142, 144, 145, 147–149matters, 102needs, 89, 102, 125, 126, 138, 140political, 123

Low-income countries, 17

MMalnutrition, 21Malthus, 46Malthusianism/Neo-Malthusianism, 46–52, 76Management, 25, 31, 32, 35, 51–53, 58, 71, 72, 76–78, 90, 91, 93–95,

100–108, 124, 126, 128–137, 143, 148, 149, 160, 161Marginal, marginalized, 18, 50, 68, 71, 102, 103, 138, 147Market, 67, 70, 90, 94, 100, 127, 141, 152Mayor, 138, 141MDGs/Millennium Development Goals, 17, 18, 21, 25Meat (production, import, export, consumed, demand for, supply of),

120, 121, 123, 124Mechanisms (coping, conflict resolution/management), 13, 29, 45, 70,

95, 105, 123, 126, 139, 145, 146Mediation, mediator, 5, 32, 48, 115, 140Methodology, methodological, method, 108, 114Migration (temporary, permanent), migrating, migrate, 14, 25, 29, 49,

52, 68–71, 78, 79, 93, 94, 115–117, 120, 130, 138, 148Misunderstanding, misunderstand/misunderstood, 98, 99, 135Mitigate/mitigation, 46, 68, 74, 75, 103, 117, 147, 160, 161MMB/Meat Marketing Board (Ghana), 124, 144Mobile, mobility, 13, 14, 32, 70, 90, 93, 94, 120, 126, 127, 138, 141,

147Modern, 13, 31, 97, 99, 105, 129, 130, 132, 134, 135Mossi (population group), 15, 34, 118, 142Muslim, 12, 123

NNational Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), 136, 142National(s), 4, 19, 26, 47−49, 55, 64, 65, 68, 71, 79, 89, 92, 94, 97, 99,

100, 103, 105, 106, 115, 120, 121, 122, 125−129, 132, 134−137, 139−142, 144, 145, 148, 161

Nationality, 122, 129, 133, 134, 136Nationalization, nationalize, 94, 131, 132, 135, 151

Natural resources, 3, 4, 6, 11, 12, 19, 20, 29, 35, 37, 46, 47, 50, 52, 53,58, 66, 68, 73, 78, 88, 97, 103, 108, 115, 131, 137, 142, 147,159−161

Natural resources management, 88Need(s), 4, 5, 20, 21, 29, 46, 47, 52, 53, 66, 67, 70, 80, 89, 90, 94, 95,

101−102, 105−107, 118, 125−128, 131, 132, 138, 140, 141,142, 147, 148

Nested entreprises (layers of), 90, 95, 100, 126, 149Non-governmental organization (NGO), 29, 35, 89, 148Nomadic, nomad(s), 11−13, 19, 34−36, 70, 91, 93, 117, 120, 123, 127,

128, 138, 141, 149, 160Non-environmental factors of conflict, 118Non-renewable resources, 46Non-violent, 32, 53, 119Nutrient, 17, 26, 27, 67Nutrition, 18, 21, 26, 27, 29, 67, 77

OObjective (cause, dimension), 5, 36, 51, 58, 64, 65, 76, 88, 89, 100,

121, 123, 126, 128, 137, 148Officials, 49, 89, 102−105, 107, 140, 142, 144, 145, 147, 151Open access, 99Operationalization/Operationalize (hypotheses), 54, 88, 101, 108, 114Oppression/Oppressive measure, 56, 93, 103, 123Optimistic, 48Origin(s) (of the population), 122Ostrom, Elinor, 51, 77, 89Ouattara, Alassane, 122Overgrazing, 23, 33, 127Owner/Ownership, 13, 65, 94, 96−100, 121, 124−126, 129−139, 145

PParticipation (normative or instrumental approach), 101–102Participative, 6, 92, 101, 103, 104, 105, 107, 131, 137, 139, 140, 142,

147–149, 161Pastoral

development, 141, 147livelihoods, 90, 127zones, 121, 123, 124, 136, 139, 141

Pastoralism, 19, 117, 123, 127, 128, 136, 141, 147, 162Pastoralist(s), 12–16, 29, 32–33, 106, 113, 116, 119, 121, 124, 127,

128, 130, 136, 138, 140–143, 144, 147–148, 160, 162Pasture, 6, 13, 33, 68, 99Peace, peaceful, 4, 20, 32, 34, 51, 58, 64, 70, 78, 88, 89, 92–96, 101,

125, 129, 135, 137, 140, 143, 144, 149Peasant association, 142, 145PEISOR model, 63, 68, 72–73, 91Perception; perceive, 30, 32, 33, 36, 49, 52, 54, 56, 63, 65, 66, 70, 94,

97, 106, 100, 121, 124, 127, 138Perspectives for research, 101, 161–162Pessimist/Pessimism/Pessimistic, 46, 47, 57, 159Policy framework, 127, 128, 136, 141, 147Policy(ies), 4–6, 19, 20, 71–79, 88, 90–97, 101–108, 113–115, 118,

120, 123–130, 135–149, 159–161Policy-making/Policy-maker, 75, 88, 102–107, 137, 141, 144, 147, 149Political ecology/ist, 49, 50, 55, 57, 90, 93, 97Political economy, 49, 56Political factors, 4–6, 58, 63, 68–77, 87–91, 113–115, 117, 120, 150,

161Political responses (PEISOR model), 91Politics, 52, 75, 102, 146, 161Polity, 75, 91, 137Polycentric, 95, 104Population growth, 18, 19, 30, 46, 47, 51, 72, 116

Index 187

Potentialconflict potential, 45, 50, 53, 58, 159, 160, 161for causing conflict/potential for conflict, 3, 51, 58, 69, 72, 93, 124,

128, 132, 147, 151potential of political factors in reducing agro-pastoral conflicts, 7,

35, 36, 53, 57, 79, 88, 98, 108, 114, 119, 130, 141, 160potential to provoke/increase/reduce conflict, 15, 46, 48, 53, 54, 56,

70, 93, 149, 160, 161Poverty, 17–18, 20, 21, 25, 29, 49–50, 52, 54, 55, 68, 70, 72, 77, 79,

106Poverty line, 21Practitioner, 15, 78, 87, 89, 106Precipitation, 11, 23, 25, 33–35, 53, 55, 68, 73, 128, 160

irregular, 37more irregular, 11, 160volatile, 25, 45

Prefect, 139, 140President, 118, 121–122, 126, 132, 143Pressure, 11, 14, 15, 29, 33, 35, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 72–75, 160Principle

principle 1, 100, 135, 136principle 2, 89, 94, 100, 104, 107, 124, 126, 129, 136, 141principle 3, 93, 100, 104, 124, 129, 130, 139, 141principle 4, 95, 100, 104, 105, 136principle 5, 95, 101, 104Principle 6, 144principle 7, 95, 104, 139principle 8, 95, 100, 104, 106, 126, 135, 136, 149

PRIO/Peace Research Institute Oslo, 48–49Prisoner’s dilemma, 33Private sector, 104, 148Private-individual property, private property, 97, 99, 129, 130, 131, 137Productivity, 19, 21, 24, 48, 53, 66, 67, 73, 77, 97, 104, 116, 136Projections (of the impacts of climate change), 3, 15, 22, 25, 47, 48, 50,

67, 160Property

common private property, 99, 129, 130, 131, 137individualized private property, 94, 130public property, 99, 106

Property rights, 49, 96–101, 128–130, 132, 134, 135Property title, titling, 99, 129, 131Proprietor, 98, 100, 130Provision (rules), 89, 94, 101, 104, 107, 127, 129, 131, 132, 139, 142,

147Proxy, proxies, 45, 48, 55, 58, 88Public

authorities, 129, 131, 146justice, 95, 104policies, 78property, 99, 106services, 29, 55, 102, 147

QQualitative

analysis, 96case study, 6comparative case study, 114

Quantitativeanalysis/analyses, 78, 115, 119, 161data/dataset, 118, 119measure, 118

study/studies, 47, 48, 53

RRAF/Réforme Agraire et Foncière [land reform in Burkina Faso, 1984],

118Rainfall/precipitation

irregular, 21, 33, 37, 69, 160more irregular, 3, 4, 11, 160volatile, 25, 45, 160

Rainy season, 14, 160Rationality, rational, 33, 51, 73, 78, 127Rebel; rebellion, 20, 53Recognition, 4, 52, 89, 95, 103, 127, 128, 135–137, 141, 146, 161Recurrence

droughts, 118of crises, 20shocks, 70

Reduction of asymmetry/asymmetries, 93–95Reform, 75, 76, 80, 99, 101, 105, 118, 128, 129, 132, 134, 140, 143,

160Regime

centralized, 140, 143, 146decentralized, 141, 147international, 100

Regional, 48, 50, 102, 127–128, 132, 135–137, 140, 143, 144, 148, 161Registration (of land), 129, 130, 134–137, 139Relative deprivation theory, 52Religion, religious, 35, 49, 50, 56, 97, 122Remote, 20, 50, 68, 89, 95, 105Renewable resources, 11, 35, 46, 47, 64Rent, rent-seeking, 107, 145, 147Representation, ethno-regional representation, 93, 102, 103, 106, 128,

138, 139, 143–145Representative/Representativeness, 103, 106, 138, 140, 147, 162Research design, 114Resilience/Resilient system, 14, 20, 65, 71, 103, 117, 118Resort, 20, 29, 50, 52, 66, 71, 88, 89, 92, 145, 160Resources

financial, 20, 107, 123natural, 4, 6, 11, 19, 20, 29, 35, 53, 88, 137, 142, 161social, 47, 56technical, 107

Resource-sharing, 94, 104, 107, 125, 134, 135Rights-owner, 98, 131Risk, 20, 23, 25, 27, 29, 48–50, 54, 55, 65, 67, 68, 80, 95, 100, 101,

103, 105–107, 144, 146Rule of law, 88, 101, 161Rules, 31, 34, 51, 75, 78, 88–90, 93–95, 102–107, 123, 124, 127–132,

135, 136, 138, 139, 141Rural, 15, 18, 130, 131, 136, 137, 139Rwanda, Rwandan genocide, 5, 12, 13

SSafety nets, 20, 66Sahel/Sahelian, 4, 14–16, 21, 23, 25–27, 50, 71, 79, 116, 130, 142Sanitation; sanitary, 19, 147Scarcity

demand-induced scarcity, 47environmental scarcity, 46, 47, 52, 56structural scarcity, 47

188 Index

supply-induced scarcity, 47Scarcity of social resources, social ingenuity gap, 47, 56Scepticism, 3Scholars, 15, 31, 46, 48, 54, 78, 80, 89, 90, 93, 100, 104–106, 120Sea-level, 4, 23, 50Seasonal, 13, 16, 25, 34, 115–117, 130, 138Security

environmental, 5, 63, 66food, 27, 66–68, 71, 96, 104, 116, 128, 160human, 4, 6, 49, 64–66, 70, 76–77, 160–162objective, 64pillars of, 65–67, 77soil, 66, 67–68, 70, 72, 74–75, 80subjective, 64sustainable ,livelihoods, 63, 65–66, 102threats to, 27, 64, 66–68, 161water, 66, 68

Sedentary, sedentarization, 12, 13, 15, 20, 32, 35, 91, 93, 117, 118,121, 124, 127, 129, 133, 160

Selection (case, factor, hypothesis), 49, 70, 88, 91, 92, 96, 114, 115,116, 144, 160

Sensitivity, 17–20, 46, 75–76, 78, 91Senufo (population group), 34, 121, 122, 129, 130, 139, 142Services (public), 29, 55, 102Settle, settlement of conflict/disputes, 14, 98, 121, 127, 133, 134, 137,

145, 146, 162Shock, 20, 51, 53–54, 65, 70–71, 77, 96, 103, 141, 143, 160Skins, skin land, 132Slow- or rapid-onset (shock, disaster, catastrophe), 52, 70, 71Social Conflict Analysis Database (SCAD), 119Social, economic and political factors, 4–6, 48, 56, 63, 68–76, 87, 91,

114, 117, 161, 162Social outcomes (PEISOR model), 73–74, 76, 91, 79, 91, 114Social relationship, 30Societal

change, 4, 31, 88, 90conflict, 30, 37, 73

SODEPRA-Société pour le Développement des Productions Animales(Association for the development of animal products, Côted’Ivoire), 121, 123, 129, 139

Soilfertility, 16, 21, 116productivity, 21security, 66, 68–72, 75, 80

Species extinction, 26Stability, 29, 67, 71, 88, 94, 96, 117Stakeholder(s), 32, 67, 68, 92, 95, 101–107, 130, 134, 137, 138, 141,

147–149State

central, 36, 91, 92, 95–96, 101, 102, 104, 107, 114, 118, 123–126,138–142, 146, 147, 160

State-controlled, 97, 134, 149Stools, stool land, 132, 133, 145Stranger, 34, 133, 141, 142Subjective (cause, dimension), 30, 64Sub-Saharan, 4, 13, 16–19, 25–26, 48, 54, 67, 68, 93, 97, 104, 160Subsidiarity, 90, 102, 104, 107Subsistence, 26, 27, 32, 35, 97, 119, 160Success, successful, 34, 76, 90, 93–96, 99, 100, 103, 106, 121, 124,

125, 126, 143, 145, 148, 161Suffering, 15, 19, 31, 46, 53, 64, 67, 93Survival, survival dilemma, 29, 34, 37, 53, 67, 71, 73, 130Sustainability, sustainable, 5, 20, 25, 63–66, 78, 89, 93–94, 98, 100,

103, 106, 126, 128, 135Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, 93Sustainable livelihoods security, 63, 65–66, 102

Synergy, synergies, 120, 136

TTechnology/Technological innovation, 20, 77Temperatures

increasing, 4, 25rising, 37, 160

Tendambas, 133, 145Tenure (land, access to), 6, 79, 91, 92, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 108, 114,

128–131, 134, 135–137, 147–149, 151, 160–162Test/Testing, 3, 6, 50, 51, 58, 80, 87, 91, 92, 96, 108, 113, 114, 160,

162Theoretical model/framework, 3, 52, 63, 97, 114Theory, 5, 31, 32, 46–48, 51–53, 76, 78, 91, 93, 96, 97, 108, 125, 126,

146Threat (minimizer, multiplier), 15, 45, 56, 58, 75, 87, 160Threshold, 19, 23, 31, 72, 123Tipping point/factor, 29, 55, 70Title, titling, property title, 31, 99, 101, 122, 129, 130, 131, 133–137,

139Top-down, top down, 107, 139, 141, 142, 146, 149Tourism, 19, 26, 74, 97Trade, 13, 19, 50, 116, 124, 144, 145Tradition/Traditional practices, 12, 14, 19, 20, 27, 33, 64, 65, 68–70,

97–100, 102, 105, 129, 132, 133, 135, 139–141, 143, 145, 162Tragedy of the commons, 33, 46, 99Transhumance corridor, 94, 127, 128Transhumance/Transhumant, 13–15, 17, 19, 34, 79, 94, 116, 117, 120,

124, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 148, 162Transit, 29, 69, 70, 127, 129, 130, 143Transnational, 64, 66, 127, 148, 149Transparency, transparent, 102, 106, 133, 134, 145Trap, 54, 70Trigger, 23, 29, 31, 47, 63, 70Tuareg (nomads), 138, 162

UUCDP/Uppsala Conflict Data Program, 118, 119Undernourished, 18, 19, 21, 67Unpredictable, unpredictability, 23, 53, 55, 128, 160Urban, 15, 18, 19, 25, 70, 72, 74, 90, 123, 130, 138User (authorized), 98–100, 129, 141

user groups, 33, 90, 93, 97, 124, 125, 128, 130, 135, 149

VVariability, Climate variability, 3, 20, 24, 28, 29, 49, 53, 54Variable (dependent, independent, intervening)Variance between and within cases, 117Variation (in the level of conflict), 13, 15, 16, 24, 74, 78, 104, 114,

116–118, 149Violence, violent, non-violent, 3–6, 12, 19, 29–32, 36, 46–53, 55–58,

63–65, 58, 69–72, 74–79, 87, 88, 91, 92, 96, 101, 103, 108,113–115, 117–120, 122, 123, 138, 139, 142–145, 148, 159–161

Voice and accountability (VA), 88, 117, 139, 144Volatility, 29, 51, 53, 67Vote, 102, 122, 136, 139Vulnerability, vulnerable, 4, 11, 15, 16, 19–21, 27, 29, 30, 34, 36, 46,

49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 64–69, 71, 72, 74–79, 88, 91, 93, 95, 103,105, 116–118, 120, 133, 148, 159–161

WWar, 3, 4, 31, 47–50, 53–56, 64, 130, 159

Index 189

Water and land resources, 3, 21, 29, 33, 46, 47, 68, 69, 77, 90, 129,141, 147

Water availability/availability of water, 23, 25, 37, 67, 75, 160WBGU/Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung—Globale

Umweltveränderung (German Advisory Council on GlobalChange), 4, 23, 25, 27, 29, 49, 50, 56, 67–71, 75, 116, 159

Weakness, 16, 19, 20, 21, 49, 54, 65, 94, 115, 124, 132, 135, 136, 137,139, 141, 147, 148

Weather, 3, 20, 52, 53, 55, 70, 160West Africa, 3–6, 11–19, 21, 23, 25, 29, 34–36, 58, 63, 64, 67, 69–71,

73, 74, 75, 78, 88, 91, 96, 97, 105, 113–116, 120, 122, 125, 127,135, 138, 139, 141, 147, 148, 159, 160, 162

Wet, 25, 53Withdrawal (right of), 98, 99, 145Women, 19, 59, 75, 76, 103–106, 134, 136, 137, 142, 147World Bank, 16, 18, 20–22, 88, 137

YYield, 25, 26, 35, 68, 74, 126, 142, 146

ZZone (pastoral), 14, 19, 121, 123, 124, 125, 136, 139, 141, 142

190 Index