CHAPTER - I

Item inside

1.1 Chandas : the word

1.1.1 Etymology of the word

1.1.2 Use of the word in d ifferent context

1.1.3 Definition of Chandas

1.1.4 Essence of the study of Chandahsastra

1.2 Origin and development of Chandahsastra referring

im portant works

1.3 Vedic and Classical Sanskrit metres : the ir varieties

1.4 Elements of Chandas

1.4.1 Gana (Mnemonic) and M atra (Mora)

1.4.2 Yati (Pause or Caesura or Haitus)

1.4.3<

Other elements of metre - Devata, Varna

Svara and Gotra

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1.1 Chandas : the word

1.1.1 Etymology of the word

The chandas or the metre is an essential element of

versified poetry. The knowledge of metre is regarded as a Vidya i.e. a systematic study ; it is essentially a Prayogasastra (i.e.

applied science) arranged in assemblage (i.e. c/Y/ ) 1 and hence

the science is termed Chandoviciti.

The word chandas may be derived from several

roots - ( i) cad, (ii) chad, (iii) r, (iv) canid and (v )

chand. The root *cad’ indicates ‘ delight’ or ‘ joy’ 2. However,

V. S. Apte holds other meanings also viz. to ask, to beg etc. 3

Then, the suffix ‘num’ is added after ‘cad’4. Then, it

becomes ‘chanda’ . Here, ‘ca’ is replaced by ‘cha* as per

1 citi sarrruhe I —STM, P.1832 cadi ahlade I —CV, P.33 Apte, V.S., The practical Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.4274 'cadi ahlade' iti dhatoh asun pratyaye krte cakarasya

chakaradese numagame ca krte chanda iti bhavati I—Chandovicitivrtti of HrsIkesaSarma on CV, P.3

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the Unadisutra - ‘ canderadesca cha h ’ 5. Thus, the word

‘ chandas ’ is formed.

Secondly, it is said to have been derived from the

root 1cha d ’ ( t ° c o v e r)6. In the Vaiyakaranasiddhantakaumudi

(V S K ) of Bhattojidlksita , the root *cha d ’ is explained in the

Curadiprakarana two times viz. ( i ) chadi samvarane ( dhatu

- 1 5 7 7 )7 and ( i i ) chad apavarane ( dhatu - 1 8 3 4 )8. Here,

the firs t explanation carries the sense of ‘ to concea l’ or ‘ to

cove r’ and the second one bears the sense of ‘ restraint or

restriction ’ . It is stated that the chandas covers or envelops or

removes the sin of men and therefore called so9. Sayana, the

VSK, Vol-IV, Unadisutra-658, P.604

PS, P.51

VSK, Vol.-Ill, P.269

Ibid. Vol.-Ill, P.279

Again,

apavarakatvam tu chandojhanavatam papebhyahchadanat

— CV, P.4

chadayanti ha va enam chandamsi papatkarmanah I

— (AA-2.1.6 as quoted in the GV, P.4

Again,

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commentator derives the word ‘ chandas’ from the root

‘ c/7ad’ ( to cover i.e. samvarana")10. H a la yu d h a , the

commentator on the Chandahsutra ( C S ) of P irigalanaga states

that four types of conjugation namely - ( i ) chadayati, ( i i )

chadati, i i i ) chadayati, ( i v ) chadayanti can be noticed in

respect of the said roo t11. H ow ever, there is no difference in

meaning for the forms - chadayati and chadayanti as the first

one remains in singular number and the rest is in plural number

of present tense. On the other h a n d , Yaska in his Nirukta

derives the word from the root - chad’ ( t o cover i.e, chadi

acchadane) 12. It means that the chandas is something that

covers. D u rg a ca ryya , the com m entator, has substituted the

chadayati enasah papat karmmanah iti srutlh I — CM, ed.

by Gurunatha Vldyanidhi, Nivedyam (Preface), P.2 (3) purusasya papasambandham varayitumacchadakatvat chanda

ityucyate I — As quoted in the PS, P.51

nisItasarasahasraiSchadayatyantarlksam

chadati samarabhumim vldvisam mundakhandaih I

chadayati suraiokam yo gunairyatra yuddhe

surayuvativimuktaschadayanti srajasca II

— Kavirahasya, SL. No. 16 as quoted in the VLCP, P. 22

chandamsi chadanat I — NR, Daivatakanda, 12.2

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word ‘ chadanat’ by ‘ bandhanat’ ™. The word ‘ bandhana’ again denotes the sense of ‘ binding ’ . The chandas has tied up

all the syllables of any Vedic hymn in such manner that ail the

Vedic mantra-s have to remain in certain metres of their own.

Nothing or none can untie this binding. Loss of a single syllable

even in reciting may cause harm to a person14. So, it is nothing

but chandas that gives a binding to each syllable of a Vedic

hymn. Therefore, it is called chandas.

Regarding the act of covering (i.e. acchadana) by

chandas as derived from the root chad, some arguments in

favour of can be traced from some Vedic texts i.e, Samhita-s, Brahmana-s, Aranyaka-s, Upanisad-s , Pratisakhya-s and

others. Firstly, in the Aitareya Aranyaka (A A ) 1.5.2, the

mention of metre is available where various types of meditation

of 'prana* are illustrated15. Therein, it is noted that the

13 —Durgabhasya on NR, Dalvatakanda, 7.12.2

14 dustah Sabdah svarato varnato va mithya prayukto rtatamarthamaha I sa vagbajro yajamanam hinastl yathendrasatruhsvaratoparadhat II — MB, Paspasa Ahnika, P.19 ;

But §!ksa reads 'mantro hlnah' In place of 'dustah sabdah'.

15

— Ibid. Udyota com. P.19

AA, 1.5.2 as quoted in the PS, P.52

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‘ prana* (G o d ) is to be meditated as covered by the metres.

For this act of covering with m etres, these are termed chandas.

One who knows metres as the cover of the ‘ prana* (G o d ) is

sure to be rescued from ones sins16. Secondly, as the story

goes, once Lord Prajapati performed agnicayana in connection

with a sacrifice. B ut, at that time Agni disguised himself as

‘ ksurapavi* which means a thunderbolt as sharp as a knife.

Having seen Agni in such a dangerous fo rm , no god dared to

reach Him. Then the gods covered their bodies with various

metres and went to Agni. Thus, these elements which covered

the bodies of the gods, came to be known as chandas. The

Taittiriya Samhita (T S ) too holds a similar s tory17. It can thus

be opined that the root ‘ chad* in respect of the word

‘ chandas* , is used in the sense of ‘ covering ’ . Th ird ly, it is

stated in the Chandogyabrahmana (C B r.) that once gods,

chadayantl ha va enam chandam sl papatkarm ano yasyarn c it apt

kamayate ya evam etacchandasam chandastvam veda It! I

— PS. P.52

prajapatiragnim acinuta / sa ksurapavirbhutvattshat, tarn deva

vibhyato nopayante chandobhiratmanam chadayitvopayan, ta t

chandasam chandastvam I — TS, 5. 6. 6. 1

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having got frightened of death, entered into the ‘ traylvidya’ ™.

Then, they covered themselves with various mantras endowed

with metres and got rid of untimely death. For this act of

covering these are designated as chandas. Hence, there should

be no hesitation in accepting the meaning of the root ‘ chad'

as ‘ to cover’ , in the context of the word ‘ chandas’ .

The third derivation of the word ‘ chandas ’ is taken

from the root ‘ r ’ 19. The root ‘ r ’ means ‘ to move’ . All the

Vedic hymns possess some short of movement at the time of

recitation and therefore the root ‘ r ’ may significantly be

treated as responsible for formation of the word ‘ chandas’ 20.

The fourth derivation of the word ‘ chandas’ that

comes from the root ‘ cand’ is based on PaninS’ s grammar.

18 deva val mrtyorvibhyatastraylm vidyam pravlsamstechandobhiracchadayan, yadebhiracchadayamstacchandasarp

chandastvam t — CBr,, 3.4.2 as quoted in the VLCP,

P.27

caderatestacchandasi I chadayatiti va i —

{Devatadhyaya Brahmana 3.20 ) as quoted in the CV, P.4

pSdavaddhesu sarvesu mantresu gamanat

artidhatuvyutpattirupapadyate I — Ibid. P.4

20

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Here, ‘ c a n d ’ means ‘ to please ’ 21. Harsata, the commentator

on Jayadeva’s Chandahsastra, also accepts this root

‘ c a n d ’ . He speaks of two acts viz. ‘ pleasing’ and ‘ shining’ 22.

As c h a n d a s pleases or shines forth by its melodious nature it is

called so .

Again the root ‘ c h a n d ’ is also supposed to have

formed the word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ 24. Here the root ‘ c h a n d ’ is said

to have two meanings viz. ‘ gladdening ’ and ‘ covering’ 25.

It is no denying the fact that there may be many

etymological explanations in respect of the formation of' the

word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ . However, almost all the scholars are found

to be agreeing with regard to the two roots - ( i ) ‘ c a n d ’

c a n d a y a t i h l a d a y a t l i t i c h a n d a h , c a n d e r a d e s c a c h a h I

— CM, ed.by Gurunatha Vidyarsldhi, N i v e d y a m (Preface), P.=(3)

Also PS, P.51

c a n d - a h l a d a n e d i p t a u c a I — VP, P.33

c a n d a t i h l a d a r n k a r o t l d l p y a t e v a S r a v y a t a y a I t i c h a n d a h I

— Ibid. P.33

Ibid. P.33

a h l a d a n e , s a m v a r a n e c a I — Ibid. P.33

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and ( i i ) ‘ chad’ as responsible for its formation. In the light

of the foregoing discussion, it can easily be understood, as

observed by Prof. A. C. Sastrl26also, that the root 'chad*

(to cover) is mostly applicable to the Vedic derivation of the/

word ‘ chandas' as held by Yaska in his Nirukta and the root

‘ cand* (to please) is mostly applicable to the Laukika

derivation of the word as found in Paninian system of grammar.

1.1.2 Use of the word in different context

The word ‘ chandas’ is found to have used in

various senses more particularly in Vedic literature. Sometimes

the word *chandas’ is used to carry the conventional

meaning, sometimes attributive meaning and sometimes

figurative meaning. Conventionally the word *chandas’ means

the science of metrics or any metre in general or any hymn

composed in any metre. Again, this word is attributed to

28 cf. There are two kinds of derivations of the word 'chandas' :

'laukika' and 'alaukika'. In the Nirukta of Yaska the derivation

given is chandarpsi chadanat iti, i.e., 'chandas' comes from the

root ‘chad' (Curadi). In Panlni's grammar the word comes from

the root 'cand'. PS. P.51

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represent the Veda-s. In addition to this, the word ‘ chandas’

is employed in various figurative meanings such as-

pasavo vai chandamsi27, raso vai chandamsi28,

viryam vai chandamsi29, chandamsi vai disah30, chandamsi vai

gnahm, chandamsi vai lomani32, chandamsi daivah33,

chandamsi vai pranah34, chandamsi vai vraj'o gosthanah35 and

so on.

In ail these expressions, the chandas is

metaphorically identified with cattle (pasava/?) , soma

juice ( r a s a /? ) , energy (v /ry a ) , quarters (cf/sa/7) ,

women (pna/7) , hairs Qlomani') , divine beings

( daivah) , life (prana/7) and the, region of Sun (vrajo

gosthanah) respectively.

27 S.Br, 7.5.2.4128 Ibid. 7.1.1.3729 Ibid. 9.5.1.3930 Ibid. 8.3 .1 .1231 Ibid. 9.5.4.732 Ibid. 6.4.1.633 Ibid. 9.5.1.3934 KBr. 7.9.11.835 TBr. 3.2.9.3

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The word * chandas ’ has been used in the sense of

l vayu’ also. In the Atharvaveda (A V ) , it is found that the

word ‘ chandas’ indicates water, air and herbs30. However, in

all these cases, that word is employed to denote some sentient

as well as insentient objects of the Universe. Needless to say,

such metaphorical meanings are aimed at to serve certain

contextual purposes. In some Vedic texts, reasons for such

figurative meanings are also stated.

Of the attributed meanings of the word ‘ chandas ’

the Aksarasamamnaya (i.e. displayed letters) comes first. All

the letters under the Aksarasamamnaya and even sounds

uttered by beasts were designated as chandas . Then the word

‘ chandas ’ comes to denote various mantra-s viz. - the rk , the

saman and the yajus. The chandas becomes absolutely the

symbol of mantras as Yaska in his Nirukta declares

trlni chandamsI kavayo apo vata osadhayah

— AV.18.1.27

chandah purusa iti yam avocam aksarasamanyaya evam

tasyaltasyakaro rasah I — TS. 3.2.3.4

1 2

“ c h a n d o b h y a h s a m a h r t y a s a m a h r t y a ,l38 etc. Here Durgacaryya,

the commentator, opines that m a n t r a - s are termed c h a n d a s .

Again, in the CBr. as well as in the Satapathabrahmana (SBr.) the word ‘ c h a n d a s '1 means m a n t r a 4 0 .

The word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ is found to be in use as an

equivalent for the Vedas. Panini, too has used the word in that

sense41. In his Astadhyayl (AD), the word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ is found

112 times in the aforesaid sense. Katyayana in his Vartika and

Patanjali in his Mahabhasya(MB) have also employed this word

to denote the Vedas. In the Pratisakhya-s too, this word is

used frequently to mean the V edas in general42. Sayanacaryya

NR. NaighantukakandaA .6

chandamsl mantrlkhya I —Durgabhasya on the NR,NaighantukakandaA .6 G.Br. 3,4.2Also, cf. yad ebhiratmanam acchadayat deva mrtyorvibhyatah tat chandasam chandastvam it! I — S.Br. 4.5.1.1

bahularp chandasi I — AD.2.4.39

Also, chandasi ca I — Ibid.5.1.67

svarasamskarayoSchandasi niyamah I —Sukta YajuhPratisakhya, 1.1

also applied the word ‘ ch a n d as ' in the sense of the Vedn

Maxmuller holds tha t the Vedic hymns com posed in earlier

t im es may be taken as chandas and o f later t im es are named

m antra-s. A cco rd in g to a mantra o f the Purusasukta of the

Rgveda, the w ord ‘ ch a n d a s ’ deno tes the poet ical

c o m p o s it io n s of the Yajurveda while the prose part is known by

the w ord ‘ y a ju s ’ 44. But “ m an fra b ra h m a na yo rve d an a m a dh e ya

m ” is one of the de fin it io ns of the Veda, which means that the

m ixture of the mantra and the Brahmana is called Veda. Again ,

it is genera lly a ccep ted tha t the word * chandas ' s tands for the

word ‘ V e d a In tha t c a s e , not only the mantra port ion but

also the Brahmana p o rt ion of Vedic lite ra tu re would

a u tom atica lly be inc luded into the dom ain of the word

‘ c h a n d a s ’ . H ere , it will not be out of co n te x t to record that

Panini did not like to a ccep t such a p o s i t io n , as he is found to

have used the w ord in the sense of mantra only . The chandas

43 yah pranavah chandasam m adhye rsabhah sreshah e tc .

— S ayana 's c o m m e n ta ry on TS. as q u o te d in th e PS, P.54

tasm ad ya jna t sarvahutah rcah sam ani ya jn ire I

chandarpsi yajn ire tasm at ya justam adajayata II

— RV, 10.90.9

chandobrahm anani tadvisayan i I — AD, 4.2.66

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and the Brahmana are mentioned here separately where

chandas means mantra only. There are some scholars who

believe that the origin of chandas is the ‘ kantikarma’ of the

Nighantu. According to some other scholars, the chandas is

derived from the ‘arcatikarma’ of the Nighantu as observed by

Prof. A.C. Sastri48. In the Nighantu, the word ‘ chandas’ is

seen in the names of the stotra-s. Again, the rk mantra-s of

the Samasamhita (ss) are also named ‘ chandas’ 47.

SadguruSisya considers that the word ‘ chandas’ is used to

mean primarily the gayatrl and also other metres48. He further

opines that the Vedas are also known as ‘ chandas ’ , because

they are composed in these metres49. Thus the word

‘ chandas ’ is attributed to mean the entire Vedic literary works.

This attributed meaning of the word ' chandas ’ is well accepted

in the Sanskrit literature.

PS, P.55

rcah samani chandamsi puranam yajusa sahaucchistanjajhire sarve I — AV, il.4.2.4

chando gayatryadi, tadyogadhi vedah I — VD, P.58 as

quoted in the VP, P.28

chandamsi vedah I — VD, P.59 as quoted In Ibid. P.28

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Finally, the word ‘chandas ’ conventionally refers

to the entire prosodical science or any metre in general. That

the ‘ chandas’ has a significant role to play, can easily be

evidenced not only in the Vedic texts but in Classical literature

as well. In the Ramayana of Valmlki, the word is employed in

the sense of ‘ desire*50.

The Amarakosa (AK) furnishes two types of

meanings of the word *chandas ’ - one for Vedic context51

and the other for the use of Classical Sanskrit52. Here,

Amarasimha states that in the Classical context, the poetry

(i.e. padya') itself is metre. Again, in the

Sabdastomamahanidhi (STM) of Taranatha Tarkavacaspati

almost same explanation is there. In STM, two words are

noticed viz. ( i ) chanda and (ii) chandas55. The first one is of

mayocyamanam yadt te srotum chandovitasini I

— VR, Bhumika ed. by Madhusudana §astrf, P.5

51 gayatrfpramukham chando I — AK. P.122,

52 chandah padye’bhilase ca I — Ibid. P.23653 STM. P.187

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masculine gender (i.e . pumlinga) which stands for abhilasa54

etc. The rest one is of neuter gender Q.e.napumsakalinga')

R C

which denotes several meanings including metrics . However,

both the words are shown therein to have derived from the root

‘ chad’ . But the second form i.e ., chandas only is stated to

have indicated the science of metre .

1.1.3 Definition of Chandas

There are found so many derivative meanings of the

word ‘ chandas’ through its semantic analysis. But, normally it

indicates some numerical arrangement of syllables57.

54 chanda (pumlinga) = abhllase, va6atayam, vlsabhede ca I

— Ibid. P.187

55 chandas (napurpsakalihga) = vede, svairacare, abhllase.

niyataksaravarnamatradisannlveiavaiat catuscaranadauukthadibhede gayatryadau chandasi, padye ca I

— Ibid. P.187«

56 chanda (purn.) = chad! sarpvarane dhatoranekarthatvat iha icchayam ghah I

And, chandas (napum.) = chadi-asi I — Ibid. P.187

57 yadaksaraparimanam tacchandah I —RgvedasarvanukramanI of

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Again, the AV defines that the chandas is the thing

which is distinguished by the number of syllables58.

SadguruSisya, in his commentary of the Sarvanukramani of

katyayana on the Rgreda (R V ) , refers to the chandas as

something which envelopes or protects one from sms . Prof.

R.S.Murty refers to a definition60 in his Vedic Prosody as being

found in the Introduction to the CS. The definition under

reference means that the speech that is regulated by the

number of syllabic instant it contains, is termed chandas.

Halayudha in his commentary on CS-II.1 states that

the word ‘ chandas ’ refers to the item which is particularised

by the number of syllables61,

Harsata, the commentator on Jayadevacchandah

Katyayana as quoted in the VP. P.33

58 chando aksarasahkhyavacchedakam I — Ibid. P.34

59 chandayantlha va enam papatkarmanatlti sreteh I

And. papebhyaichadanat I — Ibid. P.35

60 matraksarasahkhya niyatavak chandah I — Ibid. P.34

61 chandaSsabdenaksarasahkhyavacchando'trabhidhfyate I

— MS, under Plhgala-sutra -"chandah" (11.1)

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states that the chandas is the base-word of metres having the

entire treasure of syllables62.

Several other definitions are also can be had of in

this context for both the Vedic and Classical prosody. All such

definitions have their acceptability on occasions suitable to

them.

In the domain of versified poetry, the word

1chandas ’ indicates the harmonious arrangement of syllables in

a verse. A poet always depends on some sets of chosen words

with particular syllables, so that these become appealing to the

reader as well as the listener. At the same time, the poet is

expected to remain cautious of the fact that the spontaneous

flow of the letters he proposes to use, is not getting

interrupted. That flow of syllables should have an agreeable

progression so that it generates some short of harmony. Any

arbitrary succession of syllables is not harmonious. That

harmony again creates a rhythm. Anundoram Borooah has used

62 chandaSSabdo vrttadharavacanah aksarakosatmakatvat I

— Harsata In Jayadeva's Chandoviciti, Chap.II as quoted In the

VP, P.34

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the word rhythm as synonymous to the Sanskrit word ‘ vrtta’ 63. The form of such succession of syllables in agreeable

progression is termed chandas.

1.1.4 Essence of the study of Chandahsastra

In the Vedic literature, the science of metrics was

regarded as one of the Vedanga-s. In the Mundakopanisad

(M U ) , the chandas figures in the list of the six Vedanga-s54.

That the chandas is one of the six Vedanga-s is mentioned

elsewhere aiso in some couplets65. In both cases, the chandas

occupies the fifth position. The objectives of all these Vedanga-

s are the proper interpretation of the Vedic texts. Traditionally,

it is believed that the Vedic hymns are some revelation made

possible by the god to the seers. Unlike the mantra-s, the

63 Prosody, P.xcv64 tatrapara rgveda yajurvedah samavedosrtharvavedah Siksa kalpo

vyakaranam niruktam chando jyotisamlti I —MU, 1.1.565 siksa kalpo vyakaranam niruktam chando ityapi I

jyotisamayanahcaiva sadahgo veda isyate II—CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, Nivedyam (Preface), P.=(2)

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Vedanga-s are having no divine origin. However, it is rightly felt

that a thorough knowledge of all the Vedanga-s is a prerequisite

for understanding the Vedic hymns. Patanjali, refers to the

Vedanga-s as obligatory especially for the Brahminm. A study of

prosody is essential specially for Vedic literature because

without the knowledge of the metre contained in a Vedic

mantra, the reading of the same is useless and even very

dangerous for the reader87. Similarly, SrIhrsTkeSa§arma in his

commentary to the Chandoviciti (cv) of Patanjali quotes aC Ocouplet , the authorship of which is ascribed to Vidyaranya, a

commentator of the Arseyabrahmana (ABr.). The verse under

reference states that one who applies a mantra without proper

66 brahmanena nlskarano dharmo sadarigo vedo 'dhyeyo jneyasca I

— MB, PaspaSa Ahnika, P.15

87 avldltva rsim chando daivatam yogameva eva ca I

yo'dhyapayedyapedvapl paptyan jay ate tu sah II

— Brhaddevata, 8.13.6 as quoted In the PS, P.59

68 rsicchandodaivatani brahmanartharp svaradyapi I

avldltva prayunjano mantrakanaka ucyate II

— CV, P.8

Prof. A.C.Sastri holds that this couplet is mentioned in the com.

of the SarvanukarmanI of Sadgurusisya. — PS, P.59

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knowledge of the rsi, the chandas and the devata, is called

mantrakantaka. Similar view is also found to be expressed in

another stanza of Vidyaranya69. SadguruSisya too says that

one performs a sacrifice with insufficient knowledge of the

devata, the chandas, the nirukta, the brahmana, the rsi,

the krt suffix and the taddhit suffix etc. of the mantra is

called yagakantaka70. In the Paninlyasiksa (P N S ) ,as mention­

ed by Gurunatha Vldyanidhi in the Preface of the Chando- manjarl (C M ) of Gangadasa, the essence of the knowledge

of metre is cited71. It is stated that a Brahmin should specially

endeavour to acquire proper knowledge of the rsi, the

aviditva rslrp chando daivatarp yogameva ca I

yodhyapayejjapetsnayanna sa tatphalamapnuyat II

— (1.1.6) as quoted in the GV, P.8

70 mantranarp daivatarp chando niruktarp brahmanan rsln I

krtaddhitadi cajhatva yajanto yagakanaka II

— (1.1.2) Ibid. P.8

71 arsarp chandasca daivatarp viniyogah punah punah I

veditavyarp prayatnena brahmanena visesatah II — CM, ed.

by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, Nivedyam (Preface). P.3 ; also PS. P.59-60 ; also VLGP, P.33 : But this couplet is not seen in the PNS ed. by Pramodabardhan Kaundinnyayan, Chowkhamba Vidhyabhavan, Varanasi-1, 2004

22

chandas, the devata, the viniyoga (application) etc. In the

Chandovicitivrtti, SrihrsTke§a§arma quotes a line from the

ABr., wherein also the importance of chandas is clearly

stated72. Again, the negative effect caused due to uttering a

Vedic mantra without knowing its metre is stated in the verse

rserhlna73 etc. It was held that the violation of metrical rules in

Vedic hymns might cause harm to the preceptor as well as the

sacrificer. So, the knowledge of metrics was considered to be

of sufficient priority.

The prime necessity of the chandas is to understand

the meaning of Vedic verses. All the Vedic mantra-s are

72 — — _yo ha va aviditarseyacchandodaivata brahmanena mantrena

yajayati vadhyapayati, va sthanum va rrcchati gartta va padyatl

pra va miyate paplyan bhavatni I

— ABr.1.1.6 as quoted in the GV, P.8 ; But Prof. R.S.Murty in his

VP quotes these lines with slight variation and the source is

mentioned there as the Chandogyabrahmana of.

yo ha va aviditarseyacchando daivata viniyogena brahmanena

mantrena yajayati vadhyapayati va, sa sthanum varcchati, gartam

va padyate, pramiyate va, paplyan bhavati, yatayamanyasya

chandasim bhavanti I — VP, P.19

73 rserhinamanayusyam chandobhirvyadhyupadravah I

devatabhisca maranam varnaigodhananaSanam II — CV, P.9

23

metrical. A mantra without metre cannot be thought of.

Therefore, there exists a close relationship between the mantra

and the chandas. Prof. A.C. Sastrl in his

1 Pingalacchandahsutra - A Study ’ (P S ) expresses “ In some

doubtfu l cases metre makes a correct meaning o f the Vedic

verses. So metres are called the mouth o f the Veda”74. Further, he states - “ According to the sastra-s this reading

o f the Veda-s is positively no t be ended till the sense o f

meaning becomes dear. Metre is the limb o f the Veda and so

learning o f metre is mandatory. ‘By anustup you should

perform ritu a l, you are to sing by b rha ti m etre , you are to

praise by g a ya trl m e tre ’ . These are the injunctions regarding

rituals. S o , i f a man is willing to perform rituals he should know

the metres properly” 75. As grammar is meant for removing

doubts76, so also the science of metrics is needed to remove

the doubt of Vedic m antra-s in certain occasion77. As the

Nirukta helps in deciphering the meanings of the words in a

74 chando vai vedasya mukham I — PS, P.46

75 Ibid. P.114

76 raksoragamalaghvasandehah prayojanam I

— MB, Paspasa Ahnika, P.13

77 asandehartham ca adhyeyam chandah I — VLGP, P.34

24

mantra, so also the particular metre applied in a certain mantra

can be a determinant of its meaning.

The Veda-s are regarded as the Aparavidya78, and

so also the metre. Therefore, as one of the branches of

Aparavidya, the Chandahsastra is also a subject to be pursued

for.

The chandas bears the capability of granting a birth

in the heaven for a sacrificer79. Being one of the main

components of the Vedic hymns, the chandas aims at

deciphering knowledge in general. This knowledge can lead a

person towards immortality. So, the ethical power of the

chandas leading to spiritual uplift is sung in the RV . Similar

view is expressed in the verse chandasam vicayamm etc.

MU. 1.1.5gayatrau svistakrtah sarpyajye kurvita tejaskamo brahmavarcakamah I —ATBr.5.1 as quoted in the PS, P.66 Again cf.gayatryam praugam kuryad ityahus tejo vai brahmavarcam gayatrt tejasvf brahmavarcasf bhavatfti etc.

80—AA. 1.11.111 as quoted Ibid. P.67 yada gayatre adhi gayatram ahitam

25

It is to be noted here that the scope for the study of

metrics is not confined within the Vedic literature only, the

knowledge of metre is rightly felt to be a must in the Classical

Sanskrit as well. The Vedic metres are determined by counting

the number of syllables and there is no division of gana-s as in

the Classical Sanskrit. In the Classical Sanskrit, metres are

mainly based upon gana-s. The maximum possible number of

syllables that can remain in one pada of a Vedic metre is twelve

only but in the Classical Sanskrit, metres having more than

twelve syllables in each pada are enumerable. Thus several

aspects of difference are there in both Vedic and Classical

metres ; and usually the essence of the knowledge of metrics

in Classical Sanskrit is also different from Vedic context.

For assessment of the importance of the knowledge

of metre in the Classical Sanskrit, it is necessary to discuss the

traistubhad va traistubham nlrataksata I

yad va jagajagatyahitam padam

ya It tad v/dus te amrtattvam anaiuh II — RV, 1.164.23

81 chandasam vicayam janan yah sariradvimucy ate I

chandasameti salokyamanantyayasnute sriyam II

CV, P.175

26

structural pattern of poetry in general. It is the chandas which

differentiates a poem from prose. Any common reader or even a

listener can feel the effect of metre in a poem with the least of

attention even. It is. the metre in a poem that has a melting

effect upon the heart of the reader. Lucidity is the main

characteristic feature of a poem. Successful poets are always

aware of choosing the suitable words for their composition in

conformity with the harmonious arrangement leading to that

lucidity. Such lucidity creates a rhythm. That rhythm is, in

reality, nothing but the. metre. So knowledge of metrics is

essential for a poet to compose an effective and successful

poem. That knowledge is also essential for the reader too. If a

reader doesnot possess the requisite knowledge of the metre

concerned with a particular poem, a proper reading can neveri

be expected. Without a proper reading, the proper rhythmic

lucidity as well as poetic taste of the poem also can not be

realised. So knowledge of metrics is quite necessary for a

reader.

Not only the versified forms, some passages of the

great prose-writers also exhibit some sort of rhythmic form.

Such a rhythm creates a sense of movement to one while one

27

goes on reading a literary piece. In the PNS, this movement is

compared with the movement of feet82. A man can walk or go

ahead with the help of feet. Similarly, with the help of metres,

one line of a poem or a prose even, attains its movement

generating some poetic charm at the time of reading. Again for

a manuscriptologist also, a practical acquaintance with the

chandas enables one to detect successfully all faults of

omission, insertion and alteration of syllable. Hence, A.

Borooah has properly justified the essence of the study of

metrics - “A thorough knowledge of prosody appears therefore

to be essential for all linguistic and historical examination of

Sanskrit” 85.

1.2 Origin and development of Chandahsastra referring

important works

The history of Sanskrit metrics is to be compared

with the discovery of mathematical perspective in the

82 chandah padau tu vedasya I — PNS, V.4183 Prosody, Preface, P.xci

2 8

development of occidental pictorial dots as observed by Prof.

A. C. Sastri84. The beginning of the science of metre in Sanskrit

can be traced to the Vedic literature. It has been already

discussed that the word ‘ chandas ’ is seen in various mantra-s

of the RV, the earliest specimen of human intellect in India.

However, the sense of the word *chandas’ in those Vedic

texts is not only metre which is called prosody at present day.

In many occasions, the word ‘ chandas ’ stands for the Veda

itself as has been hinted at earlier.

The science of metre is considered as

supplementary to the Veda and the age of this Vedanga is

difficult to ascertain. After considerable deliberations the

Vedanga s are accepted to be written somewhen before the 5th

century B.C.85 However, this date can help very little in fixing

the age of the chandas.

The Rksamhita (RS) , being completely a metrical

work, is also known to be the earliest source book on prosody.

84

85

PS, Preface, P.V

Ibid. P.50

2 9

“ What is meant by chandas” m - is an enquiry for the first time

in the RS. The names of the seven prime metres with their

characteristics are mentioned in brief there in a few text of that

Samhita. After the RV, the Taittiriya Samhita (TS) is known

to have laid down many references on prosody wherein on more

than twenty occasions, the importance of chandas in sacrificial

rites, some metaphorical expressions and some deified

characteristics of prosody are stated .

Taking into consideration of the Brahmanic

sources, it is evident that the contextual references of prosody

are made in almost all Brahmana-s. But the Aitareyabrahmana (ATBr.) , the SBr., and Daivatabrahmana have dealt with this

topic more elaborately. Then in the Sutra literature, prosody

which is found in a scattered way in the Samhita-s and the

Brahmana-s, has attained the status of a science as shown by

Dr. R. S. Murty88. The Rk-pratisakhya of §aunaka has a great

importance on the growth of prosody. The last three patala-s of

88 chandasim klmasit ? — RV, X.130.3

87 gayatrl chandah (TS, IV.3.7.10), usnih chandah (TS., IV.3.7.70),

anustubh chandah (TS, IV.3.7.8 ) etc. are some citations and

many other citations alongwith passages are also there.

88 VP, P.152

30

this Pratisakhya are exclusively devoted to explanation of the

nature of Rigvedic prosody which is really a concise but

complete work on prosody. Again, there is a book on Vedic

prosody called Rgvedachando’ nukramani (RCK) , the

authorship of which goes to Saunaka where an index of

different metres employed in the RV is corroborated with. The

Sarvanukramani of Katyayana gives considerable information

about the metres of Rigvedic hymn systematically in accordance

with the Sakala recension of the RV. The main part of this

treatise is preceded by an Introduction in twelve paragraphs

where except the first, the second and the twelfth paragraphs,

all the rest deal with the nature of Vedic prosody. One

Rgvedanukramani, which has been extracted from the

commentary of Venkatamadhava on the RV is regarded as the

latest as well as the authentic text on the Rigvedic indices

where alongwith other matters, the metres are also dealt with.

This work is of historical value as the names of almost all the

exponents on prosody like Saunaka, Katyayana, Patanjali,

Pihgalanaga, YIska, Bodhayana, Apastamba, ASvalayana,

Jaimini, SkandasvamI, Narayana, Udglta, Kautsa, Susrta

etc. are resorted to. Again, the Nidanasutra of the Samaveda

comprises prosodial matters which is called Chandoviciti^CV).

31

The authorship of this work is ascribed to Patanjali, a disciple

of Katyayana. There is another work on Vedic prosody which is

called Chandovicaya or Samaganam Chandah or ChandahParisista. Like the R CK , this is also an Index of the metres and

other related items used in the SS. The SankhyayanaSrautasutra also discusses some elements on Vedic prosody.

The valued contribution of several commentators on the above

discussed treatises is also to be taken note of. The commentary

of SadguruSisya on the Katyayana ’ s SarvanukramanI on the

RV called Vedarthadlpika (V D ) is recordable here. On the

commentaries of the C V , the Tattvabodhini of Tataprasada

and the Chandovicitivrtti of Hrslke6a §arma alias Petta §astrl• • • • •

are worth mentioning.

The works mentioned above have considered the

Vedic metres sometimes in fragmentary manner with other items

of Vedic text and sometimes independently but comprehensive

manner which helps to acquire an overall idea on various

metres. Of course, these are not acknowledged as full-fledged

Chandovedanga in the true sense of the term. While the

Chandahsutra ( C S ) of Piiigala has come into existence which

32

has initiated discussions on ail the required topics on metrical

science applicable for both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit, the

scholars have become very much pronounced to recognise this

book as the systematic text on metrics. It deserves mention

here that the name of Pingala in many occasions is found as

Pingaianaga. Prof. A. C. Sastri89 cites that Pingala may be

somehow associated with the ' naga' dynasty who ruled from

fifth century B.C. Again, Patanjali is also stated to be an

incarnation of Sesanaga. On the basis of this consideration,

some scholars opine that Patanjali wrote the work on prosody

under the name of Pirtgaiacaryya90. Anyway, Pingaianaga is

credited to shape the prosody into an independent science for

the first time. Regarding the date and antiquity of Pingaianaga,

the scholars are of different views. Still he is placed in the

fourth century B.C. At present, two treatises are found as

attributed to the authorship of pingaianaga - viz.

( i) Pingalacchandahsutra and ( ii) Prakrtapaingala. Of these

89 PS, Introduction, P.vi

90 patanjalesca namantaram pingala asidltyapi sruyate I at ah

patanjallreva pihgalacaryanamna chando'nuiasanamldam

vyaracayaditi I — VM, Bhumlka, P.14

91 PS, P.81

33

two works on prosody, the first one is on both Vedic and

Classical Sanskrit ; and the second one is mainly on Prakrta

language. Pingalanaga has cited many writers on metrics as

his predecessors books such as Tandl, Saitava, KaSyapa,

Katyayana, Mandavya, Rati, Nylnku, Kraustuka, Yaska,

Sakatayana etc. But their works on prosody are not found. Of

the commentators on the CS of Pingalanaga, the following are

worthmentioning :

1. Pingalabhavodyata of CandraSekhara

2. Pingalatika of Citrasena

3. Pingalasaravikasini of Ravikara

4. Pingalatattvaprakasini of Rajendrada&avadhana

5. Pingaladipa of Laksmlnatha

6. Pingalaprakasa of VamSldhara

7. Pingalaprakasa of Vamanacarya

8. Pingalamataprakasa of Vi§vanatha

9. Mrtasanjfvani(MS) of Haiayudha

10. Pingalabhasya

11. Pingalavartika

34

12, Chandahsutra-vaidika-bhasya o f Akhilananda

Sarmma

13. Vratimangalavrtti o f Medhavrata

A g a in , nam es o f Padm aprabhasuri, PaSupati,

Vanlnatha, S rlp a tl, Mathuranatha Sukla, YadavaprakaSa,

Bhaskararaya, Srihrsikesa Sarm m a, Damodara and

Manoharakrsna are co m m e n ta to rs on the CS . It shou ld be

no ted here th a t Halayudha has o u tb la ze d all o th e r

co m m e n ta to rs on the CS by his m a je s tic e ru d itio n and p e rfe c t

u rb a n ity in his com m en tary ca lled M rtasanjivani ( M S ) .

P ingalanaga’ s b o o k is a tu rn in g p o in t to the

d e ve lo pm e nt o f S a n skrit m e trics . A fte r Pingalanaga, so m any

books have com e to be w ritte n in d iffe re n t ages by d iffe re n t

a u tho rs p e rta in in g to the m etres on C lass ica l S a n skrit on ly.

H o w e ve r, som e o f them have tre a te d bo th Vedic and C lass ica l

m etres. On bo th Vedic as w ell as C lass ica l p ro s o d ie s , the

Jayadevacchandah o f Jayadeva is re m arka b le . This is com posed

The names of these seventeen commentators have been enlisted

by Prof. A.C.Sastri . — Ibid. PP.74, 111-112

35

in eight chapters in both sutra and verse form. Among the

eighteen Mahapurana-s , the A gni, the Garuda and the

Naradapurana-s deal with prosody in some sections. Again

among these th re e , the Agnipurana93 deals with chandas of

both Vedic and Classical groups in nine chapters (from 327 to

33 5 ) , but the other two hold discussion only on Classical

prosody.

Bharatamuni in his Natyasastra has discussed

metres in two chapters with definitions and illustrations. There

is a treatise called Chandoviciti, the authorship of which goes

to JanaSraya who flourished in between 580 A.D. and 615 A.D.

The ChandosnuGasana of Hemacandra is regarded as a notable

contribution to the science of Sanskrit metrics. Another

Chandosnusasana is authored by Jayakirti, a Jain writer.

Ksemendra, the famous rhetoric ian, has composed a prosodial

treatise named Suvrttatilaka (S V T ). This book gives a new

light to the history of Sanskrit metrical science as the last

The discussion of metrics in the Agnipurana starts from the last

portion of the chapter 327. Of course the whole chapter is not

devoted to chandas. From that portion of that chapter till the

end of the chapter 335, a separate book is published and named

Agneyaschandahsara(AC) .

93

36

chapter of this book called rrttariniyoga, has dealt with the

propriety of employment of metres in various occasions. The

next important work on Sanskrit prosody is the Vrttaratnakara

(V R ) of Kedarabhafta C15th century A .D .). This is one of the

popular treatises in six chapters. Of the commentators on this

book, the following ones are mentioned by M.

Krishnamacharlar94 - Pandltaclntamani, Narayana, Srlnltha,

Haribhaskara, Divakara, KavigardGla, Trivikrama,

Nrslmha, Taranatha, Devaraja etc.

Another work called Vrttaratnakaraparisista of

unknown author is seen in the Chandomanjari (C M ) of

Gangadlsa which gives the definitions of some metres. A.

Borooah also referred to it95. The Srutabodha (S B ) , the

authorship of which is ascribed to Kalidasa, is really a useful

work on Sanskrit prosody. Several commentaries have been

written on the SB. Among those commentators the names of

Harsakirti Upadhyaya, Manohara Sarma, Taracandra,

Hamsaraja etc. are worthmentioning. The next popular treatise

on chandas is the Chandomanjari of Gahgadasa (1 5th or 16th

94 HGSL, P.90895 Prosody, Preface, P.VI

37

century A .D .). In six chapters, the author describes various

metres on Classical Sanskrit and illustrates them by verses in

praise of Lord Krsna. Jagannatha, CandraSekhara,

D ataram a, G ovarddhana, Vam Sidhara, Krsnavarm a and

Gurunatha V idyanidhi are the some of the commentators on the

CM. Again, G a n g ld asa 96 has mentioned Purusottam a, his

m aster, as author of another prosody called Chandogovinda.Another work named Vagvallabha97 by Dukhabhanjanakavi is

(

also mentioned which is composed in 16th century A.D. The

Vanibhusana (V B ) of D lm odaram isra is a valued prosody

which is mentioned in the Vrttam anjarl (V M ) of

Dhire§varacaryya several times. Another Damodara is stated

as one of the commentators on the CS98. In the 16th century

A .D ., Kavikarnapura of Assam composed the Vrttamala (V M L ) which deals with a few varieties of selected metres of

frequent use in Classical Sanskrit.

A Vedic prosody called Vrttam uktavatl authored by

§ r!k rsn a b h a tta (1 7 th century A .D .) is considered as the

98

97

CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, P.13

Preface by Pundit Brajamohana Jna on the SVT, P.18

HCSL, P.903, F.N.8

38

latest work dealt only on Vedic part of metres. Another

Vrttam uktavali is referred to by A bhinavagupta , the famous

commentator of the Dhvanyaloka , the authorship of which goes

to one BhattaSarikara.

The V fttam anjari (V M ) of D hlre£varacaryya is

the relatively modern work on prosody from Assam next to the

VML of Kavikarnapura. This book came to be published in 1961

A.D. by the Department of Historical and Antiquarian S tudies,

Govt, of Assam, Guwahati. The author has made the text

understandable for the readers by adding a commentary of his

own. Acaryya M anoranjana§astrI has written a scholarly

Preface to the book which throws a light on the development of

Sanskrit prosody. Acaryya S a s tr l quotes there the famous

sch o o ls " of Chandahsastra from the commentary called

Yadavaprakasa on the CS.

chandojnanamidam bhavad bhagavato lebhe suranam pati- stasmad dusvyavanastatah suraguru mandivyanama tatah I mandavyadapi saitavastatah rsi ryaskastatah piiigalah tasyedam yasasa gurorbhuvi dhrtarp prapyasmadadyaih krtam II—VM, Preface, P.13

39

A gain , there is a process in the Sanskrit metrical

science called p r a s t a r a , a mathematical calculations which

gives the highest possible number of any class of metre.

Prosodists like Pingalanaga, Kedarabhatta, Dhlre§varacaryya

have discussed it along with other topics in their works. But

there are treatises on p r a s t a r a only. The P r a s t a r a c i n t a m a n i of

Clntamani in three chapters consisting, of a code of rules in a

variety of metres accompanied by a prose commentary is

worthmentioning here. A gain, there are P r a s t a r a r i c a r a of

anonymous w rite r, P r a s t a r a s e k h a r a of Srinivasa,

P r a s t a r a p a t t a n a of Krsnadeva100. The L i l a v a t / of

Bhaskaracarya, a work on m athem atics, also cites some rules

of calculating p r a s t a r a .

101M. Krishnamachariar has mentioned the names of

several manuscripts as he found them in different

catalogues , which may be listed as :

01. V r t t a k a u m u d i of Ramacarana

02. V r t t a c a n d r i k a of Ramadayalu

100 Ibid. P.910101 Ibid. P.910-912

40

03. Vrttaramaspada of K se m a k a ra n a M isra

04. Vrttaramayana of anon.

05. Kavyajivana of P rlt ik a ra

06. Karaasantosa of M u d ga la

07. Vrttamuktavali of D u rgad a ta

08. Chandoratnakara of anon.

09. Chandomala of S a rn g a d h a ra

10. Vrttaratnakarasutratika of T riv ik ram a• •

11 . Chandahkosa of R a tn a ie k h a ra* •

12. Chandassloka of anon.

13. Vrttakatpadruma of Ja y a g o v in d a

14. Vrttakautuka of V iS van a th a

15. Vrttakaumudi of J a g a d g u ru

16. V rtta cand rodaya of B h a sk a ra d d h a r in

17. Vrttatarangini of anon.

18. Vrttadipika of K r sn a

19. Vrttapratyaya of S a n k a ra d a y a lu

20. Vrttapradipa of J a n lrd a n a

21. Vrttapradipa of V a d a r ln a th a

22. Vrttamala of Va llabha ji

23. Vrttalaksana of anon.• * •

41

24. Vrttavartika of Umapati

25. Vrttavartika of Vaidyanatha

26. Vrttavinoda of Bhaiehagiri

27. Vrttavivecana of Durgasahaya

28. Vrttasudhodaya of Mathuranatha Sukla

29. Vrttasudhodaya of VenTvillsa

30. Vrttasara of Bharadvaja

31. Vrttasiddhantamanjari of Raghunatha

32. Vrttabhirama of Ramacandra

33. Vrttadyumani of Ya§vanta

34. Vrttavinoda of anon.

35. Rangaratchandas of anon.

36. Karnananda of Krsnadasa« • • •

37. Samavrttasara of Nllakanthlcarya

38. Vrttamuktavali of Harivyasami&ra

39. Chandahprakasa of Sesacintamani

40. Chandasudhakara of Krsnarama

41. Chandabkalpaiata of Mathuranatha

42. Chandasankhya of anon.

43. Chandascudamani of Hemacandra

44. Chandassudhacillaharl of anon.

42

45. Vrttaratnavali of D urgldata

46. Vrttaratnavali• of MiSrasananda

47. Vrttaratnavali of SadaSivamuni

48. Vrttakarika of• Narayana purohita

49. Vrttamanim alika of Srinivasa• •

50. Vrttamanikosa • • • of Srinivasa

51. Chandakaustubha of Radhadamodara

52. Chandovyakhyasara of Krsnabhatta

53. Chandassudha of Ganastakavyakhya

54. Vrttacintaratna* of Sanatarajapandita

55. Vrttadarpana of Bhlsmacandra

56. Vrttaratnavali• of VeiikateSa

57. Vrttaratna vali of Krsnaraja

58. Vrttam uktavali• of Kfsnarama

59. Vrttam uktavali of Mallari

60. Vrttam uktavali• of Gangadasa

61. Chandosnusasana of JineSvara

62. Chandassundara of Narahari

63. Vrttaratnavali of Narayana

64. Vrttaratna vali • of Ravikara

65. Vrttaratnavali of Ya^vantasimha

43

66. Vrttaratnavali of Ramasvami Sant!

67. Ramastutiratna of Ramasvami Santi

Thus, it is seen that from the Vedic period to the

Classical period, so many works on the science of metre have

been written, but a few have remained easily available and in

published form. Many manuscripts on chandas are in several

libraries of India and abroad ; some of them are only in the

citation of the catalogues. Hence, the entire works on metre

deserve a systematic study in present days for a historical build

up of metrical science. All the works mentioned above, both

published and unpublished, have contributed a lot for the

growth of Sanskrit prosody.

In the development of metrics, it is noticed that

many metre owe their origin more or less to the Veda-s. For

instance, the anustup metre as exhibited in the Upanisad-s as

well as in RS has attained the form as Sloka in the epics. The

unconscious effusion of sage ValmTki’ s grief caused by the

sight of killing of a kraunca by a hunter generates a verse in the

44

metre called Slokam. It is said that the words ma, prama,

pratima etc. in the portion ma cchandah etc. of the

Yajurveda are termed in the CS as ukta, atyukta, madhya

etc104. The seven principal Vedic metres from gayatri to jagati

are also there in the prosody of Classical Sanskrit as the

representative names of seven classes of metres. Prof. A. C.

Sastri has shown that the origin of the metre called

vidyunmala108 used in Classical Sanskrit can be traced in the

hymn dyava ksama etc. 106 of the RV. Some other examples can

also be cited in this context. Prof. Sastri opines _ “ It is

proved that Classical metres are originated from Vedic mantras.

In fact, all the Classical metres can be traced in some form or

amnayadanyatra nutanacchandasamavatarah I—URC, Speech of Vanadevata after V.il.5ma cchandah prama cchandah pratima cchandosasrfvayaschandahpahktlichanda'usnlk chando brhatl chando'nustup chando vlrat chando gayatri chandastristup chando jagati chandah I—Yajurveda 14.18Preface by Akhilananda §arma on the CS, P.6 vidyunmala mau gau I —CS, 6.6

106 dyava ksama rukmo antah I PS, P.96

—RKS.1.96.5 as quoted in the

45

other in the Vedic text"™7. He also holds - “ Thus Vedic

metres along with the gradual changes o f time and society and

the tastes and mind o f the people also underwent drastic

changes side by side. As a result o f this evolution the metres o f

the Veda-s were transformed into the Classical forms o f

m etres” 108. Dr. R. S. Murty also holds - “ Thus the prosody has

undergone several stages o f development finding its ultimate

fulfillm ent In kavya Literature. In this p rocess , Vedic prosody

has transformed its structure into Classical prosody. In the

classical ag e , the purpose o f prosody has been shifted from the

Vedic altars to the poetic fields. The sanctity o f the subject has

been transformed into a literary charm ” 109.

Great poets have used metres in accordance with

their necessity leading to poetic excellence. While doing so

some new forms of metres come into existence. With the rolling

of tim e , the number of metres are increasing. Valmlki used

only thirteen Varieties of metres in the Ram ayana, while in the

107

108

109

Ibid. P.96

Ibid. P.61

VP. P.166

46

Mahabharata, eighteen varieties of metres are seen . Later

writers have employed innumerable metres in their

compositions. A thorough study is expected to be capable of

showing this fact that there are many verses in the entire

Sanskrit literature, especially in the Classical Sanskrit

literature, the metres of which have remained undefined or

undetermined by the prosodists. Hence, the calculation of the

total number of metres in Sanskrit literature appears a never-

ending task. As literary works go on growing, the probability of

the rise of newer metres cannot be ruled out, and here lies the

importance and interest of the study of prosody.

110

1.3 Vedic and Classical Sanskrit metres : their

varieties

The Vedic metres are different from that of the

Classical metres in some aspects as has already been hinted at.

The number of syllables in each foot of a mantra is of primary

concern in the Veda-s ; while in Classical Sanskrit the number

as well as the quality (i.e. laghu and guru etc.) are taken into

110 CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhl, Nivedyam (Preface), P.=(3)

47

account. In Vedic metre, there exists no consideration of gana.

Again in the Veda-s, there are mantra-s from one foot to eight

feet. Even there are compound metres ( aticchandas) like

sakkari in Vedic text when a mantra possesses two or more

verses which comes to be known as pragatha'n. But in

Classical prosody, there must be four feet in a sloka or stanza

of a poetry . Again in Vedas , no metre can be had of with

more than twelve syllables in a foot but in Classical Sanskrit,

there exists so many metres containing more than twelve

syllables in a foot. However, there are certain Vedic texts, as

noticed by A. Borooah , which rarely consist of fourteen,

fifteen, sixteen and even eighteen syllables in a foot. But these

feet are so imperfect that it is doubtful whether their rhythm

111 Prosody, P.9

112 padyarp padanibaddham syaditl I — VM, P.17

Again,

padyarp catuspadityuktam I — Ibid. P.18

Again,

padasca padyate dhatoScaturbhaga it! smrtah I

— NS, 15.90

113

Again,

padaScaturbhagah I

Prosody, P.11

CS, VI.11

48

was known to any Vedic poet. But in Classical Sanskrit very

correctly there are metres containing twenty six syllables in a

foot like apabaha under the utkrti class of metre. Again, in

Classical prosody the jati is a class of metre where a metre is

determined by syllabic instant or mora (i.e. matra"). This mora

is considered from the standpoint of short (i.e. hrasva) and

long (i.e. dlrgha') type of vowel (i.e. svara) only. No such

considerations are there in Vedic prosody.

The short and long of vowel are the regulators of a

metre in Classical prosody. The status of consonant appears to

be auxiliary as they are supposed to follow the vowels. Hence,

it is stated in the RudrayamaIanA, that the consonants follow

the vowels and vowels alone are syllables.

There are seven principal metres in the Veda-s viz.-

( i) gayatri, (ii) usnik, (iii) anustup, (iv) brhati

( vrhati) , (v ) pahkti, (vi) tristup and (vii) jagatl. The

metre called gayatri is of twenty-four syllables and the other six

114 svara aksarasankhya syuh hatastadanuyayinah iti I

— As quoted in the PS, P.63

49

metres from usnik to jaga tl have an increment of four syllables

respectively. This can be shown with the help of the following

table :

SI. No Metre Syllables

1 gayatri 24

2 usnik 28

3 anustup 32

4 brhati 36

5 pahkti 40

6 tristup 44

7 jaga tl 48

Table : 1.1

The Vedic metres are broadly divided into two

classes - ( i ) chandas and ( i i ) aticchandasn5. When a verse

atikrantah chandah vrttanusarivarnavinyasabhedam I

— Apte.V. S. The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.29

Anundoram Borooah replaces the word 'chandas' in this context

by 'Ordinary metre'. Similarly he puts the word 'aticchandas' once

as ‘long metre' and in another occasion as 'compound metre'.

— Prosody, Part-ll, Sec.I, Preliminary P.9

50

does not exceed forty-eight Cor sometimes irregularly fifty)

syllables, it is called chandas. On the other hand, if a verse

consists of syllables from fifty-two (or sometimes irregularly

fifty) to one hundred and four (or sometimes one hundred and

six) , it is called aticchandas.

Again, the first class (i.e . chandas) is divided into

two sub-groups v iz .- ( i ) sacchandas, e.g. gayatri and ( i i )

vicchandas e.g. mahabrhatf.

Similarly, the second class (i.e. aticchandas) is

also divided into two sub groups - ( j ) madhyamavarga and

('\\)trtiyavarga. If a verse consisting of syllables from fifty-two

to seventy-six it is called madhyamavarga. On the other hand, a

verse consisting of syllables from eighty to hundred and four, is

called trtlyavarga. It can be shown in the following way :

rchandas

l

vaidikacchandas11 1 6

' i

iaticchandas

AI ‘ A

sacchandas vicchandas madhyamavarga trtiyavarga

Table : 1.2

This table is based on the observation of A. R. Borooah. Prosody,

P.9

51

Prof. A. C. Sastri117 shows the division of Vedic metres as

follows:

0 ) chandah 0 0 aticchandah O n ) vicchandasah

gayatri-24 syllables atijagati- 52syllables krti - 80 syllables

usnik - 28 „ sakvarl - 56 „ prakrti - 84 „

anustup - 32 „ atisakvari-60 „ akrti - 88 „

b fhatl - 36 „ asp - 64 „ vikrti - 92 „

pankti - 40 „ atyasti - 68 „ sahkrti - 96 „

tristup - 44 „ dhrti - 72 „ atikrti - 100 „

jagati - 48 „ atidhrti - 76 „ utkrti - 104 „

T ab le :1.3

The above metrical set again sub-divided into eight

groups viz. ( i ) a / 's / , ( ii)c /a /V /, (\Y\)asurI, ( i v ) prajapatya,

Qsf^yajusi, (v i)s a m n /, ( v i ipa rce l and (viii)6ra/?/77/118.

Again, the chandas from gayatrl to ja g a t l, the aticchandas

117 VLCP. P.72118 atra deva-asura-prajapatl-rsl-yajuh-sama-rk-brahmachando-

bhedena gayatryadlni chandamsyastavldhant bhavanti I—-CV, P.4

52

from atijagatl to atidhrti and the vicchandas from krti to utkrti

as shown in the 'Table : 1.3 ’ may be divided into five types of

each from the standpoint of syllabic deficiency viz. ( i ) virat,

( i i ) nicrta, ( i i i ) suddha, ( iv ) bhurik and ( v ) svarat.

Thus 7 x 5 = 35 in chandas, 7 x 5 = 35 in aticchandas and 7 x

5 = 35 in vicchandas can be had of.

Even there are some irregular or unusual metres in

Vedic prosody such as sahkumati, kakudmati, nagi,

pipilikamadhya, yavamadhya etc.

Bharatamuni refers to divyagana, divyetaragana

and divyamanusagana of metres. From gayatrl to jagatl, the

metres are called divyagana, from atijagati to atidhrti,

divyetaragana and from krti to utkrti, divyamanusagana are the

categories120. Again, from the standpoint of foot ( i .e . , pads') ,

sarvesameva vrttanam tajjnaijheya ganastrayah I divyo .divyetarasvaiva divyamanusa eva ca II —NS, XV.99, P.115

120 gayatryusniganustupca brhati pahktireva ca I

53

the Vedic metres are broadly divided into three classes viz. -

( j ^ s a m a c c h a n d a s (i.e. the even metre) , (ii " ) v i s a m a c c h a n d a s

(i.e ., the uneven metre) and (iii^ a t i c c h a n d a s (i.e. the

compound metre). When number of syllables is the same in

each foot, it is called s a m a c c h a n d a s , e.g. j a g a t l . When

number of syllables is not the same in each foot, it is called

visamacc h a n d a s , e.g. b r h a t i . When a verse is consisting of two

or more verses, it is called a t i c c h a n d a s , e.g. s a k v a r i . That

indicates that the a t i c c h a n d a s is what is known as p r a g a t h a

(i.e. the compound verse). A. Borooah shows this special

division of Vedic metres . Thus, Vedic prosody refers to

several varieties of Vedic metres.

Some other specialities are also to be observed in

determining a metre of a Vedic m a n t r a . Again, the a v a s a n a

t r i s t u p c a j a g a t l c a l v a d i v y o ' y a m p r a t h a m o g a n a h II

t a t h a t i j a g a t l c a i v a s a k k a r i c a t i s a k k a r i I

a s t i r a t y a s t i r a p l c a d h r t i s c a t l d h r t i g a n a h ||

k r t i s c a p r a k r t i i c a i v a h y a k r t i r v i k r t i s t a t h a I

s a h k r t y a t i k r t l s c a l v a u t k r t i r d i v y a m a n u s a h II

— NS, XV.99-102, P.115-116121 Prosody, P.9

54

(i.e. end) of a foot in some mantra-s are very difficult to draw

out. The rules about avasana in Vedic metre are also somewhat

arbitrary. There exist ample instances of the mantras being

differently marked in different works on prosody. So division,

subdivision and also other specialities are observed to be

lacking in uniformity in Vedic metres. For example, the metre

called gayatri generally comprises three feet and total number

of syllable is twenty-four. But in Vedic text, there are some

mantras, called of gayatri also, which contain five feet with

five syllables in every foot. Thereby the total number of syllables

of that gayatri becomes twenty-five. Such irregularities are

there in the Vedic metre which give a peculiar character to it.

Such irregularities in the case of Vedic metres, are accepted by

some scholars with a moderate spirit . Thus, the Vedic metres

have certain peculiarities, rather inexplicable so to say, and

hence requires a detailed discussion.

The vedic hymns were composed long before any rules of

poetry were thought of. As a consequence, they abound in the

greatest irregularities. Some of them may be due to a difference

of pronunciation in the vedic days, but most of them are traceable

to artificial pronunciation such as is even now common with

reference to old songs and ballads. — Prosody. Preface, P.iv

55

The metres of Classical Sanskrit are broadly divided

into two types viz. ( i ") vrtta and (ii)y 'a f/123. That metre wherein

the number of syllables contained in each foot or quarter (i.e .

pada) alongwith their position of short and long vowels are

counted, is called vrtta . On the other hand, that one which

is regulated by the number of syllabic instants or mora

contained in each foot is called y'af/125. As the word 1 v rtta ' in

many occasions indicates the metre ( i.e . chandas') in general,

it is accepted by many scholars that the vrtta is aksaracchandas

and the ja t i is m atracchandas126. It is interesting to note here

that Pingalanaga does not give any name for matracchandas or

ja t i in his work. It is doubtful whether there was such a name for

this class of mefre during Pingalanaga ’ s tim e, as observed by

127A. Borooah

tacca loke dvidhaivestam vrttijatiprabhedatah I —VM.P.17 nibaddhamaksaraganaih padyam vrttarn pragiyate I —Ibid. P.17matraganairnibaddhantu padyam jatirihesyate I —Ibid. P.17

127

Prosody ; P.9 Ibid. Preface, P.xiv

56

The Vfttachandas or aksaracchandas is divided into

three classes128 viz. (j)samavrtta (i.e. the even or equal

metre) , QQardhasamavrtta (i.e. the half-equal metre) and

( ii i) visamavrtta (i.e. the odd or unequal metre)

When all the four quarters of a stanza show

similarity, the metre is called samavrtta13°. Here ‘ similarity’

does not indicate the affinities in respect of the number of

syllables only, but also that of the quality of syllable in each of

the four quarters. The positions of the short syllable and the

long syllable as in the first quarter of a samavrtta metre should

be same also in the remaining three quarters.

Again each quarter of a samavftta metre may vary

from one to twenty six in each syllabic strength. On the basis of

vrttantrividhamakhyatam samamarddhasamamantatha I

visamahcetyathaitesam srrtu laksanamucyate II — VM, P.18

padyam catuspadl... I — CM, 1.4, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhivrttantrividhamakhyatam samamarddhasamamantatha I

visamahcetyathaitesam irnu laksanamucyate II — Ibid. P.18

57

this consideration, the samavftta metres are broadly classified

1*31in twenty-six groups :

(l)u/cf/?a class (having only one syllable in every

quarter) , (’2")atyuktha class (having two syllables in every

quarter) , ( 3 ~)madhya class (having three syllables in every

quarter) , (4 ~)pratistha class (having four syllables in every

quarter) , (5)supraf/sf/7a class (having five syllables in every

quarter) , ( 6 ")gayatrJ class (having six syllables in every

quarter) , (J ^u s n ik class (having seven syllables in every

quarter) , ( 8 ")anustup class ( having eight syllables in every

quarter) , (9 ^b rh a tl class (having nine syllables in every

quarter), (1 0 ")pankti class (having ten syllables in every

quarter), (11 ")tnstup class (having eleven syllables in every

quarter) , (12 ")}agatl class (having twelve syllables in every

quarter), (1 S')atijagatf class (having thirteen syllables in

every quarte r), (1 4 ) sakvarl class (having fourteen syllables

in every quarte r), (1 S^atisakvari class (having fifteen

syllables in every quarter) , (1 6 )as f/ class (having sixteen

syllables in every quarter) , (1 l^ a ty a s ti class (having

131 Ibid. VV.II.1 -10.(Gha), P.24

58

seventeen syllables in every quarte r), (18 ̂ dh rti class

(having eighteen syllables in every quarter) , (1 9 ~)atidhrti

class (having nineteen syllables in every quarter) , (20)/c/T/

class (having twenty syllables in every quarter) , (21 ^prakrti

class (having twenty one syllables in every quarter) ,

(22 )a/rrf/ class (having twenty two syllables in every

quarter) , ( 2 3 )vikrti class (having twenty three syllables in

every quarter) , (2 4 ")sahkrti class (having twenty four

syllables in every quarter) , (25)af/7crf/ class (having twenty

five syllables in every quarter) , (2 6 ) utkrti class (having

twenty six syllables in every quarter).

The samavrtta metres having more than twenty six

syllables in every quarter come under the domain called

dan daka.

The word ardhasamavrtta denotes a metre which is

similar in half of its quarters. While the alternate quarters of a

stanza are similar, the metre of that stanza is called

ardhasamavrtta. Obviously, in an ardhasamavrtta type of

59

metre, the first and the third quarters are similar, and also the

second and the fourth quarters are similar132.

The word v i s a m a v r t t a means unequal metre. That is

called v i s a m a v r t t a where ail the quarters of a stanza are

dissimilar133. The dissimilarity here means both quality and

quantity of syllables. In v i s a m a v f t t a , the number of syllables

in each quarter is unequal. Again, the qualities of syllables from

the standpoint of short and long vowel are also dissimilar./

On the basis of the movement underlying a metre,

the division of metre may also be made as Q Q d r u t a (i.e .

q u ic k ), Q Q m a d h y a (i.e . m ean), ( i i i ) v i l a m b i t a (i.e .

s low ) , ( i v ) d r u t a m a d h y a (i.e . partly quick and partly mean) ,

(y ^ d r u t a v i l a m b i i a (i.e . partly quick and partly s low ) and

( v \ ) m a d h y a v i l a m b i t a ( i.e . partly mean and partly s low ) as

adyasyanghrestrtiyena yatra padena tulyata I

dvitiyasya caturthena tadardhasamamucyate II — Ibid. P.18

caturnamapi padanam parasparamatulyata I

yatra tadvisamam jneyarp sampurnendunibhanane II— Ibid. P.18

60

shown by A. Borooah134. The movement underlying a metre at

the time of reading a verse may vary from one metre to another.

That difference of movement is also observed by

DhlreSvaracaryya as he declares various patterns of reading of

a verse composed in a certain metre135. For instance, the

reading of a metre called aryya is said to be sometimes slow

like the movement of a duck139, sometimes raised like the steps

of a lion , sometimes playful like the movement of the

elephants of the directions and sometimes unsteady like the

movement of a snake139.

Prosody, Preliminary, P.2

prathamam maralagativadyatim dvitlyantu simhavikramam I

dlgibhagativattrtlyamiha phanigativatpathetturyyam II

— VM, V. 13, P.205

maralagatlvat hamsagatlvat mantharam pathet I

— Ibid. com. on V.13, P.205

slmhavlkramavat uddhatam pathet I — Ibid. com. on V.13, P.205

dlgibhagativat diggajagativat satham pathet I

— Ibid. com. on V.13, P.205

139 phanivaragativat cahcalam pathet I— Ibid. com. on V.13,P.205

6 1

The doha is a special variety of metre under the jati

class140. It is perhaps noticed by Mahamahopadhyaya

Dhlre§varacaryya for the first time.

In the context of Sanskrit prosody, both Vedic and

Classical, there is topic known as prastarau\ As stated earlier,

it is a tabular representation of short and long vowels through

which highest possible number of a particular class of metre

can be determained. Of course, some prosodists are noticed to

have remained silent on this issue.

DhlreSvaracaryya as a prosodist has discussed all

the above items related to the prosody on Classical Sanskrit in

his work entitled Vrttam anjari to make it a complete treatise on

metrics. However, he has confined his discussions on the

Classical metres only, and avoided the Vedic ones, with the

apparent justification that women are debarred from the14Pexercise of the Vedic texts and his work on prosody does not

140 Ibid. P .226

141 Ibid. P .27 6

142 slmantininamadhunatanlnam yacchandase chandasi nadhikarah\

tatte purastatkila laksananl sulaksane tasya na laksitani II

62

aim at prohibiting the women from studying the VM. Of course,

this justification appears to be purely poetical, not real and

hence cannot be considered convincing.

1.4 Elements of Chandas

1.4.1 Gana (Mnemonic) and Matra (Mora)

The gana is the most important element for

determining a metre in Classical Sanskrit. The word ‘gana * is

formed from the root ‘ gan’ meaning ‘ to enumerate. The word

is formed from the said root into the addition of the suffix ac143.

The gana in prosody indicates ‘ a series’ or ‘ a class’ or ‘ a

group’ etc. The use of the word gana can be seen from the

time of Vedic literature. Even, in Sanskrit grammar, there are

ganasutra-s ascribed to Panini. Again bhvadigana, adadigana

etc. are the gana-s in the Paninian system of Sanskrit grammar.

By the bhvadigana, the group of similar dhatu-s are combined

— Ibid. V.62, P.274

gan karmani kartari va ac I — Apte.V. S. The Practical

Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.395

63

together taking the root ‘ bhu’ in the first position of that

series. Thus gana is a technical term of a mnemonic device

specially applicable in sutra style of writing.

In the history of Sanskrit prosody, the gana-s are

undoubtedly wonderful findings of Pingalanaga144. As Pinini

has used gana in the grammatical sutra-s of his A sta d h ya y l, so

also Pingalanaga has used gana in the sutra-s of his CS.

It is noticed that the composers or compilers of

Sanskrit Sastra-s have inclination towards the sutra style of

writings. The purpose of a sutra is to denote maximum

meanings by minimum words, of course, with accuracy148. It is

said in jest that a Sutrakara rejoices at minimising half a

cf. "Piiigala is undoubtedly the earliest prosodist who had used

this unit and was very probably the originator of it.”

—The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.V, P.306

alpaksaramasandigdham saravadvisvato mukham I

astobhamanavadyahca sutram sutravido vlduh II

—Visnudharmottara and Parasaraupapurana as found in the PS,

P.96

64

syllable as he does at the birth of a son146. So sutra writers

always try to find out such a means of mnemonics where many

items can be combined in a group. Then, they give a

terminology to that group, where in, by that terminology the

whole items included therein, are understood.

The gana-s as enumerated in the CS runs - m a ,

y a , ra , s a , fa, ja , bha , na, la , and gaur. These ten syllables

have been symbolically taken ; and used for considering the

metres. Each of these ten syllables is known as gana-s. Again,

from ma-gana to na-gana, ail are having three syllables in each

while la-gana denotes a short syllable and the ga-gana indicates

a long syllable. Thus —

1. The ma-gana possesses all guru syllables,

2. The ya-gana possesses first laghu syllable and other

two guru syllables,

laghvartham hi sahjhakaranam I ardhamatralaghavena putrotsava iva manyate I — VSK, Vol.-Ill (Prlsista), P.2

147 CS, i.1-10

65

3. The ra-gana possesses middle laghu syllable and other

two guru syllables,

4. The sa-gana possesses last guru syllable and other two

laghu syllables,

5. The ta-gana possesses last laghu syllable and other

two guru syllables,

6. The ja-gana possesses middle guru syllable and other

two laghu syllables,

7. The bha-gana possesses first guru syllable and other

two laghu syllables,

8. The na-gana possesses all laghu syllables,

9. The la-gana possesses a laghu syllable,

10. The ga-gana possesses a guru syllable. It may be at

the end of a foot148.

148 CS, 1.1-10

66

The following table shows the gan a -s alongwith

their symbolic representation :

Name of the gana(s) Symbol149 (s)

[ \=laghu ,S = gu ru ]

Example150(s)n

ma S S S d h l s r l s t r !

ya I S S va ra sa

ra S I S ka gu ha

sa I I S va su dha

ta S S I sa te kva

ja I S I ka da sa

bha S I I kim va da

na I I I na ha sa

la I 9 f

ga S Ga { nte)

Tab le : 1.4

Some commentators endeavour to find out certain justifications of selecting these ten syllables and not other

149 rjurekha laghurn vakrarekha gurutn bodhayati itl bhavah I

— VM, com on V-9, P.201150 Examples are taken from the CS, 1.1-10

67

syllable from the whole alphabet of Sanskrit language181. The

justification or efficacy of gana-s described in the karika-s

under reference may be shown in the following way :

gana (mnemonics) devata (basing deity) Phala (effect)

ma prthvf laksmi (w ea lth )

ya jala vrddhi (p rosperity)

ra agni mrtyu (dea th )

sa pavana paradeSa (foreign-land)

ta akasa sunya (v o id )

Ja surya roga (d isease)

bha candra yaia (fam e)

na s varga sukha (happiness)

Table : 1.5

mo bhumlh sriyamatanotl yam-jalam vrddhlm ra-vahnimrtlm

so vayuh paradesaduragamanam ta-vyoma sunyam phalam I

jah suryo rujamadadati vlpularp bhenduryaSo nlrmalam

no nakaSca sukhapradah phalamldam prahurgananam budhah II

— SV. Preface, P.ii

Prof. A.C. Sastri reads this verse slight differently, cf.

mo bhumlh Sriyamatanotl satatam toyahca yo ro'nalah

so vayuh paradesaduragamanam ta-vyoma sarvvam phalam I

jah suryo rujamadadati vlpularp bhenduryaso nlrmalam

no nakaica sukhapradah phalamldam prahurgananam budhah II

— VLCP, Preface, P.vii

68

It is noticed here that in the above table, only eight

gana-s are enumerated. The ‘ /a’ and the ‘g a ’ are not

considered here for the apparent reason of being single syliabic

ones. It may also be noted here that some scholars162 call these

gana-s by the name trika-s ( triple) for being some units of

three letters. Then eight trika-s are counted and not the ‘ l a ’

and the ‘ ga ’ for having single syllable each.

Akhillnanda Sarnia cites the efficacy of the eight

gana-s a bit differently153. However, irlvirajananda

Daivakarani, in his Hindi commentary on Akhilananda Sarma

expresses that this has no purport at all154. But many scholars

are found to have put due importance to the efficacy of these

gana-s in association with their deities. Eventually, their

interpretations appear to be acceptable for no other reason than

the fact that Pihgalanaga could have singled out other letters

also from the entire alphabet of Sanskrit literature in lieu of

The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.V, P.306

manau mitre, bhayau bhrtyau, jaravudasinau tasau nicau I

— Chandahsutrabhasya of Akhilananda Sarmrna on the CS P.239154 Ibid. P.235

69

those ma, ya, ra etc. ; because he had not got them from any

divine authority like the mahesvarasutra-s of Panini .

Even Mailinatha, in his commentary called

Sanjlvani on the RaghuvamSa (RG) of kalidasa elaborates

the justification of using ma-gana at the first position of the firsti*ifl 157verse that ma-gana indicates something auspicious .

The Mahesvarasutra-s are said to have been attained by sage

Panini in his meditation from the sound of the drum of Lord £iva and so called them as Mahedvarasutra-s. cf.

nrtyavasane natarajarajo nanada dhakkam navapancavaram I

uddhartukama sanakadisiddhanetadvlmarse sivasutrajalam II

— Laghusiddhantakaumudlcandrika, §astri Vijayakrsna, P.6,

Reprint, 2003

vagarthaviva samprktau vagarthapatipattaye I

jagatah pitarau vande parvatlparameivarau II — RG. 1.1

prathamam bhudevatakasya sarvaguromarganasya prayogat

subhalabhah sucyate I taduktam-" iubhado mo bhumimayah" itl l

— Mallinatha's com.on RG, 1.1

70

it may be cited here that Kavlkarnapura168, the

author of the VML enumerates other two gana-s namely 1va ’

and ‘ ka ’ apart from the established ten gana-s.

For determining a laghu or a guru syllable, the

vowels concerned are counted. This means the vowel that is

associated with a particular consonant is taken for

consideration. No consonant without vowel is counted169 here as

syllable as has been already discussed earlier. Vowels are of

three types160 - viz. (i)ftrasva, Q Q dirgha and (iii")pluta.

This division of vowels is based on the syllabic instant (i.e.

matra') they possess. Thus a hrasva vowel possesses single

syllabic instant161. A dlrgha vowel possesses double syllabic

guruvarno gasanjnah syat laghuvarno iasanjhakah I .

yatlvantau dfrghahrasvau vakau vyacaksate budhah II

— VML, V.13

acah sarvatra sahkheyah padyesu na punarhalah I

— VM, V.3 (1st line), P.17

ukalo’hrasvadfrgbaplutah I — AD, 1.2.27

ekamatra bhavedhrasva I —As quoted by Gurunatha

Vldyanidhi in his com. on the CM, 1.4, P.3

71

instant162. A pluta vowel possesses triple syllabic instant163 but it

does not carry so much relevance in metre. The pluta vowel is

regarded as dlrgha only164 however its application is rarely

noticed. On the other hand, a consonant possesses half

syllabic instant and for this reason also it is not counted in

prosody165. Thus syllabic instant or matra determines a vowel.

The word matra grammatically stands for kata i.e. time for

pronunciation. Regarding the knowledge of that time i.e. matra,

the PNS166 says that the sound of a blue jay (i.e. casa')

denotes one matra and that of a crow (i.e. vayasa) two matra-

s. The peacock (i.e. sikhi'), s sound indicates three matra-s

and that of a mongoose (i.e. nakula') half a matra.

dvimatrastu dlrgha ucyate I — Ibid. P.3

trimatrastu pluto jneyo I — Ibid. P.3

gurudirgham plutascalva I — NS. XV.87

ato halo'rddhamatratvasvfkare natra yujyate I

— VM, V.3{2nd line), P.17

casastu vadate matraip dvtmatram caiva vayasah I

slkhl rauti trlmatram tu nakulastvardhamatrakam II

— PNS. V.49

72

Generally, a hrasvasvara makes a laghu syllable167

while a dirghasvara makes a guru syllable108. Regarding the

formation of a guru syllable, there are certain other special

rules put forward by the prosodists apart from the above eight

dlrgha syllables. DhIregvaraclryya also in his first chapter of

the VM has discussed those rules very clearly .

It is evident that a gana is generally the combination

of laghu or guru syllables. Again, a laghu is nothing but a

hrasvasvara. while a guru is a dirghasvara. A svara or vowel is

determined from matra. So all these elements form the core part

of the metrics.

DhlreSvaracaryya has not resorted to the gana

scheme for defining the metres in his V M , and therefore avoids

the discussion on the formation of any gana. However, in the

sixth chapter of his book, he has elaborated the gana as

required for determining a jati class of metre170, viz. -

167 hrasvam laghu l — AD, 1.4.10

168 samyoge guru I dlrgham ca t — Ibid. 1.4.11-12169

170

VM, V.6-9, P.14-15

gana ekakalo nirupyate dvfkalasca trikalascatuskalah I

73

('\)ekakaiagana , ( iQdvikalagana, (iii) trikalagana ,

Qv^catuskalagana, ( v ) pancakalagana and ( vQsatkalagana.

How these gana-s are formed by DhireSvaracaryya in his VM

is proposed to discuss later in another context,

1.4.2 Yati (Pause or Caesura or Haitus)

The pause (i.e. yaf/) is the divisional mark in a

metrical verse. There are several synonymous words for yaf/'171

viz, Q^chinna, (ii)avasana, (iii) visrama, (iv ) virama,

(y^virati (v'^cheda and (vii)as/as/'f/172 as found in the VM.

The Natyasastra of Bharatamuni takes the words

yati and virama differently. He states, whenever there comes a

apt pancakalo'tha satkalah sadime jatyupayogineh priye

— Ibid. V.1, P.199

chinrtavasanavisramavirama viratistatha I

chedascetyadibhiSSabdaihsa vacya svecchaya tvaya II

— Ibid. V. 12, P.19172 Ibid. V.19, P.230

74

spontaneous break of the flow of words, is called yati .

Again, where the meaning comes to an end is called wrama174.

Pingala’ s definition of pause is “yativicchedah” n5, i.e. pause

is separation. Halayudha, explains the word ‘ viccheda ’ of

the aforesaid sutra as 1 viSramasthalam,n6 , i.e. the point of

break. Here, he is clear in pointing out the fact that the place

(i.e.sf/?a/a) of taking rest in reading the words of a verse is

termed yati. Otherwise, it is rather difficult to extract from the

definition of Pirigalanaga as to what was his intention to denote

by viccheda. Garigadasa, in the like manner, defines pause as

the place where the tongue of a reader likes to have a break177.

Dhire§varacaryya in his VM defines thus - sa yati

padapathastu yatra vicchidyatem. This definition follows the

view of Halayudha. Another important issue is noticed in the

173

173

174

175

176

177

niyatah padavicchedo yatirityabhidh!yate\ — NS, XV.86 (2nd

line)

yatharthasya samaptih syat sa virama it! smrtah I

— NS, XV.90 (2nd line)

CS, VI.1

vicchidyate vibhajyate padapatho'sminniti vicchedah

viSramasthanam, sa ca yatlrityucyate I — MS on CS, VI. 1

178yatlrjihvestavidramasthanam kavibhirucyate I

VM, V.11 (2nd line), P.19

CM, 1.18

75

VM, that in one occasion the author states the pause of a

metre to be at any place which gives pleasure to the ear of a

reader179. This aspect supports the definition of pause given by

Garigadlsa where the word *istavirama* is found. Anyway, in

the definition of pause given by DhfreSvaracaryya the word

‘yatra1 suggests ‘ a place’ only. In the gloss also

Dhlre§varacaryya elaborates - “yatra sthane padapathah

vicchidyate vibhajyate sa yatirucyate ”180. The word

‘padapatha1 is generally used in the Vedic context of reading.

In the Veda-s, the padapatha is one type of reading out of

several readings like - samhitapatha , jatapatha , ghanapatha

etc. But DhTre&varacaryya ’ s implication by using the word

‘padapatha1 may be taken in the sense of slokapatha (i.e.

‘ reading of the verse ’ ) . Again , the word * vicchidyate 1 refers

to ‘ vibhajyate1 as mentioned in the commentary. Therefore,

that is called pause where reading of words in a verse is

bifurcated. Thus it can be derived that mere separation is not a

179 viratih sravye I — Ibid. V.1, P.220

Again,

Sravye sravanasukhasampadakasthane I — Ibid. com. on

V.1, P.220180 Ibid. com. on V.11, P.19

76

pause, nor the process of such separation is known as pause ;

but the place of separation is regarded as pause. It is very

much clear from the definition of pause given by

DhfreSvaracaryya. The famous rhetorician Vamana also spends

a considerable space on the discussion on the topic of yatim.

— -JQODr. Brahmananda Trlpath I , in his Preface to the

CM, speaks of two groups of prosodists earlier to Pingalanaga

from the standpoint of acceptance or non-acceptance of pause.

One group does not accept pause. Bhara, Kohala, Mandavya,

Aivatara and Saitava belong to this group. Gangadasa also

quotes his teacher Purusottamabhatta who in his prosody

called Chandogovinda enumerates §veta, Mandavya etc. in

this group183.The other group accepts pause. This group!

includes the prosodists namely Vasistha, Kaundinya,

Kapila, Kambaiamuni and Pingalanaga.

virasaviramam yatlbhrastam I — Kavyalankarasutra, ll.il.3

CM, ed. by TripathI, Brahmananda, Preface, P.10

gvetamandavyamukhyasu necchanti munaye yatim I

ityaha bhattah svagranthe gururme purusottamah II

— CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, Chap.-I, V.20

77

It may be noted that the prosodians are found to

have kept mum on the issue of prescription of a fixed duration

for yati. The matra-s denoted by the sounds of various birds like

casa (i.e. a blue jay) vayasa (i.e. a crow) etc. as in the case

with consideration of hrasva, dirgha and pluta in the PNS184

cannot be said to be applicable in respect of the yati. Nothing

specific is found to be mentioned by any prosodist regarding

the duration of pause.

The pause is mainly divided into two types viz.

(j^padanta yati (i.e. foot pause) and QQpadamadhya yati

(i.e. section pause). The metrical pause existing at the end of

a pada is called padanta yati. The metrical pause introduced in

a specific place of a pada is called padamadhya yati..

Halayudha refers to some couplets collected from his

predecessors wherein certain rules are there for proper

application of pause . Dhire§varacaryya too, in his second

chapter of the VM, has elaborately discussed some of those

rules186.

PNS, V.49

MS on the CS-VI.1

VM, Chap.- II {Ga) yatibhedakusumam, V.1-4

78

It is rather difficult to work out rules for application

of pause, as an accepted phenomenon, since poets of high

repute also can never maintain such hard and fast rules of

prosody in composing their verses ail the time. Even instances

are there, where prosodians are found to have violated such

rules, while composing verses as rightly pointed out by A.

Borooah187. DhlreSvaracaryya also, is found to have tendered

unconditional apology from the learned readers for not being■jOOable to maintain pause properly in certain places . But mere

violation of any rule of pause in composing a verse due to some

difficulties even by great poets or prosodists does not

necessarily lead to declare that there is no pause at all in the

domain of poetry, like the anti group of prosodians on pause

headed by Sveta, Mandavya etc. as has been referred to

earlier. Most of the prosodists who accept pause in poetry,

have also noted the position or place of that pause at the time

A.R. Borooah shows that Halayudha too has violated certain rules

of yatl In some illustrations on the metres of the CS . — Prosody,

P.153

ksantavyo yatidoso'tra dhlrairduskaralaksane I — VM, V.15

{1st line), P.20

79

of defining a metre in all possible cases. The best poets are

always expected to observe those rules regarding the position

of pause in their compositions. However, violations of such

rules in maintaining a pause are also not rare. Even for the

same metre, the position of pause is stated differently by

different prosodists. For example, there is metre called

vatormm! in the tristup class (i.e. having eleven syllables in

each quarter). Pingaianaga is quite silent about the pause of

this metre . But Dhire§varacaryya notes that there should

have pause in vatormm! at the fourth and then at the seventh

syllable in each quarter which are indicated by the words

‘ vec/a’ and ‘ asva’ respectively190. Similarly, the different

views on the employment of pause of the metre kumaralalita

under the usnik class of samavrtta metre are clearly shown by

the Acaryya191. A comparative study of the characteristic

feature of various metres of two or more works on prosody is

expected to bring out such irregularities in some other cases.

189 vatormf mbhau tgau g I — CS-VI.26

190 satinya§cedaguruh pancamah syanmlstalape dhrtabhusakalape I

vedaira§vairvtratt§vapt yasyam vatormm! sa manasalocanfya II

— VM. V.7, P.56191 VM, com. under V.4, P.37

80

Not in Classical Sanskrit but in Vedic metres as well, many

irregular pauses are noticed. Generally, if a verse is imperfect

due to the succession of syllables not being harmonious then

the metre concerned is said to be non-metrlcal192 (i.e.

bhagnachandas"). Again, if a verse is imperfect due to the

selection of words not being conformable to metrical pauses

called discordant193 (i.e. yatibhrasta') .Another important issue

for realisation of pause in a verse lies in proper reading of that

verse. Because, the reading of a verse is sometimes fixed by

the pause. Akhillnanda Sarma, a commentator on the CS

shows how a single verse can be served for being the example

of the three metres namely - candravartta, manigunanikara

and mala under the atiSakkarl class. If a reader reads a verse

maintaining different pauses in every time of readings, the

metre of that verse may attain different names in every phase of

such readings.In Chandahsastra-s, there are certain words to

indicate the position of pause in a verse. Those words have

been conventionally treated as equivalents to certain numerals.

Not only in prosody, but also in some other Sanskrit treatises

like Mathematics, Astronomy etc., this practice is found to be

H Q O

Prosody, Preliminary, Para-8(a), P.3

193 ibid. P.3

81

followed. Dhlre§varacaryya also has adopted this technique

and the words used by him in this context may be listed below:

Numeral (s) Word (s)

2 dos

3 guna

4 veda, yuga, druhinavadana , S ru ti, vidhimukha ,

sagara J a la d h l, abdhi

5 kh a , vana, is u , ind riya , Sara, visikha, bhu ta ,

Sivavaktra

6 svada , rasa , rtu , tarka , grahamukha , Sakhivahanasya

vadana, kumaravaktra

7 haya, aSva, m uni, tu raga, svara, r s i , v a ji, vara,

loka , vahnibhuja , turanga , am budhi, dvlpa

8 ibha , vasu , stamberamah , naga , naga , gaja , diggaja ,

d igdan ti, dihmatanga

9 grab a , amka , randhra

10 dig , daSamukhamukha , harit

11 rudra , mahesvara , mahesa , Siva

12 masa , aditya , mihira , tapana , ina

14 manu

15 tith i

Table : 1.6

82

It may be noted that the use of the above listed

words with their indicated numerals, is purely conventional. It is

seen that the word ‘ambudhi’ 194 refers to ‘ seven’ in the above

table; on the other hand, the words ‘ sagara ’ 195, ‘jaladhi ’ 196

and ‘ abdhi’ m indicate ‘four’ in the above table. But, the

meanings of all these words are similar. Again, the word ‘ kha’

generally stands for ‘ zero’ indicating ‘the sky’ . But the author

of the VM is found to have used this word to indicate the

numeral' ‘ five’ meaning to ‘ five sense organs’ 198. Similarly,

sometimes the word ‘ rasa’ is used to denote the numeral

‘ six’ 199, on the other hand, in certain occasion it is employed

to hint the numeral ‘ nine’ 200 aiso. In such cases, it is difficult

for a reader to understand the motive of the author to what he

wishes to mean. Of course, the practice of using such words

instead of numerals, bears a background of various pauranika

facts and fictions.

VM, V.5, P.149

Ibid. V.12, P.127

Ibid. V.5, P.130

Ibid. V.3, P.74

Ibid. V.15, P.53

Ibid. V.34, P.85

Ibid. V.1, P.159

83

' The necessity of the knowledge of pause can be

called a requisite for both Vedic and Classical verses. Even the

pause in metrical lines has helped the formation of many

different metrico-musical units of different length . In Veda-s, meaning of a mantra is most important in determining a pause.

When the meaning stands complete, there only pause can fall.

The RgvedanukramanI of Veiikatamadhava and the

Nidanasutra clearly state that there should not be pause in the

middle of a word .So, in a Vedic hymn, the pause helps to

know the nature of a mantra. In Classical Sanskrit, the pause

plays a vital role. Even some metres are differentiated only with

the help of pause. For instance in VM, the metres called

avitatha (or narkataka or narkutaka") , narddataka, kokilaka

(two varieties) under the atyasti class (i.e. having seventeen

syllables in each foot) possess similar syllables from the

standpoint of short and long. All they have fifth, seventh,

tenth, eleventh, fourteenth, and seventeenth long syllables

and the remaining ones are short . For this, they bear no

difference at all. But, the difference lies in the positions of

201 202203

The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.-V, P.306

VP, P.144

VM, V .11-12, P.126

84

pause. The metre called avitatha has pause at the end of the

foot ; the metre narddataka has at the seventh syllable first

and the tenth syllable next ; the metre kokilaka (the first

variety) has at the eighth, then at the fifth and thereafter at

the fourth syllables and kokilaka (the second variety) has at

the seventh, sixth and fourth syllables respectively. Thus from

the employment of pause these metres are different and so they

are named differently. Similarly the metres yamuna and varatanu

under the jagatl class are called by two different names due to

the caesuras. They do not have any difference in consideration

of short and long syllables. Same is the case of the metre called

kutila and madhyaksama under the sakkarl class which are

named differently considering the pauses they possess. Again,

the author of the VM has shown several names like sarabha,

sasikaia, manigunanikara and srag having similar syllables in

respect of short and long with different pauses under the

atisakkarl class. There are some other metres like amrtagati,

tvaritagati etc. in the VM which are named considering the

difference of pause only. As such the essence of the pause can

easily be realized.

85

1.4.3 Other elements of metre - Devata, Varna,

Svara and Gotra

Some other elements are there associated with

different metres specially in Vedic hymns. They deserve also to

be taken note of. Among them, devata (i.e. de ity), varna

(i.e. colour) , svara (i.e. accents or tune) and gotra (i.e.

race or clan) are worth mentioning. For the first time, the RV204

names the seven deities of seven metres, it is generally seen

that, the hymns invoking Fire God (i.e. Agni) are composed

in the metre gayatri, the hymns invoking Indra are in the metre

tristup etc. This may be one of the reasons for associating a

particular deity to a particular metre. Again Saunaka mentions

that the Prajapati is the deity of the aticchandas and Vayu is the

deity of the vicchandas. Again, Brahma and Purusa are the

deities of ekapada and dvipada respectively. However,

Pingalanaga does not say anything about the deities of the

aticchandas and the vicchandas.

204 RV-X.130.4-5

86

A colour is assigned to a particular metre. In the

Rkpratisakhya of §aunaka, the colours pisariga, krsna, nila,

lohita and suvarna are associated with anustup, brhatl,

pankti, tristup and jagati respectively. Pingalanaga also, holds

the same view excepting the jagati. According to him, the

colour of jagati is gaura. In the Pratisakhya, the colour of the

aMcchandas is said to be syama while the colour of the

vicchandas is gaura. Similarly, ekapada is of nakulavarna and

dvipada is of babhruvarna.

The svara and gotra of the metres are also

discussed in prosody. However, the Pratisakhya has not said

anything about it. It is Pingalanaga only who states that the

seven svara-s are in fact, the influence of the SS viz.

(j'ysadaja, QQfsabha , (\Y\)gandhara, Qv^madhyama,

(v)pancama, (vi)d/?a/Vafa and (vii)n/'sac/a. Again, the gotra

of those seven principal metres are (i)agm/Vesa,

( i i")kasyapa, QlQgautama, ( iv^angirasa , (y^bhargava ,

(y ‘\)kausika and (v ii) vasistha.

In this context, the observations of Bharatamuni on

the elements of metres may be taken note of.The Natyasastra205

speaks of nine varieties of components of metres. These are -

(i)sampada (ii)Wrama, (iii)pada , (iv)da/Vafa, (v )s fM n a ,

(vi)a/rsara, (vii)vam a, (viii)svara and ( adhikavrtta.

All these elements mentioned above, statutorily are

not connected with the Classical Sanskrit metres, but their

importance lies in identification of the metre of a Vedic hymn.

As the Vedic prosody undoubtedly is the first stage of Classical

metres also, a discussion on these issues deems proper in our

present study.

87

sampadviramapadasca daivatasthanamaksaram I

varnah svaro'dhikam vrttamiti chandogato vldhih II

—NS. XV.88