27088112 Green Stone Hosted Quartz Carbonate Vein Deposits Orogenic Me So Thermal Lode

GREENSTONE-HOSTED QUARTZ-CARBONATE VEIN DEPOSITS (ORO-GENIC, MESOTHERMAL, LODE GOLD, SHEAR-ZONE-RELATED QUARTZ-

CARBONATE OR GOLD-ONLY DEPOSITS)

BENOÎT DUBÉ AND PATRICE GOSSELIN

Geological Survey of Canada, 880 Chemin Sainte-Foy, Quebec, G1S 2L2, Canada

E-mail:[email protected]

Definition

Simplified definitionQuartz and carbonate veins with valuable amounts of

gold and silver, in faults and shear zones located withindeformed terrains of ancient to recent orogenic greenstonebelts.

Scientific definitionGreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

(GQC) are a sub-type of lode gold deposits (Poulsen et al.,2000) (Fig. 1). They are also known as mesothermal, oro-genic (mesozonal and hypozonal - the near surface orogenicepizonal Au-Sb-Hg deposits (Groves et al., 1998) are notincluded in this synthesis), lode gold, shear-zone-relatedquartz-carbonate or gold-only deposits (Roberts, 1987;Colvine, 1989; Kerrich and Wyman, 1990; Robert, 1990;Kerrich and Feng, 1992; Hodgson, 1993, Kerrich andCassidy, 1994; Robert, 1995; Groves et al., 1998; Hagemann

and Cassidy, 2000; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al.,2001; Groves et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., in press; and ref-erences therein).

They correspond to structurally controlled complexepigenetic deposits hosted in deformed metamorphosed ter-ranes. They consist of simple to complex networks of gold-bearing, laminated quartz-carbonate fault-fill veins in mod-erately to steeply dipping, compressional brittle-ductileshear zones and faults with locally associated shallow-dip-ping extensional veins and hydrothermal breccias. They arehosted by greenschist to locally amphibolite facies metamor-phic rocks of dominantly mafic composition and formed atintermediate depth in the crust (5-10km). They are typicallyassociated with iron-carbonate alteration. The mineralizationis syn- to late-deformation and typically post-peak green-schist facies or syn-peak amphibolite facies metamorphism.They are genetically associated with a low salinity, CO2-H2O-rich hydrothermal fluid thought to also contain CH4,N2, K and S. Gold is largely confined to the quartz-carbon-

EPITHERMAL CLAN

GranitoidShear zone

Volcanic

Iron formation

Wacke-shale

GREENSTONE VEIN CLAN

TURBIDITE-HOSTEDVEIN

BIF-HOSTED VEIN

PALEOPLACERLOW SULFIDATION

ADVANCED ARGILLIC

ARGILLIC

HOTSPRINGHIGH-SULPHIDATION

sea level

Carbonate

rocks

INTRUSION-RELATED CLAN(mainly after Sillitoe)

Permeable

Unit

PORPHYRYAU

SERICITE

Dyke

Stock

STOCKWORK-DISSEMINATED

AU

Vein

AU MANTO

AU SKARN

CARLIN TYPE

BRECCIA-PIPE AU

HIGH-SULPHIDATION AU-RICH MASSIVE SULPHIDE(mainly after Hannington)

Rhyolite dome

10

5

km

0

1

INFERRED CRUSTAL LEVELSOF GOLD DEPOSITION

Figure 1: Inferred crustal levels of gold deposition showing the different types of gold deposits and the inferred deposit clan (from Dubé et al., 2001c; mod-ified from Poulsen et al., 2000).

ate vein network but may also be present in significantamounts within iron-rich sulphidized wallrock selvages orsilicified and arsenopyrite-rich replacement zones. They aredistributed along major compressional to transtensionalcrustal-scale fault zones in deformed greenstone terranes ofall ages, but are more abundant and significant, in terms oftotal gold content, in Archean terranes. However a signifi-cant number of world-class deposits are also found in

Proterozoic and Paleozoic terranes. International examplesof this sub-type of gold-deposits include Mother Lode-GrassValley (U.S.A.), Mt. Charlotte, Norseman and Victory(Australia) (Fig. 2). The best Canadian examples are Sigma-Lamaque (Quebec); Dome and Kerr Addison (Ontario);Giant and Con (Northwest Territories); San Antonio(Manitoba); and Hammer Down (Newfoundland).

Diagnostic features of greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein type of golddeposit

The diagnostic features of thegreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate veintype gold deposits are arrays and net-works of fault- and shear-zone-relatedquartz-carbonate laminated fault-fill andextensional veins in associated carbona-tized metamorphosed greenstone rocks.The deposits are typically associated withlargescale (crustal) compressional faults(Fig. 3). They have a very significant ver-tical extent (</= 2km), with a very limitedmetallic zonation.

Associated mineral deposit typesGreenstone-hosted quartz-car-

bonate vein (GQC) deposits are thoughtto represent a major component of thegreenstone deposit clan (Fig 1). They can

Benoît Dubé and Patrice Gosselin

2

Archean Gold deposit types:

Qtz-cb shear zone-related

BIF-hosted

Turbidite-hosted

Cenozoic

Mesozoic

Paleozoic

Phanerozoic

Precambrian

Proterozoic Proterozoic-Phanerozoic

Legend

Kensington

Treadwell

YatelaEl Callao

Mother Lode SystemAlleghany District

PlutonicMazoe

ShamvaBulyanhulu

Cam & Motor

BibianiPoura

Syama

Baguamiao

Qiyiqiu No. 1

Zun-Holba

Akbakay

Stepnyak

Berezovkoe

Zarmitan

AksuSvetlinskoe

Kochkar

Omai

Meekatharra

Sons of Gwalia

Morning Star / Evening Star

JundeeWiluna Lancefield

Granny Smith

Wallaby

New Celebration

Royal

Norseman

Golden Mile

Mount Charlotte

Bronzewing

Day DawnSunrise Dam - Cleo

Victory-Defiance

Golden Valley

Lonely

Dalny

Blanket

Globe and Phoenix

ShebaNew Consort

Fairview

Navachab

Larder Lake

Ross

Renabie

Yellowknife

Discovery

San Antonio

Red Lake

New Brittannia

Beardmore-Geraldton

Casa Berardi

Val d'Or

MalarticTimmins

Kirkland Lake

Meguma

Chibougamau

Kolar

Grass Valley District

Alaska-Juneau

Duolanasayi

Hutti

TarmoolaFazenda Brasileiro

Lega Dembi

Passagem de Mariana

La Herradura

Erjia

Paishanlou

Amesmessa

Gross Rosebel

KaralveemNatalka

Woxi

The Granites

Gympie

Stawell

Bendigo

Daugyztau

Morila

Obuasi

Morro do Ouro

Morro Velho

Homestake

Lupin

Darasun

Wenyu

Hetai

Shanggong

Bralorne-Pioneer

FIG. 2: World distribution of world class greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits.

100 km

Granitoid rock World-class orogenic golddeposits

Other gold-rich VMS

World-class gold-richvolcanogenic massive-sulfides

Larder Lake - CadillacFault Zone

Volcanic rock

Other gold deposits

Pocupine - Destor Fault Zone

Sedimentary rockMafic intrusion

Proterozoic cover

Major fault

KirklandLake

Hollinger -McIntyre

PamourDome Kerr

AddisonHorne

Malartic

Sigma-Lamaque

DoyonBousquet-LaRonde

PDF

PDF

LLCF

LLCF

Casa Berardi

FIG. 3: Simplified geological map of the Abitibi greenstone belt showing the distribution of majorfault zones and of gold deposits. Modified from Poulsen et al. (2000).

coexist regionally with iron-formation-hosted vein and dis-seminated deposits as well as with turbidite-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits.

However, in metamorphosed terranes, different stylesof gold deposits formed at different crustal levels, such asAu-rich VMS or intrusion-related gold deposits, may havebeen juxtaposed against greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonatevein type deposits during the different increments of strainand metamorphism that characterized Archean greenstonebelts (Poulsen et al., 2000). Although they were formed atdifferent times, they are now co-existing along major faults.Good examples are the Bousquet 2 - LaRonde 1 andLaRonde Penna Au-rich VMS deposits distributed along theCadillac-Larder Lake fault near the former GQC mine (Fig.3) east of Noranda.

Economic Characteristics Of Deposit Type

Summary of economic characteristicsThe total world production and reserves of gold,

including the Witwatersrand placer depost, stands at 126,423metric tonnes Au (Gosselin and Dubé, 2005). Canadian pro-duction and reserves, at 9,276 metric tonnes Au, represent7,3% of the world total. The world production and reservesfor the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposit sub-type is 16 585 metric tonnes Au (Dubé and Gosselin, 2004),equivalent to 13,1% of the world total production. TheCanadian production and reserves is 6,173 metric tonnes,which constitutes 37,5% of the world production and 66,6%of the Canadian production and reserves. The Superiorprovince contains 87,8% (5,419 metric tonnes) of Canadiangold production and reserves for greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits. The Abitibi subprovince is the mainsource and represents 72,4% (4 470 metric tonnes) of thetotal.

There are 104 known greenstone-hosted quartz-car-bonate vein deposits world-wide containing at least 30tonnes (~1 M oz) of Au (production and reserves), including32 Canadian deposits. There are 33 deposits in Canda, andseveral hundreds worldwide, with more than 7,5 tonnes(250,000 oz) but less than 30 tonnes. A select group of 41world-class deposits contains more than 100 tonnes of Au,including 12 giant deposits with more than 250 tonnes. Inthis group of world-class deposits, 7 are from the CanadianArchean Superior Province, 6 from the Abitibi greenstonebelt and one from the Uchi sub-province (Campbell-RedLake). The Superior Province is the largest and best pre-served Archean craton in terms of gold endowment, fol-lowed by the Yilgarn craton of Australia.

The temporal and geographical distribution of thegreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits is shownin Figure 2. Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate veindeposits are found in greenstone terranes of all ages.Although they are present in the Paleozoic, the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are largely concentrat-ed in Precambrian terranes, and especially in terranes ofArchean age. In Canada, all the world-class deposits but oneare of Archean age. Their concentration in the Archean isthought to be related to the continental growth and the relat-ed higher number of large scale collisions between conti-

nents, and to the associated development of major faults andlarge scale hydrothermal fluid flow during the super conti-nent cycle and mantle plume (cf. Barley and Groves, 1992;Condie, 1998; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001).

Grade and tonnage characteristicsThe greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

are one of the most significant sources of gold and accountfor 13.1% of all the world gold content (production andreserves). They are second only to the Witwatersrand paleo-placers of South Africa. The largest GQC deposit in terms oftotal gold content is the Golden Mile complex in Kalgoorlie,Australia with 1821 tonnes Au. The Hollinger-McIntyredeposit in Timmins, Ontario, is the second largest depositever found with 987 tonnes of gold. The average grade of thedeposits varies from 5 to 15 g/t Au, whereas the tonnage ishighly variable from a few thousand tonnes to 10 milliontonnes of ore, although more typically there are only a fewmillion tonnes of ore (Fig. 4).

Comparison of grade and tonnage characteristics with theglobal range

In Canada, this type of gold deposits is widely distrib-uted from the Paleozoic greenstone terrane of theAppalachian orogen on the east coast with the HammerDown and Deer Cove deposits in Newfoundland (Dubé etal., 1993; Gaboury et al.,1996), to the Archean greenstonebelts of the Superior (Dome and Sigma mines) and Slaveprovinces (Con and Giant mines) in central Canada to theoceanic terranes of the Cordillera (Bralorne-Pioneer).

The average gold grade of world-class Canadiandeposits (over 30t Au) stands at 10,06 g/t, which is a little

Greenstone Gold Synthesis

3

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

95

105

115

125

135

145

155

165

Ore tonnage (Mt)

Nu

mb

er

of

dep

osit

s

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Ore grade (g/t)

Nu

mb

er

of

dep

osit

s

91

50 - 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

0-5

FIG. 4: Tonnage and grade repartition for gold deposits of 30t Au or more.

higher than the average for this type of deposit around theworld (7,63 g/t) (Fig. 5). In Canada, the Discovery andCampbell-Red Lake deposits have the highest averagegrades at 34 g/t and 23 g/t Au, respectively. The GoldcorpHigh-grade Zone is part of the Campbell-Red lake depositand has an average production grade of 88 g/t Au since thebeginning of its extraction (Dubé et al., 2002). World-classdeposits in Canada have on average lower tonnage (20,91 Mtof ore) then those the worldwide (39,91 Mt). Mining inCanada has traditionally taken place underground, whereasin other countries open pits are used more frequently.

Exploration Properties Of Deposit Type

Physical Properties

MineralogyThe main gangue minerals are quartz and carbonate

(calcite, dolomite, ankerite and siderite) with variableamounts of white micas, chlorite, scheelite and tourmaline.The sulphide minerals typically constitute less than 10% ofthe ore. The main ore minerals are native gold with pyritepyrrhotite chalcopyrite without any significant vertical min-eral zoning. Arsenopyrite commonly represents the main sul-phide in terranes at amphibolite facies of metamorphism (ex:Con, Giant and Campbell-Red Lake deposits). Traceamounts of molybdenite and tellurides are also present insome deposits such as those hosted by syenite in KirklandLake (Thompson et al., 1950) (Fig. 6).

TexturesModerately to steeply dipping shear-zone-hosted lam-

inated fault-fill quartz-carbonate veins in brittle-ductileshear zones, with or without fringing shallow-dipping exten-sional veins and breccias, characterize this type of golddeposit (Fig. 7). Textures of the quartz veins vary according

to the nature of the host structure (extensional vs compres-sional). Extensional veins typically display quartz and car-bonate fibres at high angle to the vein walls with multiplestages of mineral growth, whereas the laminated veins arerather composed of massive fine grained quartz (Fig. 7E).When present the fibres are sub-parallel to the vein walls(Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001). In RedLake, the high-grade mineralization is typically related tosilicification and associated arsenopyrite, of barren to lowgrade quartz-carbonate cavity fill vein (Dubé et al., 2001b,2002) (Fig. 8).

DimensionsIndividual veins vary from a few cm to 5m thick and

10 to 1000m long. Vertical extent of the orebody is com-monly larger than 1 km and reach 2 km in a few cases (ex:Campbell-Red Lake and Kirkland Lake deposits, Canada).

MorphologyThe gold-bearing shear zones and faults are mainly

compressionnal and they commonly display a complexgeometry with anastomosing and/or conjugate arrays(Daigneault and Archambault, 1990; Hodgson, 1993; Robertet al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001). The individual fault-fill veins are 10 to a few hundreds of meters long, although


4

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

0

1

10

100

0 1 10 100 1000 10000

Tonnage (Mt)

Gra

de

(g/t

)

World 30t (70) Canada (128)

0,1

0,1

1t Au

10t Au

100t Au

1000t Au

10000t A

u

Golden Mile

DomeSigma-Lamaque

Bulyanhulu

Kirkland LakeKolar

Kerr AddisonHollinger-McIntyre

Campbell-Red LakeGrass Valley

Kochkar

Berezovskoe

Alaska-Juneau

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

FIG. 5: Tonnage vs grade chart of Canadian and world-class-size (>/=100 tAu) world deposits.

Dubé and Gosselin, 2005

Dubé and Gosselin, 2005

FIG. 6: A. Quartz-breccia vein, Main Break, Kirkland Lake; B. High-gradequartz veinlets, hosted by syenite, with visible gold, disseminated pyriteand traces of tellurides, Main Break, Kirkland Lake.

the vein network could extend to 1-2 km in its longestdimension (vertical). The laminated quartz-carbonate veinsare commonly infilling the central part of, and are sub-paral-lel to slightly oblique to, the host structures (Hodgson, 1989;Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001) (Fig. 9). Theshallow-dipping extensional veins are either confined withinthe shear zones, in which case they are relatively small andsigmoidal in shape, or they extend outside the shear zone andare planar and laterally much more extended (Robert et al.,1994).

Stockworks and hydrothermal breccias may representthe main host to the mineralization when developed in com-petent units such as granophyric facies of gabbroic sills (e.g.

San Antonio Mine, Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen,2001). Due to the complexity of the geological and structur-al setting and the influence of strength anisotropy and com-petency contrasts, the geometry of the vein network variesfrom simple such as the Silidor deposit, Canada, to morecommonly fairly complex with multiple orientations of anas-tomosing and/or conjugate sets of veins, breccias, stock-works and associated structures (Dubé et al., 1989; Hodgson,1989, Robert et al., 1994, Robert and Poulsen, 2001).Arsenopyrite-rich auriferous silicification of low grade tobarren carbonate±quartz veins is the main host of theCampbell-Red Lake deposit (Figs. 8) (Penczak and Mason,1997; Tarnocai, 2000; Dubé et al., 2001b, 2002). Ore-grademineralization also occurs as disseminated sulphides inaltered (carbonatized) rocks along vein selvages.

Ore shoots are commonly controlled by: 1) the inter-sections between different veins or host structures, orbetween an auriferous structures and an especially reactiveand/or competent rock type such as iron-rich gabbro (geo-metric ore shoot); or 2) the slip vector of the controllingstructure(s) (kinematic ore shoot). For laminated fault-fillveins, the kinematic ore shoot will be oriented at a high angleto the slip vector (Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen,2001).

The world-class and giant deposits commonly exhibita complex geometry mainly due to multistage barren and/orgold-bearing hydrothermal, structural and magmatic events(e.g. Dome Mine in Timmins Ontario, Campbell-Red Lakedeposit in Red Lake).

Host rocksThe veins are hosted by a wide variety of host rock

types including all the lithologies present in the local envi-ronment, but especially mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocksand competent iron-rich tholeiitic gabbroic sills and grani-toid intrusions of Archean age. However, there are common-ly district-specific lithological associations acting as chemi-cal and/or structural traps for the fluid (e.g. Golden miledolerite sill in Kalgoorlie Australia, Balmer basalt in RedLake, Canada). Some deposits are also hosted by and/or cen-tered within or next to intrusive complexes (e.g. syenite por-phyry complex in Kirkland Lake, Canada).


5

A

DC

FE

B

15 cm

3 m15 cm

12 cm

FIG. 7: A. Laminated fault fill veins, Pamour mine, Timmins ; B. Closed uplaminated fault fill veins showing iron-carbonatized wall rock clasts.; C.Boudinaged fault-fill vein, section view, Dome mine; D. Arrays of exten-sional quartz vein , Pamour mine; E. Extensional quartz-tourmaline "flatvein" showing multiple stages of mineral growth perpendicular to veinwalls, Sigma mine (from Poulsen et al., 2000); F. Tourmaline-quartz vein,Clearwater deposit, James Bay area.

BA

Carbonate vein

Silicareplacement

Arsenopyritereplacement

Biotitealteration

Visible gold

Basalt

Amphiboles

4 cm 6 cm

FIG. 8: A. High-grade zone showing a silicified carbonate vein with visible gold and arsenopyrite-rich replacement of the host basalt, Red Lake Mine, RedLake; B. High-grade vein from Campbell Mine, Red Lake, showing a clast of collofrm carbonate vein within a highly silicified and arsenopyrite-rich brec-cia.

Chemical Properties

Ore chemistryThe metallic signature of the ore is Au, Ag, As, W, B,

Mo Sb, typically with no or very low concentration of basemetals (Cu, Pb, Zn). There is no vertical metallic zoning. TheAu/Ag ratio typically varies from 5 to 10.

Alteration mineralogy/chemistry: At the district scale, the greenstone-hosted quartz-car-

bonate-vein deposits are associated with large-scale carbon-ate alteration commonly distributed along major fault zonesand associated subsidiary structures (Fig. 10A, B). At thedeposit scale, the nature, distribution and intensity of thewall-rock alteration is largely controlled by the compositionand competence of the host rocks and their metamorphicgrade. Typically, the alteration haloes are zoned and charac-terized - at greenschist facies - by iron-carbonatization and

sericitization, with sulphidation of the immediate vein sel-vages (mainly pyrite, less commonly arsenopyrite).Chemically, altered rocks show an enrichment in CO2, K2Oand S and leaching of Na2O. Further away from the vein thealteration is characterized by various amounts of chlorite andcalcite and sometimes magnetite. The dimensions of thealteration haloes vary with the composition of the host rocksand may envelope entire deposits hosted by mafic and ultra-mafic rocks. Pervasive green micas (fuchsite, roscoelite) andankerite with quartz-carbonate stockwork is common insheared ultramafics (Fig. 10C, D). In amphibolite faciesrocks common hydrothermal alteration assemblages associ-ated with gold mineralization contain biotite, amphibole,pyrite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite and at higher grade,biotite/phlogopite, diopside, garnet, pyrrhotite and/orarsenopyrite (cf. Mueller and Groves, 1991; Witt, 1991;Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000; Ridley et al., 2000 and refer-ences therein) with variable proportions of feldspar, calciteand clinozoisite (Fig. 11). The variations in alteration styleshave been interpreted as a direct reflection of the depth offormation of the deposits (Groves, 1993). The mineralogy ofthe amphibolite facies deposits (diopside, K-feldspar, garnet,staurolite, andalusite, actinolite) implies that they are by def-inition skarn-like deposits. Canadian examples of suchamphibolite facies deposit include the replacement styleMadsen deposit in Red Lake (Dubé et al. 2000, 2001b) andthe quartz-tourmaline vein and replacement style Eau Clairedeposit in the James Bay area (Cadieux, 2000).

Geological Properties

Continental scaleGreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits typ-

ically occur in deformed greenstone terranes of all ages,especially those with commonly variolitic tholeiitic basalts(Fig. 12A) and ultramafic komatiitic flows intruded by inter-mediate to felsic porphyry intrusions, and sometimesswarms of albitite or lamprophyre dykes (ex: Timmins andRed Lake districts) (Fig. 12B). The deposits are associatedwith collisional or accretionary orogenic events (cf. Kerrich


6

A B

C D

10 cm

1 m

FIG. 10: A. Large boudinaged iron-carbonate vein, Red Lake district; B.Iron carbonate pervasive replacement of an iron-rich gabbroic sill, Taddprospect, Chibougamau; C. Green-carbonate rock showing fuchsite-richreplacement and iron-carbonate veining in a highly deformed ultramaficrock, Larder Lake; D. Green carbonate alteration showing abundant greenmicas replacing chromite-rich ultramafics, Baie Verte, Newfoundland.

A B

C

10 cm 4 cm

FIG. 11: A. Diopside vein in a biotite-actinolite-microcline rich gold-bear-ing alteration, Madsen mine, Red Lake; B. auriferous metasomatichydrothermal layering with actinolite-rich and biotite-microcline richbands, Madsen mine, Red lake. C. Gold-rich no. 8 vein showing visiblegold in a carbonate-actinolite-diopside-rich vein, Madsen mine, Red Lake.

SLIP PLANE

(B-AXIS)

Y

X

Z

FOLIATION

FAULT-FILL VEIN

EXTENSIONALVEIN

STAGE II FILLING

STAGE I FILLING

FIG. 9: Schematic diagram illustrating geometric relationships betweenstructural element of veins and shear zones and deposit scale strain axes(from Robert, 1990).

et al., 2000 and references therein). They are typically dis-tributed along reverse-oblique crustal-scale major faultzones, commonly marking the convergent margins betweenmajor lithological boundaries such as volcano-plutonic andsedimentary domains (ex: Cadillac-Larder Lake fault) (Figs.3 and 12C-D). These major structures are characterized bydifferent increments of strain, and consequently several gen-erations of steeply dipping foliations and folds resulting in afairly complex geological collisional setting. The crustal-scale faults are thought to represent the main hydrothermalpathways towards higher crustal level. However, thedeposits are spatially and genetically associated with higher-order compressional reverse-oblique to oblique brittle-duc-tile high-angle shear zones (Fig. 13) commonly located lessthan 5 km away and best developed in the hanging wall ofthe major fault (Robert, 1990). Brittle faults may also be themain host to mineralization as illustrated by the KirklandLake Main Break; a brittle structure hosting the 25 M oz AuKirkland Lake deposit (Fig. 14). The deposits formed typi-cally late in the tectonic-metamorphic history of the green-stone belts (Groves et al., 2000) and the mineralization issyn- to late-deformation and typically post-peak greenschistfacies and syn-peak amphibolite facies metamorphism (cf.Kerrich and Cassidy, 1994; Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000).

All world-class greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate veindeposits are hosted by greenschist facies rocks. The onlyexceptions are Campbell-Red Lake (Canada) and Kolar(India) at amphibolite facies.

The greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein depositsare also commonly spatially associated with Timiskaming-like regional unconformities (Fig. 15). Several deposits arehosted by (e.g. Pamour and Dome deposit in Timmins) orlocated next to such a Timiskaming-like regional unconfor-mity (Campbell-Red Lake deposit in Red Lake) (Dubé et al.,2003, in press), suggesting an empirical time and space rela-tionship between large-scale greenstone quartz-carbonategold deposits and regional unconformities (Hodgson, 1993;Robert, 2000; Dubé et al., 2003).

District scale:In this section, some of the key geological characteris-

tics of prolific gold districts are presented. The list is farfrom complete as to the definite reasons why a district likeTimmins contains such a large number of world class golddeposits or why the gold grade in the Red Lake district isoverall so high. Only a brief overview is presented here, thereader is referred to key papers such as Hodgson andMacGeehan (1982), Hodgson (1993), Robert and Poulsen(1997), Hagemann and Cassidy (2000), Poulsen et al.(2000), and Groves et al. (2001) among others for moreinformation.

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits areessentially structurally controlled epigenetic hydrothermaldeposits. Large gold camps are typically located in green-schist facies Archean greenstone belts and are commonlyassociated with curvatures, flexures and dilational jogs alongmajor compressionnal fault zones such as the Destor-Porcupine fault in Timmins or the Larder Lake-Cadillac faultin Kirkland Lake, which have created dilational zones wherethe hydrothermal fluids were drained (Fig. 3). In terms ofstratigraphical settings, several gold districts such as RedLake or Timmins are characterized by presence of variolitictholeiitic basalts and ultramafic komatiitic flows intruded byintermediate to felsic porphyry intrusions, and sometimesswarms of albitite or lamprophyre dykes. Timiskaming-likeregional unconformities distributed along major faults orstratigraphical discontinuities are also typical characteristics.In terms of hydrothermal alteration, the main characteristicis the presence of large scale iron-carbonate alteration whichgives some indication on the size of the hydrothermal sys-tem(s). Protracted magmatic activity with syn-volcanic andsyn-to late tectonic intrusions emplaced along structural dis-


7

B

C D

A

15 cm20 cm

22 cm

C

FIG. 12: A. Variolitic basalt, Vipond Formation, Timmins; B. Lamprophyredyke cross-cutting ankerite vein, Campbell Mine, Red Lake; C. Myloniticfoliation, Cadillac -Larder Lake Break, Val D'Or; D. Close-up showingmylonitioc foliation within Cadillac-Larder Lake break, Val D'Or.

A B

C

15 cm 10 cm

10 cm

A B

2 m 50 cm

FIG. 13 : A, B & C. Section view showing auriferous quartz vein hosted bya second-order reverse shear zone, Cooke mine, Chapais, Quebec (fromDubé and Guha, 1992).

FIG. 14: A. Section view showing the 25 M oz Kirkland Lake Main Break;B. Closed up showing the Kirkland Lake Main Break in section view, notethe brittle nature of the structure.

continuities (e.g. Timmins) or surrounding the district (e.g.Red Lake district) appears to be key empirical factors. Inmany cases, the U-Pb dating of these intrusive rocks indicat-ed that they are older than the mineralization. They have thenmainly acted as competent structural trap or induced ananisotropy in the layered stratigraphy which have influencedand partitioned the strain. In other cases, the intrusive rocksare post mineralization. However, it remains possible thatthe thermal energy provided by these intrusions may havecontributed to large-scale hydrothermal fluid circulation.Presence of other deposit types in the district such as VMSor Ni-Cu deposits is also commonly thought to be a favor-able factor (heritage) (cf. Hodgson, 1993).

Knowledge gapsOne of the main remaining knowledge gap is the tec-

tonic significance and structural evolution of the large scalefaults which control the distribution of the greenstone-host-ed quartz-carbonate-vein deposits. As an example, despitedecades of work, the exact location and structural evolutionof the Destor-Porcupine Fault in the Timmins district, and itsrelationship to gold mineralization, remain largely to beestablished. As well, such a district-scale fault controllingthe distribution of the major gold deposits in the Red Lakedistrict remains to be found unless the Cochenour-GullrockLake deformation zone (Red Lake Mine trend) (Andrews etal., 1986; Zhang et al., 1997; Dubé et al., 2001a, 2002, 2003)and/or the regional unconformity between the MesoarcheanBalmer and the Neoarchean Confederation assemblages(Sanborn-Barrie et al., 2000, 2001, 2002; Dubé et al., 2003,in press) are marking such a crustal structure.

Deposit scaleThe localization of higher grade mineralization (ore

shoot) within a deposit is the subject of investigation sincethe early works of Newhouse (1942) and McKinstry (1948).Ore shoots represent a critical element to take into account todefine and follow the richest part of the orebody. Two broad

categories of ore shoots are recognized: 1-geometric and 2-kinematic (Poulsen and Robert, 1989; Robert et al., 1994).As proposed by Poulsen and Robert (1989), geometric oreshoots are controlled by the intersection of a given structure(such as a fault, a shear zone, or a vein) with a favorablelithological unit as a competent gabbroic sill, a dike, an iron-formation or a particularly reactive rock. The ore shootdefined will be parallel to the line of intersection. The kine-matic oreshoots are syn-deformation and syn-formation ofthe veins and are defined by the intersection between differ-ent sets of veins or contemporaneous structures. The plungeof kinematic ore shoots are commonly at high angle to theslip direction.

Structural traps such as fold hinges or dilational jogsalong faults or shear zones are also key elements in locatingthe richest part of an orebody. However, multiple parametersare commonly involved in the formation of the richest partof an orebody. For example, at the Red Lake Mine, severalparameters are believed to have played a key role in the for-mation of the extremely rich High-grade Zone (Dubé et al.,2002), including: 1-the F2 fold hinge deforming the basaltand komatiitic basalt contact; 2-the carbonatized komatiiticbasalt located in the F2 antiform, which acted as a low per-meability cap; 3-the iron-rich content of the tholeiitic basaltthat allowed precipitation of the arsenopyrite and gold byreaction with the fluids; 4-the more competent nature of thehost basalt; 5-several increments of D2 strain; and 6-a newstage of gold mineralization or gold remobilization inextremely-rich fractures that postdated the emplacement oflamprophyre dykes.


8

A B

C D

E F

10 cm 15 cm

10 cm30 cm

3 cm 30 cm

FIG. 16: A. Boudinaged ankerite vein, with late quartz veins, cross-cuttingthe Paymaster porphyry, Dome Mine; B. Boudinaged ankerite veins withsyn-deformation late extensional quartz veins, Dome mine; C. Massiveankerite Kurst vein cut by late gold-bearing extensional quartz vein, Domemine area; D. Ankerite vein clast within Timiskaming conglomerate, Domemine (from Dubé et al., 2003); E. Close-up of D (from Dubé et al., 2003);F. Deformed quartz vein hosted by folded Timiskaming argillites, Domemine.

A B

C D

10 cm 25 cm

10 cm 10 cm

FIG. 15: A. Timiskaming conglomerate, Kirkland Lake ; B. Mineralizedquartz veins hosted by Timiskaming conglomerate, Pamour mine,Timmins; C. Mineralized quartz vein hosted by Timiskaming conglomer-ate, Kirkland Lake; D. Huston assemblage conglomerate, Red Lake.

As mentionned by Groves et al. (2003), severalhydrothermal events are sometimes superimposed and haveprobably played a key role in the formation of giant golddeposit. This is especially well illustrated at the giant Domemine in Timmins, where low grade ankerite veins cut acrossthe 2690 Ma Paymaster porphyry (Corfu et al., 1989) (Fig.

16A). These ankerite veins have been deformed; they aretypically boudinaged and cut by extensional en echelonauriferous quartz veins (Fig. 16B-C). As reported in Dubé etal. (2003), the ankerite veins are also present as clasts with-in the 2679 ± 4 Ma Timiskaming conglomerate (Ayer et al.,2003) (Fig. 16 D-E) in the open pit, whereas the argillite andsandstone above the Timiskaming conglomerate are them-selves cut by folded auriferous quartz veins (Dubé et al.,2003) (Fig. 16F). These chronological relationships clearlyillustrate the superimposed hydrothermal and structuralevents involved in the formation of the deposit with post-magmatism carbonate veining, but pre-deposition of theTimiskaming conglomerate. The latter is pre-formation ofthe bulk of the auriferous quartz vein mined in the open pit.

Distribution Of Canadian Metallogenetic Districts

The most productive metallogenetic districts forgreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are cen-tered on (Late) Archean greenstone belts of the Superior,Churchill and Slave provinces (Table 1). Key features ofthese Canadian districts are: 1) presence of ultramafic-maficvolcanic rocks (including variolitic basalts); 2) major com-pressional crustal-scale fault; 3) presence of competent intru-sions; 4) district-wide zones of carbonate alteration; and 5)presence of a regional Timiskaming-like unconformity.Other important features include: I) curves, bends and dila-


9

Table 1 As of December 31, 2002

District Geological ProvinceProd.+Reserves

(tonnes Au)Resources(tonnes Au)

Timmins Superior/Abitibi 2,072.9 78.5

Kirkland Lake Superior/Abitibi 794.8 72.6

Val d'Or Superior/Abitibi 638.9 171.6

Rouyn-Noranda Superior/Abitibi 519.6 66.5

Larder Lake Superior/Abitibi 378.7 14.5

Malartic Superior/Abitibi 278.7 686.8

Joutel Superior/Abitibi 61.4 27.5

Matheson Superior/Abitibi 60.4 9.7

Cadillac Superior/Abitibi 22.1 25.1

Red Lake Superior/Uchi 834.5 153.3

Pickle Lake Superior/Uchi 90.4 8.1

Rice Lake Superior/Uchi 51.6 25.2Beardmore-Geraldton Superior/Wabigoon 123.5 35.1

Michipicoten Superior/Wawa 41.1 2.8

Mishibishu Superior/Wawa 26.7 16.8Goudreau-Lolshcach Superior/Wawa 8.8 19.6

Flin Flon Churchill 62.2 12.7

Lynn Lake Churchill 19.5 14.6

La Ronge Churchill 3.4 5.6

Keewatin Churchill-Hearne 7.2 252.4

Yellowknife Slave 432.8 16.6

MacKenzie Slave 38.1 286.6

Cassiar Cordillera 14.9 55.4

Baie Verte Appalachian/Dunnage 10.3 8.9

FIG. 17: Location of Canadian greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein districts

tional jogs in the major crustal-scale fault; II) metamorphismnot higher than amphibolite grade; III) size of the greenstonebelt (smaller belts lost in intrusive and highly metamor-phosed rocks, are yet to be proven as productive as largerones); and IV) well-developed set of subsidiary faults andshears near the major crustal-scale fault.

The Abitibi greenstone belt (Superior Province)regroups the majority of productive districts, including thevery large Timmins, Kirkland Lake, Larder Lake, Rouyn-Noranda and Val d'Or districts. Others, more recent green-stone belts of the Appalachian and Cordilleran orogens, arealso favorable terrains for gold deposits of the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein type (figure 17). Districts list-ed in table 1 also include deposits of the iron formation-host-ed vein and disseminated sub-type (Homestake-type). Theyare typically formed in similar geological settings and atsimilar crustal depths (Fig. 1).

Temporal distribution of world-class-size (>30t Au)greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits is illustrat-ed in figure 2. The greatest concentration of deposits is foundduring the Archean, and particularly during the Late Archeanperiod (Fig. 17). Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits are rarerbut have been known to occur in recent collisional orogenicbelts (e.g. Mother Lode-Alleghany districts, Mesozoic, andAlaska-Juneau-Treadwell deposits, Cenozoic, USA). Thetotal tonnage and average grade of Canadian depositsappears significantly smaller and larger, respectively, thanthe total tonnage and grade of world deposits. This discrep-ancy diminishes when one eliminates the giant Golden Miledeposit (Australia) and its 914 Mtonnes of ore at an averageof 1,99 g/t. However, the average grade of Canadian Archeandeposits still remains ~2 g/t higher than other world deposits.Proterozoic gold deposits occur in greenstone belts of Brazil,western Africa and China, whereas deposits of this age arenoticeably few in Canada but for the New Britannia depositin the Flin Flon district (Manitoba), and other smallerdeposits of the Churchill Province. The lone world-classMesozoic Canadian deposit represented in figure 17 is theBralorne-Pioneer deposit (British Columbia). Other smallerdeposits (unrepresented on this figure) were also formed inthe Cordilleran during the Mesozoic, and during Paleozoictimes in the Appalachians.

Additionally, three important unexploited deposits (asof December 31, 2001) outside of represented districts arenoted on figure 17. These are:1) Hope Bay (Hope Bay district, 134 t Au in unmined

resources)2) Moss Lake (Shebandowan district, 66 t Au)3) Box (Athabaska district, 29 t Au)

The following deposits are located inside districts rep-resented on figure 15 but also contain important un-minedresources (as of December 31, 2001) :1) Tundra (Mackenzie district, 185 t Au in unmined

resources)2) Goldex (Val d'Or district, 57 t Au)3) Taurus (Cassiar district, 50 t Au)

Genetic/Exploration Models

As indicated in Poulsen et al. (2000), one of the mainproblem in deformed and metamorphosed terranes such asgreenstone belts is that the primary characteristics may havebeen largely obscured by overprinting deformation andmetamorphism to an extent that they are difficult to recog-nize. This is particularly the case with gold-rich VMS orepithermal deposits. But since quartz-carbonate greenstone-hosted are syn- to late main phase of deformation, their pri-mary features are in most cases relatively well preserved.Consequently, once a deposit is appropriately classified,exploration models for that type of gold deposits are rela-tively well defined (cf. Hodgson, 1990, 1993; Groves et al.,2000, 2003). Academic work done since the early eightieshave proposed several different genetic models to explainthe formation of these deposits and have raised significantcontroversy. A portion of this controversy was induced bymis-classification of certain key deposits, such as Hemlo, asmesothermal or lode gold deposits. This is why the task ofdeveloping an adequate classification of gold deposits is akey framework in developing exploration models (Poulsenet al., 2000). An excellent review of the various genetic mod-els proposed and the pros and cons of each of them has beenpresented by Kerrich and Cassidy (1994). Since then,Hagemann and Cassidy (2000), Kerrich et al. (2000), Ridleyand Diamond (2000), Groves et al. (2003), and Goldfarb etal. (in press), among others, have also revisited the subject.Only a brief summary is presented here.

Several genetic models have been proposed during thelast two decades without a definite consensus. One of themain controversy is related to the source of the fluids. Theore forming fluid is typically a 1.5 ± 0.5 kbars, 350° ± 50°C,low-salinity H2O-CO2 ± CH4 ± N2 fluid which transportedgold as a reduced sulfur complex (Groves et al., 2003).Several authors have emphasized a deep source for gold andfluids related to crustal or metamorphic devolatilization anddeposition of gold in a continuum of crustal levels (cf.Colvine et al., 1989; Powell et al., 1991; Groves et al., 1995).Others have proposed a magmatic source (cf. Spooner,1991), a mantle-related model (Rock and Groves, 1988),passage of a crustal plate over a mantle plume (Kontak andArchibald, 2002), anomalous thermal conditions associatedto upwelling asthenosphere (Kerrich et al., 2000), or deepconvection of meteoric fluids (Nesbitt et al., 1986).Hutchinson (1993) has proposed a multi-stage, multi-processgenetic hypothesis where gold is recycled from pre-enrichedsource rocks and early formed, perhaps subeconomic golddeposits. Hodgson (1993) also proposed a multi-stage modelwhere gold was, at least in part, recycled from gold-rich dis-trict-scale reservoirs that resulted from earlier increments ofgold enrichment. The debate was largely alimented by stableisotopes geochemistry and more than two decades later, itremains rather impossible (from the isotopic data) to distin-guish between a fluid of metamorphic, magmatic or mantleorigin (Goldfarb et al., in press). The major involvement ofmeteoric waters in the formation of quartz-carbonate green-stone-hosted gold deposits is now viewed to be unlikely(Goldfarb et al., in press). Largely based on spatial relation-ships between the deposits and intrusive rocks, the magmat-


10

ic and mantle-related models are challenged by cross-cuttingfield relationships combined with precise U-Pb zircon datingshowing that in most cases, the proposed magmatic sourcefor the fluid is significantly older than the quartz-carbonatesveins. One such example is from the Timmins area where thequartz-carbonate veins hosting the gold mineralization at theHollinger-McIntyre deposit cut across albitite dyke dated at2673 +6/-2 Ma (Marmont and Corfu, 1989), themselves 15-20 Ma younger than the various porphyries in the regionsranging in ages from 2691 ± 33 Ma to 2688 ± 2 Ma (Corfuet al., 1989; Ayer et al., 2003). These chronological relation-ships rule out the possibility that the fluid responsible for themineralization could be related to known intrusions. Analternate model to the magmatic source model is a modelwhere the intrusions have provided the thermal energyresponsible, at least in part, for fluid circulation (cf. Wall,1989). The mantle-related model was largely based on thespatial relationship between lamprophyre dykes and golddeposits (Rock and Groves, 1988). Key arguments againstsuch a model have been presented by Wyman and Kerrich(1988, 1989). Recently, Dubé et al. (in press) have demon-strated that the lamprophyre dykes spatially associated withthe mineralization at the Campbell-Red Lake deposit are 10Ma younger than the main stage of gold mineralization.

Each of these models have merit, and various aspectsof all or some of them are potentially involved in the forma-tion of quartz-carbonate greenstone-hosted gold deposits inmetamorphic terranes.

It is largely believed that the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are related to metamorphic fluidsfrom accretionary processes and generated by progrademetamorphism and thermal re-equilibration of subductedvolcano-sedimentary terranes. The deep-seated, Au-trans-porting metamorphic fluid has been channelled to highercrustal levels through major crustal faults or deformationzones (Fig. 18). Along its pathway, the fluid has dissolvedvarious components - notably gold - from the volcano-sedi-mentary packages, including a potential gold-rich precursor,which will then precipitate as vein material or wallrockreplacement in second and third order structures at highercrustal levels through fluid-pressure cycling process andtemperature, pH and other physico-chemical variations.

However, the source of the ore fluid, and hence of goldin orogenic deposits, remains unresolved (Ridley andDiamond, 2000). According to Ridley and Diamond (2000),a model based on either metamorphic devolitilization orgranitoid magmatism fits best most of the geological param-eters. These authors indicated that the magmatic modelcould not be ruled out simply on the basis that no exposedgranite in proximity of the deposit has the right age, becausethe full sub-surface architecture of the crust is unknown.Ridley and Diamond (2000) also indicated that the fluidcomposition should not be expected to reflect the source.The fluid travels great distances and its measured composi-tion now reflects the fluid-rock interactions along its path-way, or a mixed signature of the source and the wall rocks(Ridley and Diamond, 2000). In terms of exploration, at thegeological province or terrane scale, geological parametersthat are common in highly fertile volcano-sedimentary beltsinclude: 1-reactivated crustal-scale fault that focused por-phyry-lamprophyre dyke swarms; 2-complex regional-scalegeometry of mixed lithostratigraphic packages; and 3-evi-dence for multiple mineralization or remobilization events(Groves et al., 2003). The overprinting or remobilization wasclearly a key factor in the formation of the exceptionally richGoldcorp High-Grade Zone of the Campbell-Red Lakedeposit (Dubé et al., 2002; in press). The empirical spatialand genetic (?) relationship between large gold deposits andTimiskaming-like regional unconformity represents a keyfirst order exploration target as illustrated by districts such asTimmins, Kirkland Lake and Red Lake (Hodgson, 1993;Robert., 2000; Dubé et al., 2000, 2003 and in press).

Knowledge gapsSeveral outstanding problems remain for quartz-car-

bonate greenstone-hosted deposits. As mentioned above, thesources of fluid and gold remain unresolved (Ridley andDiamond, 2000). Other critical elements are listed inHagemann and Cassidy (2000) and Groves et al. (2003). Inpractical terms, the authors believe that the two most out-standing knowledge gaps to be addressed are: 1-better definethe key geological parameters controlling the formation ofgiant gold deposits; and 2-what controls the high-grade con-tent of deposits or part of deposits. The classification of golddeposit types remain a problem which is more than academ-ic, as it has a major impact on exploration strategies (e.g.what type of deposit to look for, where, and how?) (cf.Poulsen et al., 2000). Why geological provinces such as theSuperior and Yilgarn are so richly endowed also remainsunclear. It is also believed that integrated study such asExtech or Natmap; where various aspects of the geology ofa gold mining district or camp are addressed; remain the bestapproach. The most fundamental elements to take intoaccount to succeed in addressing these questions remain: 1)basic chronological field relationships, combined with 2)accurate U-Pb geochronology in order to establish the defi-nite chronological evolution between mineralizing event(s)and deformation/metamorphism phase(s).


11

GRANITOIDSHEAR ZONE

VOLCANIC

IRON-FORMATION

WACKE-SHALE

VEIN

TURBIDITE-hosted

HOMESTAKETYPE

GREENSTONE-hostedVEIN

SETTING OF GREENSTONE GOLD DEPOSITSSETTING OF GREENSTONE GOLD DEPOSITS

SULPHIDE BODY

3

1

BRITTLE-DUCTILEZONE

BRITTLE-DUCTILEZONE

FIG. 18: Schematic diagram illustrating the setting of greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein deposit (from Poulsen et al., 2000).

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27088112 Green Stone Hosted Quartz Carbonate Vein Deposits Orogenic Me So Thermal Lode