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SINDH UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL (SCIENCE SERIES)
Petrographic Studies of the Vihowa Formation, Sulaiman Range, Pakistan: Implications for Provenance
K. A. MIRANI, M. H. AGHEEM++*, S. H. SOLANGI*, H. DARS*, A. G. SAHITO*
Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Islamabad, Pakistan
Received 28th January 2017 and Revised 17th September 2017
1. INTRODUCTION
The late to early Miocene rocks of Vihowa
Formation are exposed in the middle part of the
Zindapir anticline, eastern margin of Sulaiman Fold
Belt, Middle Indus Basin (Fig. 1). The study area lies at
lat. 300 32’ 16” N and long. 700 29’ 18” E at Barthi
Village. The Vihowa Formation is comprised of
medium to coarse grained sandstone, subordinate clay
and siltstone, whereas in the study area the sandstone is
thick and cross bedded. The sandstone is light to dark
gray, yellowish gray, light brown, reddish brown,
medium to coarse grained and subangular to
subrounded. The sandstones are mostly porous, loose to
compact and poorly sorted. The first name Siwalik-like
sediments (early to late Miocene) was given to this
formation and afterwards replaced with Vihowa
Formation in Sulaiman Range by Hemphill and Kidwai
(1973). They investigated lithological characteristics of
Siwalik Group and reported vertebrate fossils. The type
section was designated at Vihowa Rud east of Charwata
Post. Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) measured this formation
as 700 meters thick in type section Litra Nala and 430
meters thick in Chaudhwan Zam. Kidwell and Holland
(2002) observed and described that the heterogeneous
sediments of this formation accommodated in shallow
marine environment by the fluctuation of sea level.
The available literature review indicates that a little
work on source has been done but no detailed
petrographic studies have been carried out on this
formation, especially in the context of source and
provenance and so far, the main purpose of this paper is
to provide petrographic information of the constituent
sediments to interpret provenance and the nature of
source rocks of Vihowa Formation.
Fig. 1 Geological map of the study area
(after Abu Bakar et al., 1964)
2. REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING
It is now widely accepted that the detrital
sediments of early Tertiary age, which have been
deposited throughout the Indus basin are the result of
collision between Indo-Pakistan and the Asian
continental plates at about 50Ma (Garzanti et al., 1996).
Abstract: The Vihowa Formation of late to early Miocene is investigated for mineral composition and petrographic characteristics to
understand the provenance, diagenesis and depositional environments. Ten representative sandstone samples were collected from various
lithological units for petrographic studies. Petrographic results show that the quartz is a major constituent; while the accessory minerals are
chlorite, chamosite, palagonite, sphalerite, staurolite, aragonite, hypersthene, glaucophane, monazite, kyanite, epidote, olivine, rutile,
illmenite, hematite, magnetite, zircon, tourmaline and garnet. The tourmaline and rutile showing an igneous source however, the presence of
epidote, staurolite and garnet expresses a metamorphic source for studied sandstones. The sandstone is medium to coarse grained having
grains dominantly from the meta-sedimentary rocks whereas minor amount of grains from igneous rocks is also observed. Monocrystalline
quartz is present in sands derived either from gneiss or granitic rocks, but polycrystalline quartz are from slate and schist. The inclusion of
mica and garnet within quartz is observed which indicates a metamorphic source. On the QFL triangular diagram the sandstone of Vihowa
Formation is mainly sub-lithic arenite and partly quartz arenite. The Qm-P-K plots indicate that feldspar and quartz are from granitic rocks
along with small amount from metamorphic and volcanic rocks. The provenance of sandstone indicates that sediments were mostly deposited
by transitional recycled orogeny and mixed magmatic subduction complex. .
Keywords: Vihowa Formation, Petrography, Provenance, depositional environments, Sulaiman Range
++Corresponding author: [email protected]; 0092-3339401460 *Centre for Pure & Applied Geology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan
http://doi.org/10.26692/sujo/2017.12.0068
Sindh Univ. Res. Jour. (Sci. Ser.) Vol.49 (004) 835-842 (2017)
Whereas, the Zhob thrust fault and Gazaband faults are
formed by the Himalayan-Hindu Kush collision
(Fig. 2), (after Hemphill and Kidwal, 1973). It is
generally accepted that the deposition of sediments of
Chitarwata Formation within Himalayan foreland basin
is the result of collision between India-Asia and eustatic
sea level changes (Clift et al., 2001) Moreover, the
sedimentation record of Himalayan foreland basin is
well preserved in the form of both Chitarwata and
Vihowa formations (Downing et al. 1993). Literature
review further shows that Vihowa Formation holds best
exposures of fluvio-deltaic sedimentation to represent
the southward progradation of Indus River system
(Qayyum et al., 2001). 300 m thick coastal facies of the
Vihowa Formation represents the best fluvio-deltaic
system in Zindapir area (Downing et al. 1993).
Fig. 2 Regional geological map showing the location of Sulaiman
Range and the surroundings
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS
During filed work ten sandstone samples were
collected from major facies of Vihowa Formation
exposed along Sakhi Sarwar section. Small rock chips
were cut and mounted on glass slides with resin to avoid
any loss during grinding and polishing. For further
binding of loose and friable particles the samples were
heated in an oven. The prepared thin sections were
studied under polarizing microscope for framework
grains, matrix and cement. With the help of visual
estimation charts of Terry and Chilingar, (1955) the
relative abundance was determined. The altered grains
were counted as original grains while the framework
grains were counted by using the method of Gazzi-
Dickinson to reduce the effect of grain size (Dickinson,
1970, Ingersoll et al., 1984). Depending on grain size;
greater than 300 points were counted in each section.
Depending on grain size, the grid spacing was
frequently changed to avoid the double counting of any
grain. For present study; the method of Dickinson
(1985) is followed for framework parameters that are
shown in Table 1. For classification of sandstone the
Folk (1980) scheme is followed and modal analysis data
is recalculated and shown in Table 2. To determine the
tectonic settings and provenance of sediments; the
ternary diagrams of Dickinson (1985) are used. For
further specific tectonic settings, all the used ternary
diagrams are further classified into diverse isolated
fields.
4. PETROGRAPHIC STUDIES AND
PROVENANCE
Ten sandstone samples were collected from various
lithological units/facies of the Vihowa Formation during
the field visit for microscopic studies. The framework
constituents were counted randomly following the
method of Dickinson (1970), Graham et al. (1976),
Ingersoll and Suczek (1979) and Dickinson (1985). The
petrographic studies were carried out to investigate
mineral composition, grain to grain contact relationship
and alteration of grains in sandstone of Vihowa
Formation. The results are presented in Tables 1, 2 3.
The major categories of grains identified during the
point counting include undulatory and non-undulatory
monocrystalline quartz, polycrystalline quartz,
sedimentary lithic, volcanic lithic, sedimentary-
metamorphic lithic grains and chert (Tables 1, 2, 3).
Heavy minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, hematite,
magnetite, zircon, tourmaline, garnet and mica are also
identified (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Microphotographs (XPL) of different sandstones of the
Vihowa Formation, (A) dark pink muscovite (Ms) flakes (B)
Secondary Gypsum (Gp) grains and veins (C) Euhedral and
corroded grain of feldspar (plagioclase) “F” with albite twinning
(D) and (E) Quartz (Q) grains (F) Mica (Mc) grains within the
sandstones
K. A. MIRANI et al., 836
4.1 Petrography of Vihowa Formation
Sandstone types can be determined by the weight
percentage of quartz, feldspar and rock
fragments. Sukhtankar (2004) described depositional
environment and provenance of sandstones by studying
heavy minerals and rock fragments. There are various
schemes to classify the sandstones but here the
classification scheme of Pettijohn et al. (1987) has been
utilized. The re-calculated data is plotted on Q-F-L
triangular diagram (Fig. 4) which shows that nine
samples drop into the field of sub-lithic arenite; whereas
only one sample fall in quartz arenite field. Three types
of sandstones are identified on the basis of percentage
of detrital minerals and rock fragments which are
quartzarenite, sublithicarenite and lithicarenite.
Thin section study indicates that quartz is the main
component of sandstone of Vihowa Formation ranging
from 68 to 80% which includes both mono and
polycrystalline grains (Fig. 4, after Petijhon et al., 1987;
Tables 1, 2, 3). Monocrystalline quartz grains are
abundant as compared to polycrystalline grains. It is
observed that these grains have concavo-convex contact
with each other and some quartz grains are fractured. It
is general phenomenon that monocrystalline quartz are
dominantly present in sands/sandstones resulting from
granitic and gneissic rocks, while polycrystalline quartz
grains are found in those sandstones originally derived
from slate and schist (Tortosa et al., 1991). Inclusions of
mica and garnet are also found within quartz grains
which indicates metamorphic source. Young (1976)
pointed out that during metamorphism under the
influence of increasing pressure and temperature; the
monocrystalline quartz may be formed from
polycrystalline quartz. Moreover, the undulatory
extinction of quartz further indicates that the source
rocks are metamorphic in origin and have experienced a
lot of pressure. Sutured boundaries are very much clear
within the studied polycrystalline quartz. Muscovite
occurs as overgrowth on mono-crystalline quartz. The
feldspar ranges from 4 to 15% in studied sandstones
(Tables 1, 2, 3) and it was derived probably from
uplifted oceanic island-arc terrain that had been rare
source area in sedimentary record. In addition,
inclusions of zircon and tourmaline are also seen within
the feldspar grains.
Rock fragments are the main components, ranging
from 12 to 25% in sandstone. These are predominantly
chert, siltstone, limestone and schist with subordinate
shale and volcanic fragments. It is probable that these
fragments were derived from Cretaceous and Eocene of
Sulaiman belt. Micas are also associated with some of
these rock fragments and minerals. It is observed that
biotite is generally altered to chlorite. Flaky minerals
are mostly altered and therefore, the cleavage shape is
generally wavy and broken and somewhere completely
absent. Unidirectional flaky minerals indicate that the
speed of water flow current was very slow during the
deposition of Vihowa sandstone. The accessory
minerals include; chlorite, chamosite, palagonite,
sphalerite, staurolite, aragonite, hypersthene,
glaucophane, monazite, kyanite, epidote, olivine, rutile,
illmenite, hematite, magnetite, zircon, tourmaline and
garnet (Table 4). Such mineral assemblage indicates a
bimodal source of sediments: for example, staurolite,
garnet and epidote point out a metamorphic source
while the tourmaline and rutile pointing an igneous
source (Tucker, 2001). The sandstone is mainly
cemented by silica, ferruginous materials and minor
substitutes of clay, mud, and calcite. During study, it
was observed that quartz overgrowth is the most
common type of silica cement and is the product of
diagenesis. Along with other factors, it may also occur
due to pressure dissolution. Iron and calcite are
converted to ferrogeneous clay and mud by pressure
solution. Ferruginous pseudo-patches have been found
at some places. Reddish brown ring is developed on
surrounding of ferrugeneous grains by the reaction of
iron oxidized material and ferromagnesian materials.
Various sizes of light dirty reddish brown patches have
been observed due to alteration within iron-magnesium
and mud. The ferruginous pseudo-patches, iron oxide
and mud patches are found in cementing materials.
Grains are bounded by pseudo-matrix, ferruginous clay
and clay matrix.
Fig. 4 QFL diagram for the sandstone samples of Vihowa
Formation
Fig. 5 QtFL diagram for the provenance of sandstones of Vihowa
Formation.
Petrographic Studies of the Vihowa Formation… 837
Table 1 Point counting data of sandstone samples of Vihowa Formation
Note: Key for petrographic and other parameters (after Dickinson 1985). (Qm un) Undulouse monocrystalline quartz, (Qm non) Non-undulouse
monocrystalline quartz, (Qpq) Polycrystalline quartz, (Ls) Sedimentary rock fragments, (Lv) Volcanic-metavolcanic rock fragments, (Lsm)
Metasedimentary rock fragments, (P) Plagioclase feldspar, (K) Potassium feldspar and (Cht) Chert
Table 2 Recalculated parameters through point counting used in various triangular diagrams for provenance of sandstones of Vihowa
Formation
Note: Key for petrographic and other parameters (after Dickinson 1985). (Qm) monocrystalline quartz, (Qp) Polycrystalline Quartzose (or
chalcedonic) lithic fragments, (Qt) Total quartzose grains, (F) Total feldspar grains, (Lt) Total siliciclastic lithic fragments, (L) Unstable
(siliciclastic) lithic fragments (Lv+ Ls+ Lsm), (Acc) Accessory minerals, (Cem-matx) Cementing materials and matrix.
Table 3 Percentage of various constituents of sandstones of the Vihowa Formation for plotting on the QFL diagram
Sample No. Quartz % Feldspar % Rock Fragments % Cementing Materials % Accessory Minerals %
VF ZPD-1
VF ZPD-2
VF ZPD-3
VF ZPD-4
VF ZPD-5
VF ZPD-6
VF ZPD-7
VF ZPD-8
VF ZPD-9
VF ZPD-10
72.72
58.04
69.34
71.32
68.80
63.69
68.57
68.51
69.23
65.49
01.94
04.89
02.18
02.20
05.50
05.35
05.71
05.55
05.59
05.26
18.18
25.87
13.86
15.44
15.59
13.69
12.85
16.04
17.48
19.29
06.49
07.69
12.40
10.29
10.09
11.30
11.42
07.40
06.99
08.18
0.64
03.49
02.18
0.73
0.00
05.95
01.42
02.46
0.69
01.75
S. No. Sample No Qm
un
Qm non Qpq Ls Lv Lsm P K Cht
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
VF ZPD-1
VF ZPD-2
VF ZPD-3
VF ZPD-4
VF ZPD-5
VF ZPD-6
VF ZPD-7
VF ZPD-8
VF ZPD-9
VF ZPD-10
14
10
15
21
17
24
20
16
22
18
20
11
24
11
13
21
15
19
10
23
75
60
55
63
45
61
58
72
66
70
12
20
09
16
14
11
15
19
09
18
06
10
07
04
01
08
02
06
09
10
10
07
03
01
02
04
01
01
07
05
02
04
01
02
06
08
07
07
01
04
01
03
02
01
00
01
01
02
03
04
03
02
01
02
00
01
03
04
01
02
Sample No. Qm Qp Qt Q F Lt L Acc Cem-matx
VF ZPD-1
VF ZPD-2
VF ZPD-3
VF ZPD-4
VF ZPD-5
VF ZPD-6
VF ZPD-7
VF ZPD-8
VF ZPD-9
VF ZPD-10
34
21
39
32
30
45
35
35
32
40
78
62
56
65
45
62
61
76
67
72
112
83
95
97
75
107
96
111
99
112
109
81
94
95
75
96
93
107
98
110
03
07
03
03
06
09
08
09
08
09
106
99
75
86
62
85
79
102
92
105
28
37
19
21
17
23
18
26
25
33
01
05
03
01
00
10
02
04
01
03
10
11
17
14
11
19
16
12
10
14
K. A. MIRANI et al., 838
Table 4 Accessory minerals of the sandstone samples of the Vihowa Formation
Minerals VFZD
P-1
VFZDP
-2
VFZDP
-3
VFZDP
-4
VFZDP
-5
VFZDP
-6
VFZDP
-7
VFZDP
-8
VFZDP
-9
VFZDP
-10
Biotite 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.9 1 1.3 1.3 1.4 0.5
Muscovite 1.8 0.8 - 0.3 - 0.2 - - 0.4 -
Chlorite 0.2 0.1 - - - - - - - -
Chamosite 1 - - - - - 0.3 - - -
Palagonite 0.1 - - - - - 0.5 - 0.2 -
Sphalerite - - - - - - 0.05 - - -
Staurolite - 0.3 0.2 - - - - - - -
Aragonite 0.2 - 0.1 - - - 0.49 - - -
Hypersthene - - 0.2 - 0.1 - - - 0.3 -
Gypsum - - - - - - - 0.2 0.8 0.2
Glaucophan
e 1 - 0.5 - - 0.4 - - - -
Clay
minerals - 0.2 0.2 0.2 1 1 1.7 - - -
Monazite 1.5 - - 0.3 - - - - 0.3 0.1
Kyanite - 0.1 - - - - - 0.1 0.4 -
Epidote - 0.2 - - - - 0.3 - 0.2 -
Olivine 0.1 0.1 - - - - - 0.3 - -
Rutile - 0.1 0.6 - - 0.3 0.4 - 0.3 0.2
Illmenite - 0.3 - 0.4 - 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.1 --
Zircon - - 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.1 - 0.2 -
Tourmaline 0.3 - - 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.4
Garnet 0.2 0.3 1.2 - 1.3 1 0.96 0.6 0.6 0.6
Haematite 0.1 - - - - - - - - -
4.2 Provenance
Recalculated data of sandstone samples plotted on
Qt-F-L triangular diagram (after Dickinson and Suczek,
1979) indicate that all studied samples fall in the field of
recycled orogen (Fig. 5). Plot of Qm-F-Lt (after
Dickinson et al., 1983, 1985) (Fig. 6a) indicate that five
out of ten samples plot on lithic recycled while the
remaining five samples within the field of transitional
recycled. The Lm-Lv-Ls triangular diagram (after
Ingersoll and Suczek, 1979; Suczek and Ingersoll, 1985)
indicates mixed magmatic and subduction complex
(Fig. 6b). The Qm-P-K diagram (after Dickinson and
Suczek, 1979) indicates detrital modes of the mineral
grains alone and polycrystalline fragments only quartz
and feldspar grains. It is very clear from (Fig. 6c). (i.e.,
Qm-P-K diagram) that feldspar and quartz are originally
from granite with some input of metamorphic rocks and
volcanics. The Qm pole shows rising maturity for
detritus that is either recycled or has been derived from
the cratonic blocks of orogenic parts as is reported by
Dickinson and Suczek (1979) for the tectonic set up and
composition of sandstones. The cluster of samples is
very close to Qm pole which indicates that Vihowa
sandstones are highly matured and recycled. The Qp-
Lv-Ls plot (after Dickinson et al., 1983, 1985) shows
that two out of ten samples drop in the field of collision
orogeny source; however, one sample fall between the
boundary of collision orogeny and subduction complex
source whereas, eight samples fall within the subduction
complex source (Fig. 6d).
Petrographic Studies of the Vihowa Formation… 839
Fig. 6 Compositional diagrams of sandstones of Vihowa Formation, (A) Qm-F-Lt shows that the samples plot in transitional recycled and
lithic recycled, (B) On Lm-Lv-Ls diagram, the samples plot in mixed magmatic arc and subduction complex, (C) Qm-P-K diagram
showing the detritus mode of grains, (D) Qp-Lv-Ls diagram showing the source of sediments
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The identified types of quartz grains indicate that
the source of Vihowa Formation is both metamorphic as
well as plutonic in origin. The high proportion of mono-
crystalline quartz of undulose and non-undulose nature
(Tables 1 & 2) indicates derivation of sediments of
Vihowa Formation is from a plutonic igneous source.
Such types of observations have been drawn by Blatt,
(1967) by studying the characteristics of quartz grains.
Gallala et al., (2009) described different sets of minerals
and on the basis of their presence mentioned the source
of sediments. In this regard, the observed minerals of
Vihowa Formation such as the rutile, zircon, staurolite,
and tourmaline points out that the source of sediments is
from the acidic igneous rocks. Along with quartz, the
lithic fragments of Vihowa Formation are meta-
sedimentary in origin. Moreover, the inclusions of mica
and garnet minerals within quartz grains are another
indication of metamorphic source. Nowadays, it is a
common mineralogical fact that during metamorphism
polycrystalline quartz are formed from monocrystalline
quartz because of increasing pressure and temperature.
Along with others; Tucker, (2001) also proposed a set of
heavy minerals, and on the basis of their presence or
absence, the source lithologies can be determined. He
mentioned that epidote, staurolite and garnet favour a
metamorphic source terrain while tourmaline and rutile
show an igneous source. The studied samples when
plotted on triangular diagrams such as the Qm-F-Lt and
Lm-Lv-Ls indicate transitional recycled, lithic reclyed
and mixed magmatic and subduction complex,
respectively (Fig 6a, b). The identified mineral
assemblages and their plotting within different
discrimination diagrams point out that both feldspar and
K. A. MIRANI et al., 840
quartz are derived from granitoids with some input of
metamorphic and volcanic rocks. In terms of
provenance; the present findings are in agreement with
Garzanti et al., (1996); where they discussed the detrital
modes of Tertiary sandstones and mentioned that the
feldspathic modes belong to active Asian mainland,
whereas the sediments of quartz-arenitic are from
subducting Indo-Pakistan Plate. Moreover, Downing
and Goebel (1991) presented some details and pointed
out the source for detrital mode of both Chitarwata and
Vihowa formations. Their studies show that the detrital
mode for the Chitarwata Formation is from a northern
cratonic, however, the sediments of Vihowa Formation
are from recycled orogenic detrital mode. They studied
the sediments of above formations in the Dalana area of
Zindapir Dome. In this regard, the sandstones of Litra
and Chaudhwan formations fall in the typical setting of
collision orogeny and suture belts (Ahmed and Khan,
1991).
In the light of above discussion, it is concluded that
the sediments of the Vihowa Formation are derived
from the interior of a craton and then recycled to deposit
in present position. It is also probable that the rock
fragments of studied sandstone may have been
transported from Cretaceous Pab sandstone, exposed in
Sulaiman belt in the west.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are very grateful to Dr. Syed Shahid
Hussain, Ex. Director General Pakistan Museum of
Natural History, Islamabad for his encouragement, help
and providing research facilities. Authors are also
grateful to Dr. Jamil Afzal, Deputy Chief Geologist in
OMV Exploration & Production Limited Islamabad
Pakistan for the review of manuscript, valuable
comments and preparation of the final draft of the
article. Mr. Hamid Dawood Ex-Curator, Pakistan
Museum of Natural History, Islamabad is acknowledged
for his ideas, support and discussion. Mr. Shan Haider
and Mr. Muhammad Imran are also thanked for their
support in paper setting, field assistance and in
laboratory work.
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