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Open education and critical pedagogyJournal ItemHow to cite:

Farrow, Robert (2017). Open education and critical pedagogy. Learning, Media and Technology, 42 pp. 130–146.

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Thisisanearlydraftofthepaperwhicheventuallyappearsashttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439884.2016.1113991.Ican’tuploadthefinalversionherebecauseofcopyrightbutImightbeabletoshareanauthorversionifyougetintouch…

OpeneducationandcriticalpedagogyDr.RobertFarrowInstituteofEducationalTechnologyTheOpenUniversityWaltonHallMiltonKeynesMK76AArob.farrow@open.ac.ukSubmittedtospecialissueofLearning,Media&Technology(http://explore.tandfonline.com/cfp/ed/call-for-papers/cjem-cfp-feb-14)Keywords:openeducation,OER,MOOC,critique,evidence,criticaltheory,criticalpedagogy,discourseanalysis,openwashingAbstract:Thispaperarguesforarevaluationofthepotentialofopeneducationtosupportmorecriticalformsofpedagogy.SectionIexaminescontemporarydiscoursesaroundopeneducation,offeringacommentaryontheperceptionofopennessasbothadisruptiveforceineducation,andapotentialsolutiontocontemporarychallenges.SectionIIexaminestheimplicationsofthelackofconsensusaroundwhatitmeanstobeopen,focusingontheexampleofcommercialandproprietaryclaimstoopennesscommonlyknownas‘openwashing’.SectionIIIusesRaymond’sinfluentialessayonopensourcesoftware‘TheCathedralandtheBazaar’asaframeworkforthinkingthroughtheseissues,andaboutalternativepowerstructuresinopeneducation.InSectionIVanexplicitlinkisdrawnbetweenmoreequalordemocraticpowerstructuresandthepossibilityfordevelopingpedagogieswhicharecriticalandreflexive,providingexampleswhichshowhowcertaininterpretationsofopennesscanraiseopportunitiestosupportcriticalapproachestopedagogy.

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Introduction

Thispaperexploressomeoftheunder-theorisedaspectsofopeneducation,

primarilyfocusingonthepossibilitiesforaligningopennessineducationwith

possibilitiesforwhat,followingFreire(1970)andKincheloe(2008),Iterm

‘criticalpedagogy’.Criticalpedagogyrepresentsasynthesisofeducational

theoryandcriticaltheory,takingfromthelatteraninterestinthefundamental

relationsofpowerthatinfluencethesocialorderandtheformationofhuman

subjectivity.Criticalpedagoguesaimtoencourageindependentlyminded

learnerswhoquestionthestatusquoandengageexplicitlywithquestionsof

truth,powerandjustice.IraShor(1992:129)hasdefinedcriticalpedagogyas

follows:

“Habitsofthought,reading,writing,andspeakingwhichgobeneathsurfacemeaning,firstimpressions,dominantmyths,officialpronouncements,traditionalclichés,receivedwisdom,andmereopinions,tounderstandthedeepmeaning,rootcauses,socialcontext,ideology,andpersonalconsequencesofanyaction,event,object,process,organization,experience,text,subjectmatter,policy,massmedia,ordiscourse.”

Ishallarguebelowthatthisongoingcriticalinterestinformsofknowledge

productionandhowtheyinfluencebeliefs,thoughtsandactionsbothinthe

individualandinsocietyasawholeischaracteristicofcriticalpedagogy,and

thatopeneducation–andopeneducationalresources(OER)inparticular–

offersstrategiesthatareconducivetosuchgoalsviz-à-vizimproved

understandingofboththeconditionsandtechniquesthatsupportknowledge

creationandtransmission;andasenseoftheimportanceofpowerrelationsfor

thepedagogicalprocessitself.

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Theriseofinterestinopeneducation–oftenintheformofMassivelyOpen

OnlineCourses(MOOC)–hasbeenwidelydescribedasaradicalordisruptive

forcewhichcallsintoquestionsomebasicassumptionsaboutmoderneducation.

AsJohnDanielshaswritten:

“Openeducationbrokeopentheirontriangleofaccess,costandqualitythathadconstrainededucationthroughouthistoryandhadcreatedtheinsidiousassumption,stillprevalenttoday,thatineducationyoucannothavequalitywithoutexclusivity.”(Daniels,citedinWilson&McCarthy,2012).

Thechangesthatareonlyjustbeginningtobefeltallultimatelyresultfromthe

factthatitisnoweasierthanevertoproduceanddistributeeducationalmedia

andresources.Whilethismayhaveuncomfortableimplicationsforeducational

institutionsandcommercialorganisationsthathaveaninterestincontrollingthe

supplyofsuchresources,thepotentialforamorecollectiveandinclusive

approachtolearningisconsiderable.

I.OpennessandDiscoursesofDisruption

InthesediscoursessurroundingMOOCreferencetocrisisintraditional

educationaremorecommonandmorehyperbolic.AsDeimann(2015)has

shown,discourseanalysisofthemediacoverageofMOOCrevealsofkindof

neoliberalframingwhichportraysMOOCasaninterventionwhichcanopenup

newmarketsforeducationwhilerevolutionizingexistingones.Inparticular,

articlesintheNewYorkTimesbetween2012and2013whichsupportpublic

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investmentinthe‘efficiencies’oftheprivatesectorareidentifiedcloselywith

thisframework.Narrativeslikethesetendtopromotetheideathat

technologicalinnovationcanofferaneatsolutiontothevariousproblemsthat

beseteducationalinstitutions.

Fewwoulddenythatcontemporaryinstitutionsofhighereducationfacearange

ofchallenges.Againstthebackdropofageneralcommodificationofeducation

andeducationalinstitutions,pedagogicalrelationshipsarechangingandmoving

intounchartedwaters.Studentsareincreasinglyviewed(andviewthemselves)

asconsumersandmanyseeeducationaslittlemorethanpreparationforthe

worldofworkratherthanthetraditionalpublicgood.Facultyarewitnessinga

bifurcationoftheirteachingandresearchroleswhichisnowbecoming

entrenchedthewaythatuniversitiesarerunwithmanythousandsofadjunct

facultyonshortzerohourscontracts,lackingadequateemploymentsecurity.In

theUSAandtheUKlevelsofstudentdebtcontinuetoriseexponentiallywhile

theperceivedvalueofadegree(especiallyintheartsandhumanities)isfalling.

Thefundamentalvaluepropositionofhighereducationischanging.Inhisrecent

book,TheBattleforOpen,MartinWellersummarizesthisasfollows:

Spendingoneducationhasbeenincreasing,whilethereturngraduatesreceiveintermsofincreasedsalaryhasbeendiminishing.Inshort,highereducationisnolongeragoodreturnoninvestmentfromapurelymonetaryperspective.(Weller,2014:94)

Peopleareincreasinglyturningtoopenmaterialstomeettheirlearningneeds,

andfindingthatthereisagreaterrangeofchoiceavailablethaneverbefore,

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muchofitavailableforfree.Atthesametime,opennessisincreasingly

proposedasasolutionwithinformaleducationalinstitutions.Whetheracrisis

offunding,organization,accessibility,curriculumpedagogy,orresourcesthere’s

anopen,networkedapproachthathasbeensuggestedtoaddresstheproblem.

Broadly,theseincludemovingtoOERmodelsofpedagogy,startingaMOOC,or

increasingtheprovisionoffreedigitalresources.Openaccesspublication,for

instance,isintendedtoovercomerestrictedaccesstopeerreviewedscholarship

andresearch.OpenlicensingoftextualandmultimediacontentasOERare

upheldasaresponsetocopyrightlawswhichlimitaccesstoeducational

materials,raisethecostofeducationandstultifyinnovationinpedagogical

practice.Opentextbooksarepresentedasasolutiontoproprietarytextbooks

whichareoftenprohibitivelyexpensiveintheUSA(Senack,2015).

Ofthedifferentelementswithintheconstellationof‘openeduation’,MOOCs

haveperhapsmadegreatestinroadsintothepopularimagination,withmany

inchesofcolumnspacedevotedtoitinbothacademiaandthepopularpress.The

cheerleadersoftheMOOCmovement–whoarethemselvesprimarilyproviders

ofMOOCplatformslikeCoursera,EdX,Udacity,etc.–oftenportraytheir

interventionsasbothpracticalsolutiontoeverydayproblemsandasasortof

historicallynecessary,technologically-necessaryformofdisruptiveintervention.

Apocalypseandcrisisarethusmotifsthatareincreasinglycommonin

contemporarydiscoursearoundeducationalandmediatechnology.

Theseapproachesareoftenaccompaniedbytheideaofsomesortofsalvation

throughtechnologyandrootedinChristiansen’s(1997)notionofdisruptive

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innovation.In2013,Christiansen–aprofessorintheHarvardBusinessSchool–

isreputedtohavesaidthefollowing:

Fifteenyearsfromnowmorethanhalfoftheuniversitieswillbeinbankruptcy,includingthestateschools.Intheend,Iamexcitedtoseethathappen.(Christiansen,quotedinMeisenhelder,2013:8)

Similarly,SebastianThrun,founderofUdacity,hasassertedthat“In50years

therewillbeonlyteninstitutionsinthewholeworldthatdeliverhigher

education”(quotedinLeckhart,2012).Withthe“death”ofonekindofpractice,

newpracticesbettersuitedtocontextcanemerge–orsothedisruptive

innovatorswouldhaveit.Watters(2013)arguesthatthattheseapocalyptic

mythshaveapervasiveeffectinAmericanculture,andthattheideaofdisruptive

innovationisparticularlyprevalentamongSiliconValleyentrepreneursandin

business.Theideologicallysaturatednarrativeleadstopredictionsaboutthe

inevitabledeclineofestablishedsystemsinhighereducation:themovetomass

onlinelearning;theinevitabledeathofunder-performingschools;afundamental

changeinthenatureoftheuniversity.Publicinstitutions,itisargued,areunable

toinnovatebecausetheyaremonolithicallyinflexibleandsomehowbeyondthe

reachoftheefficiencyofmarketforces.Weareencouragedtoembracefor-

profitandMOOCstyleeducationsincetheirprevalenceisseenasboth

economicallynecessaryandastheinevitableculminationofthehistoryofthe

academyandthefutureofprofessionaltraining(Bond,2013).

TheNewYorkTimes(Pappano,2012)wentasfarastoproclaim2012“Theyear

oftheMOOC”inanticipationofthefar-reachingchangethatopennessin

educationwouldbringabout.YetMOOCareincreasinglyweatheredby

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skepticismandthesenarrativesarebeingchallenged.In2012theBabson

SurveyResearchGroupaddedquestionsaboutMOOCtotheirannualsurveyof

morethan2,800chiefacademicofficersincollegesanduniversitiesandfound

thatmostfacultyandacademicofficerswereinfactskepticalaboutthevalueof

MOOCactivityfortheirinstitution(Allen&Seaman,2013).TheUniversityof

NewEnglandhasgoneasfarastocompletelyceaseitsMOOCactivitybecauseit

hasbeenunabletomonetizeitsuccessfully(Dodd,2014a)whileJohnMitchell,

vice-provostforonlinelearningandoverseerofStanford’sMOOCprogramme,

hassuggestedthatnocollegeoruniversitywillbeabletocontinuefundingfree

courseswithoutfindingawaytocoverthecosts.

MOOCshavestartedoutasafreeopportunity–andfreeisagreatwaytogetpeopleinterested…buttraditionally,studentsintheUSpaytuitiontogotocollegeoruniversityandIdon’tthinkitisunreasonabletoaskpeopletopayalittlebitforeducationactivitiesthathelpthemtomoveforwardintheircareers…Ithink[Stanford]willhavelowcost,highvolume,butnon-freecoursesonlinethatwillhelpmakeouronlineprogrammessustainable.(QuotedinParr,2014).

CommercialprovidersanduniversitymanagersseeinMOOCthepotential

profitabilityofscaleandthepromiseofextendinginfluenceandreachwithout

significantlyincreasingoverheads.Thoughno-onehasyetshownaviable

businessmodelfromMOOC,majorproviderslikeedXhaveannouncedthatthey

willbeginchargingforprofessionaleducationcoursesfromthisyear(Dodd,

2014b).

QuestionsarealsobeingraisedabouttheextenttowhichMOOCenhanceaccess

toeducation.ManypredictedthatMOOCwouldimproveaccesstolearningby

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removingeconomicandgeographicalbarriers(aclaimthathasbeenmadeabout

technology-enhancedmasseducationsinceatleastthe1950s).Inparticular,the

claimthatMOOCsignificantlyincreaseaccesstoeducationbyextending

opportunitytothosedemographicswhicharelessrepresentedinformal

educationsystemshasbeenshowntobehighlyproblematicwhenmostMOOC

learnerstendtobewhite,relativelywealthy,andmostlikelyalreadyin

possessionof(atleast)anundergraduatedegree(Laurillard,2014;Emmanuel,

2013;Perryman,2013).

WithMOOCandtheirvariousderivatives,‘open’tendstobeusedtodenote

courseswhichcanbejoinedbyanyonewhohastherighttechnologytoaccess

contentdeliveredonline–therearenorequirementsintermsofprior

qualification.Thishasledtosomecourseswithmanyhundredsofthousandsof

registeredlearners,withanaverageenrollmentofaround40,000students

(Jordan,2014).MOOChaveoftendescribedaseither‘cMOOC’or‘xMOOC’.

cMOOCoriginallyrantotestConnectivisttheoriesaboutnetworkedlearning

throughprocessesofaccumulation,collectivecontentcreation,andsharing

(Siemens,2005).Mostverylargecoursenumbers–sometimeswithhundredsof

thousandsoflearners–arefoundinthexMOOC,whichtypicallymake

institutionalcoursecontentavailabletoverylargenumbersoflearnersbuthave

beenaccusedofbeingpedagogicallyretrograde(Stacey,2014).AsBayne&Ross

(2014:21-22)note,wearestartingtoseeamoveawayfromthecMOOC/xMOOC

binaryandgreaterrecognitionofmorediverseformsofopenonlinecourse,

includingDOCC(DistributedOpenCollaborativeCourse);POOC(Participatory

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OpenOnlineCourse);BOOC(Big/BoutiqueOpenOnlineCourse);andevenanon-

openvariant–SPOC(SmallPrivateOnlineCourse).

Astherangeofopenapproachescontinuestodiversify,itcanbedifficultto

retainclarityaboutthe‘open’dimensionwhichisbothdistinctiveandheldin

common.Witharecognisedlackofcleardataabouttheimpactofdifferentopen

approches–especiallywithrespecttoinformal,extra-institutionaluseofOER–

itcanbedifficulttoeffectivelystrategiseopenpractices.

Thislackofcleardata–partlyreflectiveoftheinformalandextra-institutional

natureofmuchopenlearning–createsaspacethatallowsforconjecture,

divergentclaimsandhyperbole.Butinessencethesedichotomiesreflect

differingviewsaboutthemeaningandvalueofopennessineducation.

II.CompetingVisionsof‘Open’

Does“open”meanopenlylicensedcontentorcode?And,again,whichlicenseisreally“open”?Does“open”mean"madepublic"?Does“open”meanshared?Does“open”mean“accessible”?Accessiblehow?Towhom?Does“open”meaneditable?Negotiable?Does“open”mean“free”?Does“open”mean“open-ended”?Does“open”meantransparent?Does“open”mean“open-minded”?“Open”tonewideasandtointellectualexchange?Opentointerpretation?Does“open”meanopentoparticipation—byeveryoneequally?(Watters,2014)

Theactofattemptingtodefineopennessisitselfvaluablefortheaction,

reflectionandstrategizationoftheopeneducationmovement.Thelanguageof

opennessiscertainlyusedwidely,andyetrelativelylittleisknownaboutthe

impactofopennessonthelearner.Yet,atthesametime,opennessretainsan

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appealformany.Onewayofaccountingforthisisthroughthisveryambiguity,

whichisamenabletoseveralinterpretations,notallofwhicharenecessarily

consistent.

BecausemuchuseofOERisinformalorundertakentosupplementformalstudy,

identifyingthespecificinfluenceofopennesscanbedifficult.Theopennatureof

OERintroducesfurtherintricacyintothecomplexitiesofpedagogicalresearch.

Inpart,thisreflectstheimmatureresearchcontextandlackofconsistencyin

identifyingandmeasuringopeneducation.Manydifferentdefinitionsof

opennessineducationhavebeenproffered.Forinstance,asCobo(2013)notes,

opennessofeducationalresourcesistypicallycharacterizedbythreekey

features:

• Openintellectualpropertylicences

• Permissionstoduplicate/use/adapt/editcontentinwaysotherthan

establishedbytraditionalcopyright

• Non-discriminatoryprivilege(rightsextendtoanypotentialauthor)

Thisdoesnot,however,translateintoasharedunderstandingofwhatismeant

orimpliedby‘openness’inpractice.Forexample,itomitsanyreferencetoopen

technologies,methodsofdelivery,orpractice–featureswhichonemightjustas

easilyclaimareessentialaspectsofopenpractice.InthecontextofaMOOC,for

instance,‘open’typicallyreferstotheremovalofinstitutionalortechnological

barrierstoaccessingeducationalcontent:likefees;physicallocation;entry

requirements,andsoon.InthecontextofOER,‘open’istypicallyusedtoreferto

thelicensesassociatedwithorappliedtoaparticularpieceofcontent.Oftenthe

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difficultiesaroundpreciselydefiningopennesscirculatearoundsubtle

contextualdifferencesandthemanifoldwaysopennesscanbeinterpreted.

Theclearestexampleofcontestedinterpretationsofopennesscanbefoundin

thecontroversiesaroundbrandingofproprietarycontentas‘open’without

showingaclearcommitmenttothevaluesoftheopeneducationmovement.

Theold‘open’vs.‘proprietary’debateisoverandopenwon.AsITinfrastructuremovestothecloud,opennessisnotjustapriorityforsourcecodebutforstandardsandAPIsaswell.AlmosteveryvendorintheITmarketnowwantstopositionitsproductsas‘open’.Vendorsthatdon’thaveanopensourceproductinsteademphasizehavingaproductthat‘usesopenstandards’orhasan‘openAPI’.(Finley,2011)

It’stellingthatopennessisnowviewedasamarketingasset,butcommercial

publisherswhodescribetheirproductsasopenwhentheyarenotlicensedin

suchawayastopromotenon-commercialre-usehavebeenroundlycriticized

fromwithintheopeneducationmovement.Wiley(2011)andothershave

termedthis“openwashing”afterthe“greenwashing”phenomenonassociated

withtheattemptbycorporationstorebrandthemselvesasenvironmentally

friendlyasthegreenmovementbegantogainwiderpopularity(Jermier,2013).

Examplesofpublishersorelearningproviderswhohavebeencriticizedfor

brandingtheircommercialproductsinthiswayincludePearson’s‘OpenClass’

learningmanagementsystem,Udacity’s‘OpenEducationAlliance’,andthe‘Open

English’startup(Watters,2014);aswellas‘OpenEdSolutions’(Wiley,2011).

Thestakesarebelievedtobehigh.AsWeller(2014:21)putsit:“Thisisnota

politedebateaboutdefinitions…therewillbeveryrealconsequencesfor

educationandsocietyingeneral”.Formanyintheopeneducationmovement

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theattempttocommercialisetheconceptofopenisseenasanaffrontontheir

efforts.

CommentatorslikePeters&Deimann(2013:13)haveconsequentlysuggested

thereisaneedtodifferentiate‘pure’(authentic)opennesstowards‘pretended’

(inauthentic)opennesswhichoffersajustificationofmorecontrolforproducers

andothercommercialstakeholders.AsWeller(2011:105)notes,theoriginal

statementoftheOpenCourseWareapproachwastoactasanalternative

systemofcoursematerialdeliveryinatimewhencontentproviderssoughtever

morecontrolovertheprotectionandexploitationoftheirintellectualproperty.

Soopennessinthefirstinstancecanbeseenasarisingfromtheattemptto

liberateeducationalmaterialsfromtherestrictionsplacedonthembycopyright

holderslikeelearningprovidersandpublishers.

Arguably,thelackofconsensusaboutwhatshouldqualifyaslegitimately‘open’

hasitsrootsintheflexibilityandundeterminednatureoftheconcept.

FewwordsintheEnglishlanguagepackasmuchambiguityandsexinessas‘open’…Profitingfromtheterm’sambiguity[from]the‘openness’ofopensourcesoftwaretothe‘openness’oftheacademicenterprise,marketsandfreespeech.(Morozov,2013)

Whenwerefertoopennesswetendtorefertosomefieldofpossibleaction

ratherthanasetoflicensingoptionsorsomeothercriteria.Themostopen

licensingoptionsarealsotheleastrestrictiveintermsofprescribingthe

behaviorofothers;asWiley(2014)notes,anyrestrictionsonuseincreasethe

‘friction’involvedinworkingwithopencontent.Opennesshasaclose

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associationwithfreedom–givingpermissionstojoinacourse,toremix

resources,toreadajournal,andsoon–andarguingthatcommercialproviders

mustadoptcertainlicencesorpracticesisanathematothiscoreelementof

openness.

Mysuggestionwillbethatweshouldthinkintermsofmultipleformsof

opennessratherthanmakingjudgementsaboutwhetheraparticularresourceor

practicequalifiesas‘open’onthebasisofabinaryqualitylikehavingaparticular

licence.Ourstartingpointforreflectingonthisareofthetwoformsof

organizationidentifiedinEricRaymond’sruminationsonthevalueoftop-down

andbottom-upmodelsofdesigninsoftwareproduction,‘TheCathedralandthe

Bazaar’(Raymond,2000).Mysuggestionwillbethatwemayoutlinetwo

modelsforthinkingaboutauthenticityandopennessthataredifferentiatedby

theirunderlyingpowerstructures,andillustratethewaysinwhichthe‘bazaar’

offersmorepotentialforreflexivityandcritique.(However,itshouldnotbe

inferredfromthisthatweshouldcategorizeopeninterventionsaccordingto

anotherdualisticorbinaryframework:myintentionisrathertoprovidea

preliminarydistinctionwhichcansupportfurtherreflectionwithoutbeing

reductive.)

III.TheCathedralandBazaarRevisited

InRaymond’s(2000)essay,the‘cathedral’and‘bazaar’refertotwodifferent

approachestosoftwaredevelopmentwhichcanbeextrapolatedouttosocial

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organizationanddesign.The‘cathedral’modelemphasizestop-down,‘reverent’

design,wherecodeissharedbetweenasmallgroupofskilleddeveloperswho

co-createsomethingcomplicated.Essentially,thecathedralmodelusesaclosed

groupofexpertstoproduceacomplexproduct,muchlikethemedievalartisans

andguildmemberswhoworkedtoconstructanddecoratethegreatcathedrals.

Bycontrast,the‘bazaar’modelinvolvesdevelopingcodeintheopenviapublic,

onlineforum.Bydevelopingcodeintheopenitbecomesavailableforscrutiny,

criticismandpotentialredevelopmentfromawiderangeofdevelopersat

differentlevelsofskill.Raymondproposesthatthemorewidelyavailablesource

codeismade,themoreefficienttheprocessofdebuggingbecomes.Therelative

opennessofthepublicspaceofthe‘bazaar’allowsformoredispersedpatterns

ofcollectiveintelligencewhilethe‘cathedral’setsoutagrandvisionorplanand

thenworkstowardsrealizingthisthroughtheuseofexperts.Severance(2010)

hasofferedsomefurthercharacteristicsofthe‘bazaar’approach,includinguse

ofopenlicensing;transparencyofprocessesanddecisions;horizontalpower

structures;lackofinstitutionalcontrol;andvoluntarycooperationasacentral

organizingprinciple.Themoreauthentically‘open’natureofthebazaaris

identifiedwithmorewidelydispersedmodelsofpower,andwithastriving

towardsacollectiveconsensusaboutthebestmethodofaction.

Thinkingaboutthedifferentkindsofprovisionthathavebeenmadeinopen

education,wecanextendthisanalogyfurther.ThemajorMOOCproviderswhich

presentmassonlineeducationasthenextstepintheevolutionofeducational

technologymaybethoughtofascathedralbuilders,expertsworkingtocreate

grandedificeswhichwillshapethesubjectsoffuture.Ofcourse,weshouldn’t

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thinkofallMOOCasfittingthismodel–‘ConnectivismandConnective

Knowledge’(Downes,2012)theoriginalMOOCbyGeorgeSiemensandStephen

Downesembodiedadynamismandreflexivitythatidentifiesitmorecloselywith

the‘bazaar’model–butthelargerMOOCprovidersareofteneffectively

institutionsinvolvedindeliveryofagranddesignwhoseoperationstendto

emphasizeverticalpowerandanasymmetricalmodelofcommunicationandco-

ordination.ArguablythisismorecloselyassociatedwithxMOOC,thoughwithin

thespectrumofcMOOC(ConnectivistorConstructivistMOOC)wecanfind

instanceswhichareclosertoeithermodel.Inshort,the‘bazaar’offersthe

possibilityformoreautonomous,spontaneousformsofknowledge

redistributionandcollaboration,whilethe‘cathedral’approachplacesthefocus

onthearchitectonic,thegranddesignwhichrequiresasignificant(top-down)

co-ordinationofeffortinordertoberealized.The‘cathedral’approachseesin

openeducationthepotentialforrollingouteducationalprovisiontolarge

audiences,andinpracticeultimatelyseeksafinancialreturnwhichreflectsthe

extentoftheinvestmentmade.Highereducationinstitutionsinvolvedin

producingandreleasingopencontentthroughMOOCareintheprocessof

buildingtheeducationalsystemsofthefutureandthisrequiresadegreeof

organizationthattherelativeanarchyofthebazaarmightstruggletoprovide.

The‘bazaar’isinsteadgearedtowardsamore‘do-it-yourself’approachwhere

actorsproduceandconsumetheopencontentthatisrelevanttotheirownneeds

aseducatorsand/orlearners.

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Thuswemaydifferentiatetwobroadapproachestoopeneducation

(independentofcommercialinterest)withoutsuperficiallyidentifyingthese

directlywithinauthenticandauthenticexpressionsofopennessrespectively.

Thoughbothapproachesdeservetobecalledauthenticallyopenintheir

respectiveways,arguablythe‘bazaar’approachallowsforagreaterdegreeof

personalautonomyasaresultofmorehorizontalstructuresofpowerand

influence.WeseethismostclearlyinthecaseofOERwhichareproducedand

usedinformallyorlocally,ortailoredtoveryspecificorevenindividualneed;

whathasbeentermed‘little’OER(Weller,2010).The‘bazaar’isdecentralized–

perhapsmessierandnoisier–butalsooffersgreateropportunityforpersonal

freedom,agency,expressionandengagementforalargernumberofsubjects.

IV.Openeducationandcriticalpedagogy

Thisessaybeganwiththeobservationthatsomecommentatorshaveidentified

MOOCwiththeexpressionofneoliberalreforminhighereducation.This

positioncanbeunderstoodtodrawtogetheranumberofdifferentobjectionsto

openeducation,andreflectsageneralshiftintheacademyfromhumanistic

valuesandmethodstowardsrationalization,efficiency,industrialization,and

commercialization.Thereiscertainlyatemptationtoviewinnovationsofopen

educationinthiswaywhenmasseducationatmarginalcostoffersthepromise

ofreplacingwhatisnotprovidedbythestate.But,asIhavesuggested,muchof

thisperspectivecanbeattributedtosomeofthehypearoundMOOC,muchofit

originatingfromthosewithavestedinterestinthe‘disruption’narrative.It

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would(ofcourse)beerroneoustocategoriseallMOOCinthiswaybutitremains

thecasethatforthemorehigh-profileproviderstheliberationofcoursecontent

andtheliberalizationofhighereducationmarketsgoeshand-in-hand.This

aspectof‘open’appearstoenableneoliberalaspectsasaresultofthe

centralizationofadministration,assessmentandaccreditation,andsincemost

majorMOOCprovidersarebusinessesratherthanuniversitiestheyalso

contributetothecorporatizationofknowledge.

Thoughclearlyimportant,anadequatediscussionoftheseissueswouldtakeus

beyondtheambitionsofthepresentpaper.Instead,Iwillconcentrateinthis

finalsectiononopportunitiesforautonomy,reflexivityandcriticalpedagogy

offeredwhereopeneducationisalignedtothe‘bazaar’modelofproduction

ratherthantherelativelydidacticapproachesfoundinxMOOCprovision.

Feenberg(2002,Ch.5)hasnotedthatcriticalapproachesareoftenexcluded

fromdebatesaroundeducationaltechnologies,andit’sreasonabletostatethat

therelationshipbetweentechnologyandcriticaltheoryisgenerallyunder-

theorized.Criticalapproachestoknowledgeproductionrecognizethat

knowledgeisfundamentallypoliticalandboundupwithdistinctivelyhuman

interests(Habermas,1971).Criticalapproachestoeducationthusstrive

towardsemancipatoryformsofknowledge;i.e.thosethatilluminateor

deconstructtheeconomicandsocialcircumstanceswithinwhichaparticular

pieceofknowledgeisproducedandunderstood.

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Criticalpedagogy,incontrasttotraditionalpedagogy,understandsauthentic

educationasfundamentallyemancipatory.Therearemanyinterconnected

theoreticalframeworkswhichappealtothisnotion,includingcriticalrealism

(Corson,1991;EmamiandRiordan,1998;Shipway,2004);criticaltheoristsin

theFrench(Foucault,1986)andGerman(Kellner,2003;Gur-Ze’ev,2005)

traditionsandthewell-knownbodiesofworkinpedagogyandpsychologyby

Freire(1970),Illich(1971)andDewey(1938;1995).Despitevarious

differencesofemphasis,whatunitestheseapproachestoeducationisthe

interestinthecritiqueofoppressiveordominanteconomicand/orsociopolitical

forceineducation,andfocusexplicitlyonhowthisshapestraditional

educationalprocessesandtechniques.Coretotheseapproachesistheideathat

learnersmustrecognisethecontestednatureofknowledgethroughan

understandingofitsproductionandvalidation.Clearly,educationalandmedia

technologieshavecometoplayacentralroleinmediatingtheseunderstandings.

Construedasmediatingtechnologies,OERandMOOCcanbeseentodemocratize

indifferentways:MOOCintermsofaccesstoeducationalresourcesandOERin

termsoftheproductionanduseofeducationalresources.

OnereasontothinkthatOERcansupportcriticalpedagogiesisthroughthe

greaterautonomytheyaffordeducatorsandlearnersinchoosingeducational

materialsfromamorediverseuserbase.Throughthecreation,adaptationand

localizationofeducationalresourceswecanfacilitatenewwaysofperceiving,

categorizing,mapping,andconnectingtherelationshipbetweentheoryand

practice(OERResearchHub,2014).Byopeninguptheprocessesofgeneration

anduseofeducationalresourcestoagreatervarietyofactorsacultureof

19

interrogating(andimproving)pedagogicaltechniquescanbeencouraged.

WithineducationsystemsthatemphasizethevalueofcopyrightedcontentOER

shouldbethoughtofaspotentiallyradicalagentsofchange(McAndrew&

Farrow,2012:74).Openlicensingofaresourceenablesarangeofbehaviours–

or‘openeducationalpractices’(Conole,2011)–thatencourageanewkindof

relationshiptowardthematerialscreatedthatisarguablymorereflectiveof

authentic,situatedneeds.

Objectionsusuallyraisedtotheideaofdemocratizingeducationalprocesses

(ratherthandemocratizingaccesstoformaleducation)drawontheimportance

ofexpertknowledgeforeffectivepedagogyandmayassumethatOERareof

inferiorqualitytoproprietarymaterials.Suchworriesareusuallyoverstated,

especiallyastheopeneducationmovementhasestablishedclearerguidelines

andco-ordinationaroundqualitystandardsandevaluation.Butitisperhaps

worthbearinginmindFreire’s(1970:9)suggestionthat“[l]iberatingeducation

consistsinactsofcognition,nottransferalsofinformation”.Concernsaboutthe

qualityofaparticularresourcearevalid,butmayoverlookthefactthatthereare

alreadyaplethoraofalternativeresourcesavailableinanygivenarea.More

crucialistheneedtoposeandsolveproblemssinceitisthroughthisprocess

thatthatlearnersbettercometounderstandtheirownreality.Weneedlearners

tofeelmoreconfidentandincontroloftheirchoicesabouttheirownlearning,

andrecognisingthatlearnerswillinevitablyseekoutresourcesandsoshouldbe

encouragedtodeveloptheirownsenseofcriticalmedialiteracy.Buttherelative

anarchyofthebazaarisalsotobecelebratedinitsownrightforthecultureof

self-relianceandcriticalautonomythatcanbefostered.

20

AsRichardShaullwroteinhisforewordtoFreire’sPedagogyoftheOppressed,

educationisalwaysalreadypoliticised,concernedwiththeformationoffuture

subjectsandestablishingnormativeexpectationsaroundpracticesofconformity

andfreedom:

Educationeitherfunctionsasaninstrumentwhichisusedto

facilitateintegrationoftheyoungergenerationintothelogicofthe

presentsystemandbringaboutconformityoritbecomesthe

practiceoffreedom,themeansbywhichmenandwomendeal

criticallyandcreativelywithrealityanddiscoverhowto

participateinthetransformationoftheirworld.(Freire,1970:34)

Undoubtedly,moreresearchisneededintothekindofsupportweneedtooffer

thelearnersofafutureworldwhereinformationisinabundance,andthere

remaincriticalquestionsaroundtherightkindofmediaandcriticalliteracies

thatshouldbedeveloped.However,dependingontheinterpretationof

‘openness’beingoffered,itispossibletobeunderstandbothasabulwark

against–andapotentialpathwayfor–neo-liberalreformsineducation.AsI

havenotedabove,moreclarityisneededintheterminologyemployedaround

opennesssoastomakeiteasiertodistinguishdifferentusecasesandthe

degreesofopennessmadepossiblebyparticularplatformortechnology.The

mostopenformsoflicensing–rarelyusedinthemorecommerciallyminded

MOOCmodels–increasethecapacityforadapting,reusingandremixing

materials.Bydoingthistheyincreasethepotentialforengagementwith

educationalresources,promotingcriticalreflectionontheresourcesandthe

21

circumstancesunderwhichtheyhavebeenproduced.Thiscanbeasaresultof

purelypedagogicalfocus(suchasinthecaseofaneducatorwhoselectsand

adaptsresourcestomorecloselyfitclassroomneeds)butcanalsoreflectthe

newkindsofcommunicativepracticesthataredevelopingaroundOERandthe

communitiesthatmakeandusethem.

Itisthedecentralizationanddemocratizationofcontroloverknowledge

productionandpedagogyaffordedbyopenlicensingthatiskeytoappreciating

thepotentialaffordedbyOERtocriticalpedagogy.Ofcourse,MOOCdoenablea

kindofeducationaldialoguewhich,dependingonthekindofMOOCinvolved,

mayaffordgreaterorlesseropportunitiesforcritique.Forinstance,thereare

alreadyindicationsoftheadoptionofcriticalperspectiveswithinopen

education,includingMOOCbasedontheprinciplesofcriticalpedagogywhich

articulatethepedagogicalvalueofopennessthroughnewkindsofdialogicspace

andencouragetheuptakeofcriticalperspectives.

Severalexamplesofapproacheswhichcanbeseentofittheapproachoutlined

canbeidentified.ThehighlyinnovativecourseDS106(DigitalStorytelling106)

isacourseofferedforcreditatTheUniversityofMaryWashingtonbutwhichis

alsoopenforenrolmentfromanyoneonline.Studentscanjoinorleaveatany

time,andassessmentsandcourseassignments–generallybasedonusingdigital

mediacreatively–aredesignedcollaborativelythenusedbyfuturestudents

(Stacey,2014:113).DS106fosterstheagencyandcreativityofallparticipants

throughequalizingaccesstobothcoursecontentandpedagogicaldesign,andby

22

invitingstudentstorethinkprocessesofassessmentacriticalattitudetowardsis

encouraged.

AnotherexamplemaybefoundinSaylorAcademy(2015)whoareprovidersof

morethan100opentextbooksandstructuredcontentwhichmapto

undergraduatecurriculum.Theyhavetakentheunusualstepofaddingtheir

contenttoGitHub,arepositorywhichallowsuserstocloneandadaptcontent

whilepreservingtheoriginalsthroughversioncontrol.Bymovingfrom

proprietarydocumentformatstopureHTMLsharedinthiswaytheyhavefound

atechnicalsolutionwhichsupportswidercontributionsandfacilitates

collaboration.Thisapproachshowsthatfurtherdemocratizingtheprocessof

opentextbookproductionneednotleadtosacrificingquality.Furthermore,the

invitationtocritiquelearningresourceswrittenbyexpertsencouragesthe

uptakeofcriticalperspectives.

ConnectivistMOOChavelongbeeninterestedindevelopingtheautonomyand

self-relianceofparticipants.SeveralexperimentalcMOOChavetakendirect

inspirationfromtheworkofcriticalpedagoguesanddesigningcoursesthat

emphasizelearneragencyoverandabovetheepistemologicalauthorityof

courseinstructors.The‘MOOCMOOC’seriesofMOOCbySeanMichaelMorris

andJesseStommelwhichuseopenandcriticalmethodstoinvestigateMOOC

themselvesplacecriticalpedagogyattheforefrontoftheirapproach.Thecourse

wasdesignedtoencourageparticipantstoquestiontheverypropositionofa

MOOCandhowitoperatesthroughalargelydiscursive,improvisedapproachto

23

reflection,disaggregatedacrossarangeofsocialmedia.Reflectingonthe

outcomesofthesecourses,thecourseinstructorswrite:

Thepedagogicalvalueinopennessisthatitcancreatedialogue,andcandeconstructtheteacher-studentbinary,byincreasingaccessandbringingtogetheratoncedisparatelearningspaces.Opennesscanfunctionasaformofresistancebothwithinandoutsidethewallsofinstitutions.Butopeneducationisnopanacea.Hierarchiesmustbedismantled—andthatdismantlingmadeintopartoftheprocessofeducation—ifitspotentialsaretoberealized(Morris&Stommel,2014).

ConclusionThebestkindofopennessactsasachallengetotraditionaleducationalpractice

andsoopensupareflectivespaceforthinkinganddoingotherwise.Ihave

arguedthatthe‘bazaar’modelofopeneducationismoredemocratic,encourages

moreactiveparticipation,andcanactasacatalystforreflectionon(andcritique

of)thepedagogicalprocess.

Atthispointinhumanhistorymorepeoplehavemoreaccesstobetter

educationalresourcesatanypointinthepast.Thisshouldbeacausefor

optimism!Butitalsomeansmoreresearchisneededintothekindofsupport

weneedtoofferthelearnersofthefutureinaworldwhereinformationis

ubiquitousandcontentmorereadilyavailabletoeducatorsandlearnersthan

everbefore.

24

Crucially,opennessisbecomingamoreimportantcategoryineducation,and

thusonewheresomethingimportantforthefutureisatstake(aswesawwith

thecontroversiesaround‘openwashing’).Inthedifferentinterpretationsof

opennessineducationthatcurrentlyexistwecandetermineanumberof

potentialfutures.Someofthesearemorelikewhatwehavenow,othersare

moredifferent,andtherearedystopianandutopianversionsofallofthem.

Whatismostimportantatthisstageisforrelevantpartiestocontinuetoengage

aroundthethemeofopenness,thinkaboutthewaysinwhichopennesscan

makeadifferencetoindividualorgrouppractice,andtoremainoptimisticabout

thingsmovingintherightdirection.

Criticalapproachestoeducationhave“anormativeandevenutopiandimension,

attemptingtotheorizehoweducationandlifeconstructalternativestowhatis.”

(Kellner,2003:3).Bydemocratizingtheprocessesthroughwhicheducational

materialsandprocessesaredesignedanddelivered,openeducationallowsa

greaterpluralityofvoicestobeheardandtocontribute,andtheexperiencesof

groupswhoareoftenmarginalizedmaybebetterheard:perhapsthisiswhatwe

shouldreallymeanby‘open’.

25

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