2019

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDIn this chapter, the writer gives some explanations about theories which are used to support this thesis. First, the writer tells the definition of pragmatic which is the widest aspect to analyze in this topic. Second, before it goes to conversation theory, this thesis explains the general part of it which is communication. Third, this thesis gives explanation about conversation analysis theory completely including turn taking and conversational style. Fourth, adjacency pairs which discusses about responses of the conversation activity. Fifth, transcription convention which is about symbols used to transcript the dialog of conversation. Last is explanation about talk show. 2.1 Pragmatic

There are many linguistic theories such as pragmatic, syntax, semantic, and sociolinguistic. According to Taguchi (2009), pragmatic is a theory which focuses on everyday utterances which investigate about the linguistic structure, how to applied it, anthropology, sociology, psychology, communication research, and cross-cultural studies. (p.2)Moreover according to Yule (2008), pragmatic also studies about the relationship between linguistic theory and the users. Only pragmatic theory that allow analyzing the language style that are used by human. Many advantages of analyzing language by using this theory such as knowing peoples intended meaning, their assumptions, their purposes or goals, and the kind of actions (for example request) that they are performing when they speak. When there are two people who are having conversation, not all messages can be delivered clearly. Although actually they understand the language using by the speaker, but they do not know what idea was communicated.

For example:

Her: So did you?

Him: Hey who wouldnt?

So, pragmatic appears in social life because it is about how people make sense of each other linguistically, but it can be a difficult subject to study because it requires to make people understand logically. (p.4)

2.2 Communication

Humans need to interact with others to get what they need because basically human cant live alone. To do this activity, they need to do communication. Today it has already been one thing that really influences in peoples live. People who are good at communication are better than people who are good at intelligence. This is because today social people have to develop ability to socialize and do team work. So that now most companies prefer to accept someone who is good in speaking.

Communication can be only performed through language. Oxford learners pocket dictionary 3rd edition (2009:81), communication means activity of expressing ideas and feeling or a way of giving people information or one of methods of sending information. Wikibooks contributors (2004) said that communication consists of information which transmits from one person to another. This concept has been used for many scholars of communication. Furthermore, communication attempts to describe and send knowledge or assumption about something from speaker to hearer. (p.4)2.3 Gender

The differences between men and women in many areas always become an interesting topic for people since long time ago. Base on Coates (2004), although sometimes it is hard to define the differences between men and women but there is some differences between them. The comments of temporary observers also provide the evidence of folklinguistics beliefs about gender differences in language. Such contradictions can be accounted for by assuming a general rule which is called The Adocentric Rule, Men will be seen to behave linguistically in a way that fits the writers view of what is desirable or admirable; women on the other hand will be blamed for any linguistic state or development which is regarded by the writer as the negative or reprehensible (p. 9-10). From childhood, we have known that women and men are different in many things include language when they communicate each other. Holmes (2008) said that the language which used by women is more gently and polite than men. According to Coates (2004), the way men talk is seen as the norm while womens language is deviant (p.12). Women often break off their sentence without finishing. Women often start talking without thinking first what they are going to say. On the other hand men always think what they are going to say before starting the talking (Jespersen, 1992, p.250).

According to Conner (2000), women have four times as many brain cells (neurons) connecting the right and left side of their brain. This makes women can access to both sides of their brain efficiently and it also makes they are greater to use their right brain. Therefore, women can focus more than one problem at the same time or multi-tasking since the function of right brain is more for interaction to society for solving problem. Men are on the other hand who more often use their left brain to solve one problem one step at a time because the function of left brain is more for something about logistic and ratio or it is frequently called as the center of Intelligence Quotient(IQ). (p.1)2.4 ConversationConversation is part of communication. It should consist of more than one person such as a sender, a message, and a recipient where they share opinions or knowledge and next each of them will give responds. Pragmatic theory which discusses about conversation is Conversation Analysis (CA). According to Cutting (2002), CA studies about the way of speaker say which later will determine the answer or response from hearer. If the speakers speak clearly, it means the message can be delivered well so hearers can give expected responses. During the conversation, those speakers should take turn when they interact. There are many conversation types can be analyzed with this theory like talk show, everyday conversation, interview activity, and etc. (p.24)Susilo (2012) said that, CA is a method to investigate the structure and process during the conversation activity between the speakers. Because of many types of conversation can be done such as writing conversation, according to him CA focuses on talk primarily, but it also including nonverbal aspect during the interaction. Video and audio recording from natural interaction can be used as CAs data. All of the data are about how people participate in the interaction like asking answer about something, assessment, and it can also be complaints. Besides that, CA can also analyze about ordinary conversation such as institutional encounters where the conversation is more formal and organized. This style of conversation is influenced by job status. (p.1)There are some patterns that CA linguists find emerge as interaction unfolds:2.4.1 Turn Taking

In conversation activity, people should control themselves. The hearer should silent when the speaker is talking. But sometimes it is hard to do it, moreover when both speaker and hearer intend to share what they are thinking about. Based on Yule (2008), people should control their selves during the conversation and it can be called as turn. Whereas in any situation where speakers should control their selves and they can attempt to get control during conversation, this is called turn-taking. It is form of social action so that turn taking should in accordance with a local management system who is member of a social group. (p.72)Because it is a form of social action, turn-taking operates in accordance with a local management system that is conventionally known by member of a social group. The local management system is essential set of conventions for getting turns, keeping them, or giving them away. (p. 72)

Besides that, according to Cutting (2002) all cultures have their own preferences as to know how long a speaker should hold the floor, how they indicate that they have finished and another speaker can take the floor, when a new speaker can start whether the new speaker can overlaps and interrupt, when speakers can pause and for how long. ( p.30)2.4.1.1 Pauses

During conversation activity, people tend to do some breaks even stop for a few seconds. They do it for many reasons for example they are thinking of something that want to be talked; they dont know what to be answered; even do not have any ideas to be shared. This condition can be called as pauses. But according to Cutting (2002), pauses can also be a culture for some people. They are used to speak with long pause between turns which intend to carry meaning. But if speakers do long pauses during the conversation, silence is found and it makes the conversation become awkward. The long pause in conversation is called as attributable silence. (p.29)For example:

Mike: Did you have a good time last night?

Jessica: () (3) Yeah

Mike: So he asked you out then?

Jessica: He did

In the example above, Jessica does pauses for three seconds before her Yeah, but Mike still gives positive response (an affirmative answer). It can not always be usual thing for some cultures in which a low level of tolerance of silence between turns. They will feel like the hearer cannot answer about what the speaker asks because they do not pay attention or maybe they dont get what the speaker means. Silence can be avoided by saying um or hmm. So people who are asking know that the hearer is thinking (Cutting, 2000: p.30).2.4.1.2 Overlaps

Cutting (2002) stated that turn is possible occurs in conversation. This activity can be called as Transition Relevance Place or TRP. In the condition of TRP, each speaker knows when the sentences are complete to be talked because they usually put the end of the sentence. But if a speaker does not want to wait until the TRP, the speaker will do interruption or it can be called as overlaps. (p.29). Furthermore, the meaning of overlaps according to Yule (2008) is a condition where people speak at the same time. The speakers and listeners attempt to have conversation. They will miss some ideas or information in the conversation activity absolutely because when both speaker are speaking, who will listen to them (p.72). According to Grundy (2000), when one speaker suddenly speaks in other speakers turn, it can be called as interruption and sometimes it makes awkward condition occurred. (p.134)The overlaps indicate with //. This is the example of overlaps appear during conversation base on Yule (2008: p.73):

Mr. Strait: whats your major Dave?

Dave : English - well I havent really decided yet.

(3 seconds)

Mr. Strait

: So - you want to be a teacher?

Dave

: No - not really - well not if I can help it.

(2.5 seconds)

Mr. Strait

: What - // Where do you - go ahead

Dave : I mean its a - oh sorry // I em - The example above, both speakers do overlaps. Mr. Strait does it when Dave said not really. In that condition, Dave is still thinking or hesitating maybe whether he wants to be a teacher or not. But suddenly Mr. Strait gives a question again to him. The type of overlap which occurs as both speakers is attempted to initiate talk. Dave also do overlaps when Mr. Strait asks him to go ahead, then he give response em at the same time. In this example, the stop-start-overlap-stop patterns are repeated for several times. Here, the type of overlap shows is simply part of a difficult first conversation with an unfamiliar person.

Besides that, in that example, short pauses (marked with a dash) occurred which are simply hesitations (no - not really), but after that silence almost appears because the duration of the pauses is longer. The silence in that example is not attributable because speakers have completed each turn. When a speaker does silence too long and the sentence seems havent finished, it means an attributable silence occurred. Here is the example which is also from Yule (2008) of non-response of Dave is treated by his girlfriend:

Jan: Dave I am going to the store.

(2seconds)

Jan: Dave?

(2 seconds)

Jan: Dave - is something wrong?

Dave: What? Whats wrong?

Jan: Never mind.

Silence at a TRP in the example above is not a problem for local management system in overlaps because the speaker doesnt speak at the same time.

Besides that according to Yule (2008: p.74), sometimes people do overlaps to express closeness. So when they are talking, they share their opinions time by time that can make their conversation become more interesting. But, overlaps can mean for doing competition too. For example:

Joe: when they were in

// power las - wait CAN I FINISH?

Jerry : thats my point I said - The speakers in the example above is having a discussion, but the way of their discussion seem like competing for the floor (right to speak). The overlaps occurs is treated as an interruption where actually the first speaker, Joe comments about something, but suddenly Jerry as the second speaker interrupt Joe. After that, Joe gives respond again but it is not good respond which is shown by the capital letter CAN I FINISH? (p.74)

Overlaps can be avoided by putting some pauses such as um, or uh to show the sentences of speaker have not finished yet.

For example:I was not talking about - um his first book that was - uh really just like a start and so - uh isnt - doesnt count really.

So from that example, it uses um and uh to make the hearer does not do overlaps. When the speaker uses that phrase, it seems like the speaker has not finished the sentences, so the hearer will keep waiting. (Yule, 2008: p.75)2.4.1.3 Backchannel

People tend to expect responses from the hearers when they are talking. Responses show hearers listen and pay attention to the speakers. The way of response is not only answering the speaker by speaking; it can be also nods, smiles, facial expression, and gestures. This activity is common called in pragmatic as backchannel signals (Yule, 2008, p. 75).

For example (Yule 2008):

Caller

: if you see your long distance service a lot then you will

Marry

:

uh-uh

Caller

: be interested in the discount I am talking about because

Marry

:

yeah

Caller

: it can only save you money to switch to a cheaper service

Marry

:

mmm

The responses like uh-uh, yeah, mmm, shows Marry pay attention to callers speaking and she receives the messages which want to be delivered.

2.5 Conversation Style

Tannen (2005) stated that conversation is an awe - inspiring area of investigation because it is so vast and elusive. It is tempting merely to record a segment of conversation, transcribe it, gloss it (supply a running commentary or concordance), and leave it at that. Everybody has their own style of speaking it will probably never be happened that a person has same style of conversation. Peoples conversation style is also influenced by their characteristic. According to Tannen (2005), understanding of conversation style is essential in heterogeneous society especially for students of language, linguistics, communication or any of disciplines dealing with human behavior. (p.135)

Some individuals who are active, when they participate in a conversation, they will be very active that speaking rate will be relatively fast, with almost no pausing between turns, and with some overlaps or even completion of others turn. Its commonly called as high involvement style. On the other hand, there are some individuals who are from another style in which speaker use slower rate, expect longer pauses between turns, do not overlap, and avoid interruption or completion of the others turn. This non-interrupting, non-imposing style is called as high considerateness style. (Yule, 2008, p.76)

Moreover, the style of men and womens conversation has some differences according to Tannen (2005). She stated that men converse with a focus on achieving social status and avoiding failure, while women focus on achieving personal connection and avoiding social isolation. Men want to report, women want rapport. Besides that, men dont value involvement or women status.

There is another view on the differences of men and women communication according to Gray (2004). Some examples that he provides are:

Women use more words to make a point and express more feelings. Men use fewer words and express fewer feelings. Women use conversation to think through a problem and work toward a solution. Men think through a problem privately, then express the solution as the bottom line. Women give feedback with tact, tentativeness and sensitivity to the other persons feelings. Men give feedback directly and with bluntness, without the intention that it should be taken personally. Women often change the topic in the middle of a conversation, then return to it later. Men tend to finish one topic before going on to the next.2.6 Adjacency Pairs

CA analyst, Cutting (2000) stated that there is a relation between acts and that conversation contains frequently occurring patterns. The pair of utterances is known as adjacency pairs. During the conversation, one speaker will give a certain response to other speakers. The acts are ordered with a first part and a second part, and categorized as question - answer, offer - accept, blame - deny, and so on with first part creating an expectation of a particular second part. This is known as preference structure where each first part has a preferred and a dispreferred response when show negative meaning. The examples of pairs are:

Type 1PairType 2Example

A question has the preferred response of An answerA: What does this big red button do?

B: It causes two-thirds of the universe to implode.

An offerAn acceptanceA: Would you like to visit the museum with me this evening?B: I would love to.

An invitation An acceptance A: How about going to London?B: Thats a good idea

An assessmentAn agreementA: Your dress is so beautifulB: Thanks.

A proposalAn agreementA: I think it is better we leave this place now.B: I think so.

A greetingA greetingA: Hi, nice to meet you.B: Nice to meet you too.

A complaintAn apologyA: It is awfully cold in hereB: Oh, sorry, I'll close the window

A blameA denialA: Do not judge book by the cover.B: But, she has done it many times.

The dispreferred responses tend to be the refusal and disagreements. These are unusual responses which sometimes relatively rude or can be taken as meaningful. An absence of response can be taken as the hearer not having heard, not paying attention, or simply refusing to cooperate. (p. 30)

According to Yule (2008), not all first parts immediately receive their second parts. It often happens when a question-answer sequence is delayed while another question - answer sequence intervenes. The sequence will then take the form of Q1-Q2-A2-A1, with the middle pair (Q2-A2) being called an insertion sequence. Although there appears to be a question (Q2) in response to a question (Q1), the assumption is that once the second part (A2) of the insertion sequence is provided, the second part (A1) of the initial question (Q1) will follow. (p.77-78)

For example:

Agent:Do you want the early flight?

(=Q1)

Client:What time does it arrive?

(=Q2)

Agent:Nine forty-five

(=A2)

Client:Yeah - thats great

(=A1)

First the agent just wants to ask whether the client wants the early flight or not where the type of adjacency pairs which is used is request-accepting (Q1- A1). But after that, the client insert a question suddenly which actually doesnt match and doesnt answering the agents question, however its still make sense (Q2). This activity can be called as an insertion sequence of a question-answer pair (Q2- A2). (p. 79)2.7 Transcription Convention

Symbols which are used to transcribe dialog of conversation according to Levinson (1983) are:

(.) : Micro-pause (comparable perhaps to an average syllable duration) 0.5 s < 1.0 s

(.)

: Pause >1.0 s < 1.5 s(2.0)

: Long pause in seconds

// : Point at which the current utterance is overlapped by that transcribes below

CAPS

: Relatively high volume

(::)

: Lengthened syllables or speech sounds2.8 Talk Show

Talk show is American and Australian English while chat show is British. This show consists of a host that leads the show and at least one guest where during that time, both of them discuss about something. The Free Dictionary, retrieved March 14, 2013, from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Talk-show talk show means a television or radio show in which noted people, such as authorities in a particular field, participate in discussions or are interviewed and often answer questions from viewers or listeners. Talk show is one of good TV programs where give advantages for two three sides who are the host, guests, and audiences. The host and audiences who are listening to guests experience can widen their mind and learn about something whereas the guest feel relieve after sharing.

The first time, talk show is one of radio program but now it has been appeared in television. In 1930, it was not common in television but it is has started to be well know in 1950 when television was the most popular entertainment thing for every family. The first format or main characteristic of talk show is asking-answer activity about life experience. But now, it has developed much where sometimes it add some entertainment such as singing, dancing, or etc, but still remain the main characteristic of talk show. (Retrieved March 12, 2013 from, http://web.li.gatech.edu/~rdrury/600/write/sp1_07/tshow/suhisshow2.htm) 2.9 Previous Research

The first research is from Christine (2009), a graduated student from Binus University whose thesis title is Conversation Analysis on News Interview with Barack Hussein Obama: A Pragmatic Approach. The problem formulations in her thesis are what the conversation style of Barack Obama is as the interviewee, in news interview with Bill O Reilly, as the interviewer; how Barack Obama deals with the questions given by interviewer. She uses both library research and field study as her research method. The library research is used to support her theoretical framework in her thesis whereas field study is conducted by transcribing four news interview videos (war and terror, Iran, and Pakistan; Taxes and economy; Rev. Wright, Bill Ayers, and Energy plan and dealing with Putin) of Barack Obama and Bill OReilly. The result of her research shows that Barack Obamas conversation style is High involvement style. Furthermore, Barack Obama often deals the questions of interviewer by answering the question directly and sometimes gives extension information on them but when telling about a topic which related to someones name, he tries to answer it evasively. Christines research helps the writer in understanding of conversation analysis theory and how to analyze media by using this theory.

The second research is from Terrell Neuage (2004), a graduated student for Phd degree from University of South Australia whose thesis title is conversational analysis of chat room talk. The problems formulation in his thesis are interpreting part of conversational, part text exchanges between participants in chat room and examining talk and text construction and exchange that must be pulled into the ambit of investigation of online chat. He uses qualitative research method by capturing seven primary chat room dialogues randomly based on the ease of those people access. The results shows that most obviously such features include for instance the use of avatars to replace or to represent the physically absent speaker; text-graphic emoticons as interfaces to replace words or aural elements representing emotions; the fleeting motion of scrolling text; silence or lurking by participants as itself a form of message; the complex braiding and overlap of various conversational threads, and the need to compensate and interpret discontinuity of posted messages; as well as new forms of word structure, such as standardized abbreviations and idiosyncratic mis-spellings. Each of these and the many more complexities each of them conceals signals major shifts in the communicative activities of online chat communities. Neuages thesis helps writer in giving the theory of communication and conversation and supporting writers thesis that communication is one of influential thing in human life and it is important to be analyzed.

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