2010 Cognitive Focused Approaches

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Cognitive Focused Approaches 14. Creativity

15 The Role of Personal Control in Adaptive Functioning 16 Well-Being: Mindfulness Versus Positive Evaluation

17 Optimism

18 Optimistic Explanatory Style

19 Hope Theory: A Member of the Positive Psychology Family 20 Self-Efficacy: The Power of Believing You Can

21 Problem-Solving Appraisal and Psychological Adjustment

22 Setting Goals for Life and Happiness

23 The Passion to Know: A Developmental Perspective

24 Wisdom: Its Structure and Function in Regulating SuccessfulLife Span Development



14. Creativity

People are almost universal in their appreciation of creativity.

Rarely is creativity perceived as a negative quality for a person to possess.

Creative behavior: It is almost in all societies appreciated.

³creative genius.´ such as Aristotle, Descartes Shakespeare

and Lives of the Painters, Sculptors, Architects etc.

Although several psychologists/ perspectives touched upon

this topic, the one who deserves more credit than any other for

emphasizing creativity as a critical research topic is the psychometrician J. P. Guilford (1950). He addressed this issue

as president of American Psychological Association.



Measurement Approaches :

Creativity must be original.

Creativity must be adaptive.

³adaptive originality,´

lack of consensus on definitions:

First, creativity may be viewed as some kind of mental process that yields adaptive and original ideas .

Second, it can be seen as a type of person who exhibits

creativity

Third, creativity can be analyzed in terms of the concrete

products that result from the workings of the creative

process or person .



Guilford (1967), who began by proposing a profounddistinction between two kinds of thinking.

Convergent thought involves the convergence on a single

correct response, such as characteristic of most aptitudetests, like those that assess intelligence.

Divergent thought, in contrast, entails the capacity togenerate many alternative responses, including ideas of

considerable variety and originality.Guilford and others have devised a large number of tests purported to measure the capacity for divergent thinking (e.g., Torrance, 1988; Wallach & Kogan, 1965). Typical is the

Alternate Uses test, in which the subject must come up withmany different ways of using a common object, such as a paper clip or brick.



The creative person

Creative individuals tend to be independent ,

nonconformist, unconventional; they also tend to have wide

interests, greater openness to new experiences, and a more

conspicuous (noticeable) behavioral and cognitive

flexibility and boldness (Simonton, 1999a). The personality contrasts between creative and noncreative

individuals may partially reflect significant differences in

their biographical characteristics, including family

background, educational experiences, and career activities.(heredity & environmental factors)



One approach is to simply ask individuals to identify

what they would consider samples of their creative

activities, such as poems, paintings, and projects.

Another approach is to have research participants

generate creative products under controlled

laboratory conditions and then have these productsevaluated by independent judges



Psychological Disorder:

One of the oldest debates in the study of creativity

is the ³mad-genius controversy´ (Prentky, 1980). Asfar back as Aristotle, thinkers have speculated thatoutstanding creativity is associated with psychopathology.

On the other hand, creative individuals often havecharacter traits, such as high ego strength,(Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious, conforming,moralistic, settled, rule bound -High Super Ego

Strength) which are not found in clinical populations(Barron, 1969; Eysenck, 1995).

Humanistic psychologists, in particular, tend to see

creativity as a symptom of mental health, not illnesse. . Maslow 1959 Ma 1975 .



The Nature-Nurture Issue

Is creativity born or made, or some combination of

the two?

Galton (1869) introduced this question in his book

Hereditary Genius, and he later coined the terms

nature and nurture in his book

English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture

(1874).

Specific Congruency of Nature-Nurture(Eysenck,1995)



Small-c Versus Big-C Creativity

Small-c creativity enhances everyday life andwork with superior problem-solving skills

Whereas big-C creativity makes lasting

contributions to culture and history. In the first case, we are speaking of the

creative person, whereas in the latter case we

are talking about the creative genius.



Practical applications

Children are naturally creative.

The view of creative development is consistent with

creative adults¶ tendencies to exhibit childlike traitssuch as openness to experience, playfulness, andrich imagination (Feist, 1998).

However it should be emphasized that many of the

personal attributes contributing to adult creativityhave respectable heritability coefficients, therebysignifying that environmental influences may play aminor role





Future Directions

the genetic basis of individual differences in

creativity, using the latest theoretical andmethodological advances in behavior genetics

Second, the psychological study of creativity would be greatly strengthened by a comprehensive and

precise theoretical framework. It is not that the fieldlacks theoretical perspectives. but no single theoryhas emerged as the consensual one in the field.

Third, practical new methods are needed for enhancing both personal and societal creativity.

The psycho economic theories stress ³investment inhuman capital´ or human assets.



The Role of Personal Control in Adaptive Functioning

Perceived control is particularly relevant to the positive focus on the ability to find a meaningful life

even in difficult circumstances.

Frankl (1963) reports that those who were able tokeep this sense of self effectiveness were more likely

to survive the harsh prison environment.

Humans stand out for their exceptional success notonly at survival but also in learning how to control

their environment.



A person¶s self-assessment of the ability to exertcontrol is called perceived control ² the judgment thone has the means to obtain desired outcomes and toavoid undesirable ones.

one¶s sense of personal control has positiveimplications for emotional well-being, for the

likelihood that action will be taken, for physical healtand for general adaptive functioning.

Perceptions of control also are advantageous becausethey may prompt individuals to take action and avoid

stressful situations. In summary, perceived control is beneficial because i

is associated with positive emotions, leads to active problem solving, reduces anxiety in the face of stress,and buffers a ainst ne ative h siolo ical res onses.



If one intends an outcome and can see a connection

between one¶s action and the outcome, then

judgments of control will be high. the cognitive processes by which control is

estimated appear to be biased toward control

overestimation.

Thompson and Wierson (2000) suggest that people

use at least three strategies to maintain control

even in difficult circumstances, including

changing to goals that are reachable in the currentsituation, (alternate goals will be able to maintain a

sense of control).



Creating new avenues for control, e.g. chronically illindividuals can influence the course of their illness byobtaining extensive medical information, getting good

medical care, following the course of treatment, reducingstress in their lives, improving overall fitness through dietand exercise, and investigating alternate types of treatment.

Accepting current circumstances

Primary control is the same as perceived control as it isdefined in this chapter: the perception that one can getdesired outcomes.

Secondary control involves accepting one¶s lifecircumstances as they are, instead of working to change

them.



Acceptance can be achieved in a variety of ways, includingfinding benefits and meaning in the loss and in one¶s lifesituation. Even in an overall negative experience, many

individuals are able to find some benefits or advantages intheir situation For example, some stroke patients report thattheir stroke has helped them appreciate life and their spouseand that they have grown from the experience (Thompson,1991).

Acceptance increases a sense of control because it helps people feel less like helpless victims and reduces thediscrepancy between desired and achieved outcomes.



Measuring Perceptions of Control

(a) locus of control, which is the perception that most people¶s outcomes are influenced by personal action(internal) versus out side forces or other people(external),

(b) self efficacy, which refers to the belief that one

personally has the ability to enact the actions that arenecessary to get desired outcomes.

Perceived control is the combination of an internallocus (i. e., outcomes depend on personal action) andself-efficacy (i. e., I have the skills to take effectiveaction).



Interventions to Increase Control

Cunningham, et. al (1991) instructed cancer patientsin a psycho educational program with weekly 2hour

sessions that included learning coping skills,

relaxation, positive mental imagery, stress control,

cognitive restructuring, goal setting, and lifestylechange. After the program, participants had higher

perceptions of self efficacy, which, the authors

suggest, led to their ability to exert control,improved mood, and improved relationships with

others.



Slivinske and Fitch (1987) tested a comprehensive

control-enhancing intervention for elderly

individuals that focused on enhanced responsibility,stress management, physical fitness, and spirituality.

In a study by Hazaree singh and Bielawski (1991),

one group of student teachers received cognitive

self-instruction training (positive self-talk) and saw

models who took responsibility for their behavior .

Compared with another group that did not get this

training, the student teachers who received self-instruction and modeling perceived themselves as

being in more control in classroom settings.



Well-Being: Mindfulness Versus PositiveEvaluation

Positive or negative evaluation, leads to our happiness or unhappiness.

Mindfulness is a flexible state of mind ² an openness to

novelty, a process of actively drawing novel distinctions. When we are mindful, we become sensitive to context and

perspective.

we are situated in the present, our behavior may be guided

rather than governed by rules and routines. Mindfulness is not vigilance or attention when what is

meant by those concepts is a stable focus on an object or idea. When mindful, we are actively varying the stimulusfield.



When we are mindless, we are trapped in rigid mind-sets,

oblivious (unaware) to context or perspective. When we are

mindless, our behavior is governed by rule and routine.

mindlessness may come about on a single exposure to

information The context has changed, but our behavior

remains the same. (habitual responses)

Mindless is not habit although habit is mindless. Yet over 25 years of research reveals that mindlessness may

be very costly to us.

Mindlessness comes about in two ways: either through

repetition or on a single exposure to information. (lowmotivation)

e. g. It is learned that horses do not eat meat.



In different studies have found that an increase in

mindfulness results in greater competence, health

and longevity, positive affect, creativity, andcharisma and reduced burnout, etc. (Langer, 1989,

1997).

Mindfulness can increase, rather than decrease,

one¶s performance. Consider states of ³flow´.

It is a cognitive behavior that is well adapted to the

circumstances of having to react to an environment

that requires quick, decisive action.



Mindlessness and Evaluation

One man¶s passion is another man¶s poison´,

Evaluation is central to the way we make sense of

our world, yet in most cases, evaluation is mindless.

Example of Frogs.

(Yours geeta)

Often negative evaluations lead us to give up.

³Clothes make the man´ versus ³You can¶t

judge a book by its cover.´



Consider three different perspectives: (a) bad things

are intolerable;

(b) bad things happen, but if we just hold on, theywill pass; and

(c) bad things are context dependent² shift the

context, and the evaluation changes. The Multiple Meanings of Behavior :

Fundamental attribution error : The tendency to

explain others` actions as stemming from

dispositions, even in the presence of clear situational

causes.



Actor-observer differences: the tendency to attribute our

own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the

behaviour of others mainly to internal (dispositional)

causes.

Self-serving bias: The tendency to attribute positive

outcomes to internal causes but the negative outcomes to

external causes.

We think we know because we know how we would feel

in the same situation. That is, we overestimate how similar

other people are to ourselves. Lee Ross and colleagues

have called this the false consensus effect (Ross, Greene,& House, 1977).



Regrets

Regret happens under two conditions:

when we are unhappy, and when we obscure thedifference between our perspective at time one,

when we took some action, and when we evaluate

the action we took. Regret is a prediction of our emotions: If we had chosen differently then, we

would feel better now.

it is too easy for people to jump from ³could have

been,´ to ³should have been´ and then there arises

the problem of how could we have been so stupid or

incompetent not to have done it that way in the first

place.



Blame and Forgiveness ³To err is human, to forgive divine.´ Again, ask 10 people

whether forgiveness is good or bad. All will probably tellyou that it is good. Forgiveness is something to which weshould aspire. The more wronged we have been, the moredivine it is to be able to forgive. Now ask 10 people if blame is good or bad. All will probably tell you that blame

is bad. And yet to forgive, we have to blame. If we do not blame in the first place, there is nothing to forgive.

Discrimination Is Not Evaluation

Mindfulness Versus Positive Evaluation

Surely a single-mindedly positive view is likely to be more beneficial to health and well-being than a mindlessly

negative view. (Langer, Janis, & Wolfer, 1975).



17. O ptimism

� O ptimism is a generalized sense of confidence about the future, characterized by a broad expectancy that outcomes are

likely to be positive´ (Boniwell, 2006)�O ptimists are people who expect goodthings to happen to them

� Pessimists are people who expect bad

things to happen to them.� Dictionary definitions of optimism and pessimism rest on people¶s expectations

for the future.



� This grounding in expectancies links the concepts of optimism and pessimism to a long tradition of expectancy-value models of motivation.

Expectancy-value theories begin with theassumption that behavior is organized around the pursuit of goals.

Goals are states or actions that people view as either desirable or undesirable.

The second conceptual element in expectancy-valuetheories is expectancy² a sense of confidence or

doubt about the attainability of the goal value.





Variations in Conception and Assessment

1. One approach measures expectancies directly,

asking people to indicate the extent to which they believe that their future outcomes will be good or

bad.

2. LifeO

rientation Test( LO

T)http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/DLiT/2006/HelpingHands/LOTtest.pdf

3. Another approach to optimism relies on the

assumption that people¶s expectancies for the

future derive from their view of the causes of

events in the past (Peterson & Seligman, 1984;

Seligman, 1991).



O ptimism and Subjective Well-Being

O ptimism, Pessimism, and Coping

In the workplace optimists use more problem-focused coping (self-control and directed problem

solving) than do pessimists² (Strutton & Lumpkin,

1992). Pessimists use more emotion-focused coping,

including escapism (such as sleeping, eating, and

drinking), using social support, and also avoiding

people.



Aspinwall & Taylor (1992) reported that O ptimisticstudents engaged in more active coping and less

avoidance coping than did pessimistic students. Avoidance coping related to poorer adjustment;

active coping related (separately) to better adjustment.

O ptimists turn toward acceptance in uncontrollablesituations, whereas pessimists turn more to the useof active attempts at denial. Although both tactics

seem to reflect emotion-focused coping, there areimportant differences between them.



Some people are more vulnerable to suicide than

others. It is commonly assumed that depression is

the best indicator of suicide risk. But pessimism (asmeasured by the Hopelessness scale) is actually a

stronger predictor of this act, the ultimate

disengagement from life (Beck, et. al 1985) Pessimists`3ps

Personal

Permanent Pervasive



Promoting Well-Being

Shepperd, et. al (1996) found optimism related togreater success in lowering levels of saturated fat, body fat, and an index of overall coronary risk.O ptimism also related to increases in exercise acrossthe rehabilitation period.

Pessimism and Health-Defeating Behaviors Pessimism can lead people into self defeating

patterns. The result can be less persistence, moreavoidance coping, health damaging behavior, and

potentially even an impulse to escape from lifealtogether. With no confidence about the future, theremay be nothing left to sustain life (Carver & Scheier,1998).



Is O ptimism Always Better Than Pessimism?

Chesney, and Tipton (1995) studied the extent towhich adolescent girls at risk for HIV infection

sought out information about HIV testing and agreed

to be tested. Those higher in optimism were less

likely to expose themselves to the information andwere less likely to follow through with an actual test

than those lower in optimism (Perkins,et. al, 1993).



Do not encourage optimsim when the cost of

failure is high

Downside of optimism µIt can¶ happen to me¶

thinking is associated with an underestimation

of risks, and so optimists get themselves intorisky situations (Peterson & Park, 2003)

O ptimists see themselves as below average for

such occurrences as cancer and heart disease

(e.g. Peterson & de Avila, 1995; Peterson &

Vaidya, 2001)



Balanced PerspectiveThere are downsides of

extreme optimism and

extreme pessimism

³optimism is a

wonderful motivator

but it needs to be wed

to reality,´ (Reivich)



Can Pessimists Become O ptimists?

O ptimism relates both to neuroticism and to

extraversion, and both are known to be geneticallyinfluenced. (Scheier et al., 1994), it may be that the

observed heritability of optimism reflects these

associations.

Erikson (1968) held that infants who experience the

social world as predictable develop a sense of ³ basic

trust,´ whereas those who experience the world as

unpredictable develop a sense of ³basic mistrust.´



Insecurity of adult attachment is related to

pessimism. This suggests that optimism may derive

in part from the early childhood experience of secure attachment (Snyder, 1994).

If pessimism is that deeply embedded in a person¶s

life, can it be changed?

Role of cognitive-behavioral therapies.

Personal efficacy training.

The focus of such procedures is on increasing

specific kinds of competence (e. g., by assertiveness

training or social skill training).



Training in problem solving, selecting and defining

obtainable Sub goals, and decision making improves

the ways in which a person handles a wide range of everyday situations.

The tendency must be countered by establishing

realistic goals and identifying which situations must

be accepted rather than changed. The person must

learn to relinquish unattainable goals and set

alternative goals to replace those that cannot be

attained ( Schulz, 2000).



18. O ptimistic Explanatory style

Explanatory style, how people habitually explain thecauses of events that occur to them.

History: From Learned Helplessness (Skinner`s Dog

experiment) to Explanatory Style

Researchers immobilized (powerless) a dog and

exposed it to a series of electric shocks that could be

neither avoided nor escaped.



This behavior was in marked contrast to that of dogs

in a control group, which reacted vigorously to the

shock and learned readily how to turn it off.

Response-outcome independence was represented

cognitively by the dogs as an expectation of future

helplessness that was generalized to new situationsto produce a variety of motivational, cognitive, and

emotional deficit



Human Helplessness

First, More generally, people differ from animals in

our sophistication of assigning meaning to events. Rothbaum, et. al(1982) suggested that there are

circumstances in which passivity, withdrawal, and

submissiveness among people are not prima facie

evidence of diminished personal control; rather,

these reactions may represent alternative forms of

control achieved by cognitively aligning oneself

with powerful external forces.



A second asymmetry is what can be termed

vicarious helplessness. Problem-solving difficulties

can be produced in people if they simply seesomeone else exposed to uncontrollability (Brown &

Inouye, 1978).

A third difference is that small groups of people

can be made helpless by exposure to uncontrollable

events. So, when a group works at an unsolvable

problem, it later shows group problem-solving

deficits relative to another group with no previousexposure to uncontrollability (Simkin, 1983).

Pete s et l (1993) sed th ee f m l ite i ith



Peterson et al. (1993) proposed three formal criteria withwhich to judge the goodness of an application:

1. O bjective non contingency : Learned helplessness is present only when there is no contingency between actionsand outcomes.

2. Cognitive mediation : Learned helplessness also involvesa characteristic way of perceiving, explaining, andextrapolating contingencies. The helplessness model

specifies cognitive processes that make helplessness moreversus less likely following uncontrollable events.

3. Cross-situational generality of passive behavior

( mediating variables) Does the individual give up and failto initiate actions.

Other consequences : cognitive retardation, low self-esteem,sadness, reduced aggression, immuno suppression, and physical illness.

Att ib ti l R f l ti d



Attributional Reformulation andExplanatory Style

Internal vs. External (³it¶s all my fault´),

Unstable vs. stable (³it¶s going to lastforever´)

Global vs. specific (³it¶s going to

undermine everything´) An explanatory style characterized by

internal, stable, and global explanationsfor bad events has been described as pessimistic, and the opposite style,characterized by external, unstable, andspecific explanations for bad events, has

been described as optimistic (Buchanan

f l l ib i l l



Measures of Explanatory Style: Attributional Style

Questionnaire (ASQ).

In the ASQ, respondents are presented withhypothetical events - ³the one major cause´ of each

event if it were to happen (Peterson et al., 1982).

CAVE (an acronym for Content Analysis of

Verbatim Explanations), which allows written or

spoken material to be scored for naturally occurring

causal explanations (Peterson, et. al, 1992).

A something happens

B belief about something

C emotional reaction to the belief



Origins of Explanatory Style: (about 8 years)

Genetics: Schulman, et. al (1993) found that the

explanatory styles of monozygotic twins were morehighly correlated than the explanatory styles of dizygotic twins (r = .48 vs. r = .00). This findingdoes not mean that there is an optimism gene.

Parents: Researchers have explored the relationship between the explanatory styles of parents and their offspring.

Simple modeling (Bandura 1977) parents¶ interpretation of their children¶s behaviors.

P B h d t l (1993) f d th t hild ( d 8 t



Perez-Bouchard, et. al (1993) found that children (aged 8 to14) of substance abusers were more likely to have a pessimistic explanatory style than children of parents

without a history of substance abuse. (Home environment) Teachers : As teachers administer feedback about children¶s

performance, their comments may affect children¶sattributions about their successes and failures in the

classroom. Television¶s proclivity for ruminating in its news coverage

compounds a tendency to magnify stories of violence in aself-serving way that may slant factual presentation(Levine,1977).

Trauma

Trauma also influences the explanatory style of children.

Di ti f F t R h



Directions for Future Research:

Explanatory Style as Positive Psychology :Thecurrent stage in learned helplessness research beganwith the reframing of explanatory style by Seligman(1990) in his book Learned O ptimism, where hedescribed how his lifelong interest into what can go

wrong with people had changed into an interest inwhat can go right

Attention to Outcome Measures

Attention to Mechanisms

The mechanism that lead from explanatory style tothese outcomes.

Psychological and biological mechanisms for

humans

P t (1988) f d th t ti i ti l t



Peterson (1988) found that an optimistic explanatorystyle was associated with a variety of healthy practices, such as exercising, drinking in

moderation, and avoiding fatty foods. In one of recent studies of optimistic explanatory

style and physical well-being, studied 1,000

individuals over almost 50 years (Peterson, at. al1998). Pessimistic individuals had an increasedlikelihood of early death, and the large sample sizemade it possible to investigate associations between

explanatory style and death from different causes. Accidental deaths are not random. ³Being in the

wrong place at the wrong time´



19. Hope theory

Some psychologists ask people to talk about their

goal-directed thoughts.

Recall the previous view of hope as ³the perception that

one can reach desired goals´;

Two components of goal-directed thought² pathwaysand agency.

One can find pathways to desired goals and become

motivated to use those pathways (Agency).

We also proposed that hope, so defined, serves to

drive the emotions and well-being of people.

( hint: experiential/ insightful intelligence)

G l



Goals :

We begin with the assumption that human actions

are goal directed.

Accordingly, goals are the targets of mental action

sequences, and they provide the cognitive

component that anchors hope theory (Snyder,

1994a, 1994c, 1998b). Goals may be short or long-term, but they need to

be of sufficient value to occupy conscious thought.

Pathways:



Pathways:

Thinking In order to reach their goals, people mustview themselves as being capable of generating

workable routes to those goals.This process, which we call pathways thinking,

signifies one¶s perceived capabilities at generatingworkable routes to desired goals.

The production of several pathways is importantwhen encountering impediments (obstacle), andhigh-hope persons perceive that they are facile(too easy) at finding such alternate routes;moreover, high-hope people actually are veryeffective at producing alternative routes (Irving, et.al. 1998)



Agency:

Thinking :The motivational component in hope

theory is agency² the perceived capacity to useone¶s pathways so as to reach desired goals.

Agentic thinking reflects the self-referential

thoughts about both starting to move along a

pathway and continuing to progress along that

pathway.

We have found that high-hope people embrace

such self-talk agentic phrases as ³I can do this´and ³I am not going to be stopped´

Adding Pathways and Agentic Thinking:



Adding Pathways and Agentic Thinking:

It is important to emphasize that hopeful thinking

necessitates both the perceived

Capacity to envision workable routes and goal-

directed energy.

Thus, hope is ³a positive motivational state

that is based on an interactively derived sense of

successful (1) agency (goal-directed energy) and (2)

pathways (planning to meet goals)´

Hope, Impediments (obstacle), and Emotion:

It is proposed that goal-pursuit cognitions cause

emotions. ( cognition emotion )

Full Hope Model



Outcomesvalues

Pathways thoughts

AgencyThoughts

Goal

Behaviour

Pathwaysthoughts

AgencyThoughts

Learning history Pre event Event sequence

Individual Differences Scales Derived From



Individual-Differences Scales Derived Fr om

Hope Theor y;

Trait Hope Scale:

The adult Trait Hope Scale (Snyder, et.al., 1991)

consists of four agency, four pathways, and four

distracter items.

State Hope Scale:

The State Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1996) has

three agency and three pathways items in which

respondents describe themselves in terms of

how they are ³right now.´

Children¶s Hope Scale:



Children s Hope Scale:

The Children¶s Hope Scale (for ages 8 to 16) (Snyder,Hoza, et al., 1997) comprises three agency and threepathways items.

Similarities Between Hope Theor y and Other Positive Psychology Theories:

Optimism: Seligman`s optimistic attributional style is thepattern of external, variable, and specific attributions for failures instead of internal, stable, and global attributes

that were the focus in the earlier helplessness model. In hope theory, however, the focus is on reaching

desired future positive goal-related outcomes, withexplicit emphases on the agency and pathways thoughtsabout the desired goal.

In both theories, the outcome must be of highimportance, although this is emphasized more in hopetheory.



Self -Efficacy: Bandura According to Bandura (1982,

1997), for self efficacy to be activated, a goal-related

outcome must be important enough to capture attention.

This premise is similar to that held in hope theory.

Although psychologists have deviseda trait measure

of self-efficacy.

Self -Esteem Hewitt (1998) concludes that self-esteem reflects the

emotions flowing from persons¶ appraisals of their overall

effectiveness in the conduct of their lives. In the words of

Cooper smith (1967), ³Self-esteem is the personal judgment of worthiness´ .

I bl l i th th ¶ id tifi ti f



In problem-solving theory, the person¶s identification of adesired goal (a problem solution) is explicitly noted, and itis assumed implicitly that an important goal is involved .

Significant positive correlations (r of .40 to .50) have beenfound between hope and problem solving (Snyder, Harris,et al., 1991).

Impor tance f or Academics: Academics Learning andperforming well in educational settings are important

avenues for thriving (flourishing) in American society. By applying hopeful thinking, students should enhance

their perceived capabilities finding multiple pathways todesired educational goals, along with the motivations topursue those goals. Also, through hopeful thinking,

students should be able to stay ³on task´ and not beblocked by interfering self-deprecatory (apologetic/critical)thoughts and negative emotions (Snyder, 1999a).e.gMana Ke ««««.

Hope relates to higher achievement test scores in



Hope relates to higher achievement test scores inschool children and higher semester grade pointaverages in college students.

In a 6year longitudinal study, Hope Scale scorestaken at the beginning of students¶ very firstsemester in college predicted higher cumulativegrade point average and graduation rate, as well

as lower attrition as tapped by dropout rate; Imagine the negative ripple (wave/ flow)²lost

opportunities, unfulfilled talents, and sense of failure² that may flow over a lifetime for some

students who drop out of high school or college.So, Hope may offer a potential antidote (remedy).

Given the predictive power of the Hope Scale for



Given the predictive power of the Hope Scale for

academics, perhaps it also could be used to identify

academically at-risk low-hope students who would

especially profit by interventions to raise their hopefulthinking.

Psychological Adjustment

Hope should bear strong relationships with affectivity, and

we have found that hope is related positively with positiveaffect and negatively with negative affect (correlations in

.55 range).

Furthermore, high-hope as compared with low-hope

college students have reported feeling more inspired,energized, confident, and challenged by their goals

(Snyder, et. al 1991), along with having elevated feelings

of self-worth and low levels of depression

Human Connection:



Human Connection:

Researchers also have found that higher levels of hopeare related to more perceived social support (Barnum et

al., 1998), more social competence (Snyder, Hoza, et al.,1997), and less loneliness (Sympson, 1999).

They appear to truly enjoy their interactions with others(Snyder, Hoza, et al., 1997), and they are interested intheir goals and the goals of others around them (Snyder,

1994b) Meaning in Life Viktor Frankl (1965, 1992) has provided

an eloquent voice on the ³What is the nature of meaning?´question. To answer this query, he advanced the concept

of the ³existential vacuum´²the perception that there is no meaning or purpose in theuniverse.

Hope for the Many Rather Than the Few



Hope f or the Many Rather Than the Few

Whether it is a business, city council, state

legislature, or national or international

organization, there is enormous potential in

working together in the spirit of hope.

21. Problem-Solving Appraisal and



21. Pr oblem Solving Appr aisal and Psychological Adjustment

The research evidence in this chapter will clearly

indicate that how people appraise their problem solvingaffects not only how they cope with problems, but alsotheir psychological adjustment.*

The importance of higher order or meta-cognitive

variables in various cognitive processes.Pr oblem Solving Inventor y

In the PSI, perceptions of one¶s problem-solving abilitystyle, behavior, and attitudes are assessed (Heppner,

1988; Heppner & Baker, 1997). The PSI consists of 35 six-point Likert-type items (1³strongly agree´ to 6 � ³strongly disagree´), with a totalscore and three subscale scores .

The three subscales tap Problem-Solving Confidence (11



p g (items), Approach-Avoidance Style (16 items), Personal Control(5 items), and 3 filler items.

Problem-Solving Confidence is defined as an individual¶s

self-assurance in a wide range of problem-solving activities, abelief and trust in one¶s problem-solving abilities (generalproblem-solving self-efficacy), and coping effectiveness.

The Approach-Avoidance Style, as the label implies, refers to ageneral tendency to approach or avoid different problem-solving activities.

Personal Control is defined as a belief in one¶s emotional andbehavioral control (thereby reflecting emotional over reactivityand behavioral control; Heppner, 1988; Heppner & Baker,

1997). Higher scores on the PSI indicate a lack of problem solving

confidence, an avoidant problem solving style, and an absenceof personal control.

Summar y of the Pr oblem-Solving Appr aisal



y g ppLiter ature

Problem-solving appraisal using the PSI has been the focus of over 100 empirical investigations.

Psychological Adjustment

Early in the evolution of this topic, researchers claimed thatproblem solving was linked to psychological adjustment(D¶Zurilla & Goldfried,1971).

In over 50 studies now, researchers have examined the linkbetween problem-solving appraisal and psychological health.We will briefly discuss the literature specifically related to (a)general psychological adjustment, perceived effective (ascompared with ineffective) problem solvers report themselves

to be more adjusted on (a) general measures such as theMinnesota Multiphasic Personality, (b) specific measures of personality variables such as positive self-concepts (c) personalproblem inventories.

For example perceived effective (as compared



For example, perceived effective (as compared

with ineffective) problem solvers reported having

(a) more social skills (b) less social uneasiness/

distrust/ distress (c) social support.

Thus, there is a well-established association

between positive problem-solving appraisal and

better social and psychological adjustment. (b) Depression the link between a more positive

problem-solving appraisal and lower depression

appears across populations and cultures. (studies

in different environments e. g Prison, on students,on adults with spinal cord injuries and in different

cultures)

(c) hopelessness and suicidal behavior , there was a



( ) p ,stronger association between problem-solvingappraisal and hopelessness (rs .48 to .62) than

between problem solving appraisal and suicidalideation (rs .11 to .43).

Alcohol Use/ Abuse The proponents of cognitive-social learning approaches propose that individualswho abuse drugs and alcohol do so because they lacka sense of self-efficacy for coping with stressfulsituations. Thus, alcohol and drug consumption maybe their coping strategy for altering feelings of personal inadequacy. Related to this thesis, support

for this relationship between problem-solving appraisaland alcohol/ drug usage emerges in several studies. Itis found a significant linear relationship between morepositive problem-solving appraisal and less alcohol

use/ abuse.

(e) Personality variables, a consistent association



(e) Personality variables, a consistent association

between a more positive problem-solving appraisal

and lower anxiety . Moreover, a more positive problem

solving appraisal has been related to lower anger andhigher curiosity.

(f) Parental associations: It is found that the more

positively the mothers appraised their own problem-

solving style, the more positive were their preschoolchildren¶s social and emotional development

behaviors, such as more direct coping behaviors in

incest victims.

use of parental punishment in child-rearing

situations.(-r)

Physical Health

Problem-Solving Training Interventions Problem-



Problem Solving Training Interventions Problem

solving training (PST) has involved teaching (a)

specific component skills (e. g., problem definition

and formulation),

(b) a general problem-solving model; and,

(c) specific problem-solving skills in conjunction

with other interventions. Future Research Directions

22. Setting Goals for Life and Happiness



22. Setting Goals for Life and Happiness

Thinking: To achieve happiness, individuals mustunderstand their own natures, and especially their needs.

³Life is a process of self-sustaining and self-generated action´

Need ( Maslow`s view)

Values:

It is now necessary to distinguish needs from values.

Needs as such are inborn and they are part of an

organism¶s nature. Values are acquired, that is, learned (Rokeach, 1972).

N d i t if i t f th l



Needs exist even if one is not aware of them; valuesexist in consciousness (or the subconscious).

A value is ³that which one acts to gain and/ or keep.

It is that which one regards, consciouslysubconsciously, as conducive to one¶s welfare.

The most fundamental of all values are moralvalues² that which the individual considers good or right. A moral code is a code of values accepted bychoice.

Emotions:

Emotions are the form in which people experienceautomatized, subconscious value judgments

(Lazarus, 1991; Locke, 1969). Emotions reflect subconscious knowledge and also

one¶s subconsciously held values and valuehierarchy.

Every emotion reflects a particular type of value



Every emotion reflects a particular type of valueappraisal.

Fear is the response to physical threat, anxiety to an uncertain threat or a self esteem ;

threat, guilt to the breach of a moral value,satisfaction to value achievement;

Anger to another person doing something heshould not have done,

jealousy to another person having a value onewants for oneself, and so forth.

It should be obvious from this discussion thatsetting priorities in values and goals is critical tomanaging one¶s life, both in the short range and inthe long range.





Goal setting theory

Difficulty

Specificity

Feedback

Commitment

Self efficacy

Task knowledge

Incentives & personality

Affect work

Blocks to goal achievement:



It should be clear from the foregoing discussion that goalsetting² which means fundamentally purposefulness² isnecessary for living a successful happy life.

Most people, at some level, seem to know this. Why, then, areso many people unhappy? Three reasons are primary:

1. The most fundamental reason is irrationalism;

2. A second reason is the unwillingness to put forth mental (and

physical) effort² 3 The third reason is fear : fear of change, fear of telling the

truth, fear of being wrong, fear of being different, fear of thinkingfor oneself, fear of failure, fear of the subconscious and of knowing one¶s own motives, fear of disappointment, fear of

disapproval, fear of being hurt, fear of being vulnerable, fear of the new, and fear of standing up for one¶s values.

C l i



Conclusion :

Goals are the means by which values and

dreams are translated into reality. Happinessdoes not just happen. It has to be earned by

thinking, planning, and the constant pursuit of

values² both in work and in love² over the

course of a lifetime. Goal-directed action is

therefore critical to positive psychology.

Th P i T K



The Passion To Know

�Stimulus seeking organisms

� Arousal-optimizing organisms

�Competence ±seeking organisms

�Information seeking organisms

�Born to know

�Developmental research reveals that babies are

surprisingly capable learners, as well as energeticand determined pursuers of information.(Schulman1991)

In a television interview, a reporter asked the Nobel



physicist Richard Feynman what he wanted to knowabout the world. Feynman thought for a moment,

then exclaimed ³Everything!´ (a) identify and classify the phenomena we

encounter,

(b) discern temporal patterns between some of those

phenomena, (c) determine causal relationships behind some of

those temporal patterns,

(d) discover how to enter into the antecedent-

consequent chain and become causal agentsourselves.

The function of intelligence is to gain information ineach of these domains.

Wi d



W isdom

Toward a Positive Psychology of OptimalDevelopment.

Perfection and Optimality: A Dilemma for

Psychology

On Positive Psychology :The understanding of

three contributors to a good life: positive subjective

experiences, desirable individual traits, and civic

virtues.

Table 24.1 General Criteria Derived from an Analysisof Cultural Historical and Philosophical Accounts of



of Cultural-Historical and Philosophical Accounts of Wisdom

Wisdom addresses important and difficult questions

and strategies about the conduct and meaning of life. Wisdom includes knowledge about the limits of

knowledge and the uncertainties of the world.

Wisdom represents a truly superior level of

knowledge, judgment, and advice. Wisdom constitutes knowledge with extraordinary

scope, depth, measure, and balance.

Wisdom involves a perfect synergy of mind andcharacter, that is, an orchestration of knowledge andvirtues.

Wisdom represents knowledge used for the good or well-being of oneself and that of others.

Wisdom, though difficult to achieve and to specify, is

easily recognized when manifested.

Psychological Theories of Wisdom: Fr om Implicitt E li it Th i



to Explicit Theories

Implicit Theories :All conceptions include cognitive as

well as social, motivational, and emotionalcomponents

The cognitive components usually include strongintellectual abilities, rich knowledge and experience

in matters of the human condition, and an ability toapply one¶s theoretical knowledge practically.

A second basic component refers to reflective judgment that is based on knowledge about the world

and the self, an openness for new experiences, andthe ability to learn from mistakes.

Socio-emotional components generally include goodsocial skills, such as sensitivity and concern for othersand the ability to give good advice.

A fourth motivational component refers to the good



A fourth motivational component refers to the goodintentions that usually are associated with wisdom.That is, wisdom aims at solution that optimize thebenefit of others and oneself.

Implicit Belief s about Wise People: Four Dimensions

1.Exceptional knowledge about wisdom acquisitioncomprehends the nature of human existence triesto learn from his or her own mistakes

2.Exceptional knowledge about use of wisdom

knows when to give/ withhold advice is a personwhose advice one would solicit for life problems

3 E ceptional kno ledge abo t conte t of life



3.Exceptional knowledge about context of life

knows that life priorities may change during the life

course knows about possible conflicts amongdifferent life domains

4.Exceptional personality and social functioning

- is a good listener

- is a very humane person

Explicit Theories:



Explicit Theories:

To date, the theoretical and empirical work on explicit

psychological conceptions of wisdom can be dividedroughly into three groups:

(a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal

characteristic or a personality disposition

(b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neoPiagetian tradition of post formal and dialectical

thinking

(c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert

system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life,

as advocated in the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm.

Ber lin Wisdom Par adigm

Th t t t hi h thi ti f i d f



The contents to which this expertise of wisdom refersare the ³fundamental pragmatics of life,´ that is,knowledge about the essence of the human condition

and the ways and means of planning, managing, andunderstanding a good life

First, as is typical for the development of expertise, weassume that wisdom is acquired through an extended

and intense process of learning and practice. Second, wisdom is a complex and multifaceted

phenomenon; therefore, for wisdom to emerge, avariety of experiential factors and processes on microand macro-levels are required to interact and

collaborate.

Third, given that wisdom involves the orchestrationf iti l i l i t l d



of cognitive, personal, social, interpersonal, andspiritual factors, its antecedents are diverse in

nature. Fourth, because developmental tasks and adaptive

challenges change across life, and the humancondition is inherently a life-course phenomenon,

we expect wisdom to reach its peak relatively latein adult life.

Fifth, we believe that, as with other fields of expertise, the guidance of mentors, as well as the

experience and mastery of critical life experiences,are conducive to individual manifestations of wisdom.

Our paradigm for assessing wisdom comprises

f f



the following three core features:

(a) Study participants are confronted with difficult life

problems of fictitious people under standardizedconditions. Specifically, they are asked to read shortvignettes about problems of life management,planning, and review.

(b) Participants are then instructed to think aloudabout those life problems, and their responses aretape-recorded and transcribed.

(c) A selected panel of trained judges then rates the

protocols according to five criteria ,that weredeveloped based on the general theoretical frameworkoutlined.

e.g. A 15year-old girl wants to get married right away.What should one/ she consider and do?

The psychometric location of wisdom-relatedf U i d h d ti f



performance: Unique and shared portions of

predictive variance of measures of intelligence,

personality, and the personality-intelligenceinterface (Staudinger, Lopez, & Baltes, 1997).

The three key findings of this study are :

First, at least 10 of the 33 indicators turned out tobe significant predictors of wisdom-relatedperformance.

Overall, these 10 predictors accounted for 40% of the variance in wisdom-related performance.

None of the indicators alone explained more than18%.



Interventions

Future directions

Documents

2010 Cognitive Focused Approaches