CONTENTS

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiiiCredits xiv

Introduction

Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Definitions and Context 4Chronological Age and Age Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Why Study These Phenomena? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Types of Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Principies of Measurement and Observation 11Overview of Postnatal Growth: Scammon's Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13General Regulation of Growth and Maturation 14Sources of Growth, Performance, and Activity Data 14Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 2 Prenatal Growth and Functional Development 21Stages of Prenatal Growth 21Sex Differentiation 23Twins and Twinning 25Prenatal Loss 25Congenital Malformations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Fetal Growth 26Fetal Motor Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Factors That Affect Birth Weight 30Overview of the Prenatal Period 34Fetal Origins of Adult Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36SourcesandSuggestedReadings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Postnatal Growth

Chapter3 SomaticGrowth .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Measurements Commonly Used in Growth StudiesGrowth in Stature and BodyWeightGrowth of the Body Mass Index . . . .Growth Patterns in Other Body DimensionsChanges in Body Proportions .....Adjusting for Variation in Body Size-ScalingTracking .....Summary . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

Development of PhysiqueConcept of Somatotype ......Methods in the Assessment of PhysiqueSomatotyping Children and Adolescents ......Examples of Somatotypes of Individuals During GrowthDistributions of Somatotypes .Change in Somatotype During GrowthTracking .Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Body Composition ...............Models of Body Composition . . .Methods for Estimating Body CompositionApplications to Children and Adolescents .Concept of Chemical Maturity ......Composition of the Fat-Free Mass in Children and AdolescentsChanges in Body Density and Total-BodyWater During GrowthGrowth in Fat-Free Mass,Fat Mass,and Percent FatTracking ...........Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

Bone Tissue in Skeletal Growthand Body Composition ..BoneCells .....Bone Formation . . . . . . . .Growth of a Long BoneBone Asa Component of BodyCompositionTracking ...........Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Skeletal Muscle TissueMuscle As a TissueMyogenesis. . . . . . . . .

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Muscle Fiber Types ......Muscle Fiber Size .......Contractile Properties of MuscleMetabolic Properties of Muscle .Assessing Muscle Mass of the BodyDevelopment of MuscleTissue by BodilyRegionSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . .

Chapter8 Adipose Tissue .................The Fat CellAsa Complex Structure . . .Stages and Mechanisms of AdipogenesisWhite and Brown Adipose Cells . . .White Adipose Tissue in Prenatal Life . .White Adipose Tissue in Postnatal LifeSubcutaneous Fat Distribution During GrowthAbdominal Visceral Fat During GrowthStability of Body Fat During GrowthSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings .

.Functional DeveloDment

Chapter9 Heart, Blood, and Lungs . . . .........Features of Fetal Circulation .....Cardiopulmonary Adjustments at BirthChanges in Heart Size ........Changes in Heart Functions .....Changes in Features of Blood During GrowthChanges in Lungs and Respiratory Functions During GrowthSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 10 Motor Development . . ..........What 15Motor Development?Motor Pattern and SkillClassifications of Motor Activities

The Newborn Infant and the Reflexes of InfancyMotor Development-Birth to 2 Years of AgeDevelopment of Independent WalkingDevelopment of Fundamental Motor SkillsEarly Motor Development and Growth of the BrainStatus at Birth and Subsequent Motor DevelopmentEarly Postnatal Growth and Motor DevelopmentOverview of Motor DevelopmentSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Chapter 11 Strength and Motor PerformancePhysical Fitness . . . . . . . . . .Measures of Strength and Motor Performance .Performance in Early Childhood .......Performance in Middle Childhood and AdolescenceRelationships of Strength and Motor Performanceto Size,Physique, and Body Composition .

Scaling of Strength and Motor PerformanceTracking ...........Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Chapter 12 Aerobic Performance ..........Measurement Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Growth-Related Adaptations in Aerobic PerformanceSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . . .

Chapter 13 Anaerobic Performance ...........Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Energy TurnoverDeterminants of Anaerobic PerformanceMeasurement Issues . . . . . . . . . . .Growth and the Determinants of Anaerobic Performance

Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sourcesand Suggested Readings . . . . . . . .

Chapter 14 Thermoregulation During Growth ......The Physics of HeatTransfer ...............Physiological Means ofThermoregulation . . . . . . . . .Responsesto HeatAssociatedWithGrowthand MaturationAcclimatizationand AcclimationResponse to Cold Climates . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

Chapter 15 Biological Maturation: Concepts and AssessmentAssessing Skeletal MaturityAssessing Sexual Maturity .Assessing Somatic MaturityAssessing Dental Maturity .Interrelationships Among Maturity IndicatorsSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . .

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Chapter 16 Timing and Sequenceof Changes During Adolescence .........Adolescent Growth Spurt .......Sexual Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . .Sequence of Sexual and Somatic MaturityGrowth Spurts in Other DimensionsBody Dimensions and Composition Relative to Peak Height VelocityGrowth Spurts in Performance . .Performance Relative to MenarcheSummary . . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings .

Chapter17 Maturity-Associated Variationin Growth and Performance . . .........Classifying Children by Maturity Status . .Maturity-Associated Variation in Body Size ....Maturity-AssociatedVariationin Physique ....Maturity-Associated Variation in Body CompositionMaturity-Associated Variation in Adipose Tissue DistributionMaturity-Associated Variation in Strength and Motor PerformanceMaturity-Associated Variation in the Adaptation to Exercise and V02maxMaturity-Associated Variation in Anaerobic PerformanceSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sourcesand Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . .

Inftuencina Factors

Chapter18 Genetic Regulation of Growth,Maturation, and Performance .........The Human Genome . . . . . . . . .The Human Gene ..........From Genes to Proteins to PhenotypesGene Expression ..........The Special Case of Mitochondrial DNAGenetic Variation in Human GenesThe Multifactorial PhenotypeGenetics of Fetal Development . .Genetic Influences on the NewbornGenetics of Selected Growth PhenotypesGenetics of Maturation ........Genetics of Selected Performance PhenotypesExamples of Growth-Related GenesSummary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . .

Chapter19 Hormonal Regulation of Growth and MaturationEndocrine,Paracrine,Autocrine,and IntracrineSystemsEndocrineHormones ......................

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Other Growth-Promoting Factors and HormonesHypothalamic and Pituitary HormonesGrowth Hormone and Related Growth FactorsThyroid Hormones ............parathyroid and Calcitonin HormonesHormones From the Adrenal Medulla and CortexGonadal Glands and HormonesInsulin and Glucagonleptin .......Regulation of PubertyMenstrual Cycle . . .Overview of Hormones and Their ActionsSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . .

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Chapter 20 Energy and Nutritional RequirementsNutrients . . . . . . . . . .Breast-Feedingandthe InfantEnergy Needs . . . . . . . .Energy Requirements for GrowthDietary Reference Intake (DRI)for Energy IntakeDRIfor Protein IntakeDRIfor Lipid Intake ....Carbohydrate RequirementsVitamin RequirementsMineral Requirements . . .Summary . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Chapter 21 Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure:Assessment, Trends, and Tracking .........What Is Physical Activity? .......What Is Energy Expenditure? . . . . . . . .Methods of Assessing Patterns or levelsof Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure

Developmental Trends in Physical Activity and Energy ExpenditureTracking of Physical Activity levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Correlates of Physical Activity levels in Childhood and AdolescenceSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 22 Physical Activity As a Factor in Growth,Maturation, and Performance .....Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Approaches to the Study of Physical ActivityActivity and Stature . . . . . . . . . . . .Activity, Body Weight, and Body CompositionActivity and Physique .....Activity and SpecificTissues ........Activity and Biological Maturity ......Overview of Activity,Growth, and MaturationActivity,Fitness, and Performance .....

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The Concept ofTrainability . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Chapter 23 Undernutrition in Childhood and AdolescenceCriteria . . . . . . . .Prevalence ............Forms of Undernutrition . . . . . .Undernutrition in Preschool ChildrenUndernutrition in School-Age ChildrenLong-TermConsequences of UndernutritionSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . .

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Chapter24 Obesity in Childhoodand Adolescence . . . . . .Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . .Criteria and Prevalence ...............Correlates of Overweight and Obesity ........Consequences of Obesity for Children and AdolescentsLong-Term Consequences of ObesityTreatment ..........Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Chapter 25 Other Factors Affecting Growth, Maturation,Performance, and Activity ...........Social Conditions, Growth, and Maturation ..........SocialConditions,MotorDevelopment,Performance,and ActivityEthnic Variation in Growth and Maturity ............Ethnic Variation in Motor Development, Performance, and ActivityClimate,Growth, and Maturity ......Climate, Performance, and Physical ActivitySummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sourcesand Suggested Readings . . . . .

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lications

Chapter 26 Risk Factors During Growth and Adult HealthPrimary and Secondary Prevention . . . . . .RiskFactors for Common Metabolic DiseasesCurrent RiskProfile of Children and AdolescentsSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . .

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Chapter 27 Chronic Clinical Conditions and Physical Disabilities . 609Selected Clinical Conditions That Affect Growth and Maturation 610Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents With Chronic Conditions 612

Fitness and Performance of Children and Adolescents With Chronic ConditionsSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 28 The Young Athlete ...Participation in Youth Sports . .Selection and Exclusion in SportWho Is the Young Athlete? . . .Stature and Weight of Young AthletesMaturity Status and Progress of Young AthletesAge at Menarche in Athletes ....Physique of Young Athletes .........Body Composition of Young Athletes . . . . .Motor Performance Characteristics of Young AthletesPhysiological Characteristics ofYoung AthletesDoes Training for Sport Influence the Growth and Maturity of Young Athletes?Gymnastics and Ballet:Special Cases?Overview . . . . . . . . . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

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Chapter 29 Secular Trends in Growth,Maturation, and Performance .........Definitions ....................Sources of Secular Trend Data ...........Limitations and Assumptions in Secular ComparisonsSecular Trends in Body Size .....Secular Trends in Body Proportions . .Secular Trends in Indicators of MaturitySecular Trends in Performance . . . .Secular Trends in Developing CountriesFactors Underlying Secular TrendsSummary . . . . . . . . . . .Sources and Suggested Readings

Appendix A:Conversion Tables 677Appendix B:Suggestions for Individual and Group ActivitiesIndex 695About the Authors 711

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