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Motivation

Motivation is a need or desire that

energizes behavior and directs it

towards a goal.

Alan Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock

that pinned him down.

Alan Ralston

AP

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ews, Judy W

algren

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Perspectives on Motivation

Four perspectives to explain motivation include the following:

1. Instinct Theory2. Drive-Reduction

Theory3. Arousal Theory4. Hierarchy of Motives

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Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species

and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951).

Where the woman builds different kinds of housesthe bird builds only one kind of nest.

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Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

For example, the theory that men are more likely to CHEAT, because they are genetically programmed to

impregnate as many women as possible so their lineage will survive.

What are some other biologically motivated behaviors?

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Drive-Reduction Theory

When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by the drive-

reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the

need (Hull, 1951).

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Drive Reduction

FoodDrive

Reduction

Organism

The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady

body temperature).

Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)

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Incentive

Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our

drives.

A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

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Arousal Theory(biologically similar to drive-reduction theory)

some motivated behaviors INCREASE arousal. Curiosity, for example – some well-fed animals go out just to explore. Risk taking behaviors –we bungie-jump, jump out of airplanes, drive fast, to increase nervous system functioning. We take hard classes because we seek the stress/arousal of nervous system.

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Optimum Arousal

Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it.

Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the

absence of a need-based drive.

Harlow

Prim

ate Laboratory, U

niversity of Wisconsin

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aris/ Corbis

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The Yerkes-Dodson Law says we perform best under the optimal amount of arousal. (Like Goldilocks)Not too much, not too little.

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Cognitive/Humanistic Theories

Behavior is about getting a perceived need/goal met

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Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that

certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs

like breathing, thirst, and hunger come

before psychological needs such as

achievement, self-esteem, and the need

for recognition. (1908-1970)

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Hierarchy of Needs

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Socio-Cultural Theories:

• Behavior is motivated by peers/culture• The GROUP models and encourages

certain behaviors.

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Today, motivation researchers assume that any behavior is motivated by

multiple factors – biological, behavioral, cognitive, and social.

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The Physiology of Hunger

Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.

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Stomachs Removed

Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small

intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).

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Glucose: C6H12O6

The glucose level in blood is maintained. Insulin decreases glucose in the blood,

making us feel hungry.

Glucose Molecule

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Glucose & the Brain

Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by

receptors (neurons) in the stomach,

liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in

the brain.

Rat Hypothalamus

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Hypothalamic Centers

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The

reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat

ravenously.

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Hypothalamic Centers

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the

VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

Richard H

oward

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Hypothalamus & Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.

Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase

StomachIncreases hunger

Insulin increase

PancreasIncreases hunger

Leptin increase

Fat cellsDecreases hunger

PPY increaseDigestive tract

Decreases hunger

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Physiology of Hunger:

LeptinA protein, secreted by fat cells, that tells brain if you have right energy stores

HypothalamusSite of brain’s “eating control center” where message is sent

Appetite AgentsNeurons in Hypo. produce proteins that increase or decrease appetite –leptin affects this greatly– inhibits and stimulates appetite.

Leptin is protein in fat cells

Set Point Theory

The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat.Wants to maintain a stable weight (homeostasis).Activate the lateral when you diet and activate the ventromedial when you start to gain weight.Ghrelin video

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Set-Point Theory

Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the

body’s “weight thermostat.”

If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is

gained, the opposite takes place.

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So why don’t diets work?

1) They trigger survival “starvation” mode/rebound to GAIN

2) You’re fighting “set point” which may be genetic

3) Fools brain to ignore real body signals – causes brain to lose ability to detect real hunger

4) May permanently mess up your natural metabolism

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Physiology of Hunger:Brain has a set point – sets the metabolism. Always going for homeostasis

Metabolism CAN be changed (exercise is by far the most effective way)

Metabolism can also be totally destroyed, most often through dieting/starving.

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The Psychology of Hunger

Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia

patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998).

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Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?

Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger

but what we feel hungry for!

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lsenius/ Black S

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Victor E

nglebert

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Hot Cultures like Hot Spices

Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.

Unlearned biological motives necessary for survival are termeda.primary motives b.secondary motivesc. drives d. stimulus motives

Jose complains that he can play his tuba beautifully at home but not on stage at the talent show. His problem can be explained bya. Yerkes-Dodson Law b. effects of homeostasisc. habituation d. biorhythms

The most critical physiological factor controlling hunger is thea.level of blood sugar b.stomach contractionsc. taste of food d. presence of fatigue

The maintenance of steady states of temperature and blood pressure are examples of a.thermostasis b.homeostasisc. intrinsic motivation d. biological rhythm

Electrically stimulating the lateral hypothalamus will cause a rat to a.start eating b.stop eatingc. start drinking d. stop drinking

The employees at a factory were excellent workers until a week before Christmas when a rumor spread that economic conditions would force the plant to close in four days. The quality and quantity of work took a down turn as the workers spent time discussing among themselves the plausibility of the rumor and what they would do if it were true. Maslow would say that these workers weremotivated bya.meta-needs b.intrinsic motivationc. esteem and self-esteem d. safety and security

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Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal-weight person (usually an

adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight.

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Signs and Symptoms for Anorexia Nervosa

A. Refusal to maintain normal body weight

B. Intense fear of gaining weight/being fat

C. Distortion of body shape perception

D. In females, absence of at least 3 menstrual cycles

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Eating Disorders

Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-

calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.

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Signs and Symptoms for Bulimia Nervosa

A. Recurrent episodes of binge eating – large quantities of food, and a lack of control over the eating

B. May use vomiting, laxatives, fasting, exercise to PURGE

C. Episodes occur, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months

D. Distortion of body image perception

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Body Image (Women)Western culture tends to place more

emphasis on a thin body image in comparison to other cultures.

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Obesity

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A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases

the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back

problems.

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Social Effects of Obesity

• Social effects of obesity

• Weight discrimination

• Psychological effects of obesity

Weight Discrimination

Weight Discrimination

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Physiology of Obesity

• Fat Cells

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Physiology of Obesity

• The genetic factor

• The food and activity factor–Sleep loss

–Social influence

–Food consumption and activity level

Obesity and Weight ControlLosing Weight

• Realistic and moderate goals

• Success stories

• Attitudinal changes

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Summary

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Sexual Motivation

Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our

species to survive.

Sexual Motivation• Sex is natural.• Without sex, none

of us would be here.

• How do scientists (or you) find out about sex?

YOU ASK!!!!!!

Masters and Johnson Study• In the 1960’s William

Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex.

• 382 females and 312 males.

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The Physiology of Sex

Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response to consist of four phases:

Phase Physiological Response

Excitement

Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.

Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure.

OrgasmContractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.

Resolution

Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.

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PhysiologicalInfluential studies –

Masters and Johnsons/1960’s

Established that the physical process is similar for most. male/female orgasm much the same. Sexual response cycle/4 phases

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Hormones and Sexual Behavior

Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in

animals) activate sexual behavior.

Male TestesTestosterone(Small amounts of estrogen)

FemaleOvaries

Adrenals

Estrogen(Small amounts of testosterone)

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Testosterone

Levels of testosterone remain constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.

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Estrogen

Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female receptivity may

be heightened with estrogen injections.

Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased

testosterone), and men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with

women.

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The Psychology of Sex

Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a

need because if we do not have sex, we do not die.

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External Stimuli

It is common knowledge that men become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material. However, women experience similar

heightened arousal under controlled conditions.

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Imagined Stimuli

Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with

spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire.

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Dreams

Dreams, another form of imagination, are also associated with sexual arousal.

Genital arousal is associated with all kinds of dreams. Nearly all men and 40% of

women who dream of sexual imagery end up with an orgasm (Wells, 1986).

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Adolescent Sexuality

When individuals reach adolescence, their sexual behavior develops. However,

there are cultural differences.

Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is much greater than in Arab countries and other

Asian countries.

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Contraception

• Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the right ideas about birth control methods.

• Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives.

• Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable about discussing contraceptives.

• Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives.

• Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives.

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Sexually Transmitted Infections

• High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex.

• Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment.

• Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity.

• Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex.

Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens.

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Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual

relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex.

Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual

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Sexual Orientation Statistics

In Europe and America, based on many national surveys, homosexuality in men is

3-4% and in women is 1-2%.

As members of a minority, homosexuals often struggle with their sexual orientation.

How is Sexual Orientation Determined

• There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.

• Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by hetero parents.

• Thus, it is likely biologically determined.

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Sexual Orientation TheoriesIf there are environmental factors that influence

sexual orientation, we have not discovered them yet (pg. 356)

New research:

1) Indicates that sexual orientation is at least partly physiological – cell cluster in hypothalamus are smaller in homosexual men

2) Allen/Gorsky section of fibers connected r/l brain are larger in homosexual men

3) Genetics may play a role – twin studies

4) But when do differences begin? Some research suggests that something prenatal – stress, etc. may have affected development. Prenatal hormones, etc.

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Animal Homosexuality

A number of animal species are devoted

to same-sex partners, suggesting that

homosexuality exists in the animal world.

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The Brain

Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men.Is this cause or effect??

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Genes & Sexual Orientation

A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors.

• Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families.

• Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results.

• Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females.

Prenatal Environment

Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment.

We have created homosexual male fruit flies and lesbian sheep!!!

Monozygotic twins can differ in sexual orientation.

Genetic cause of homosexuality

• Some studies show a genetic similarity in the X chromosome for gay males.

• Whether it’s genetic or hormonal, either way it’s not environment.

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Sexual Orientation: Biology

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Changing Attitudes

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Sex and Human Values

“Promiscuous recreational sex poses certain psychological, social, health, and

moral problems that must be faced realistically” (Baumrind, 1982).

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The Need to Belong

“[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our

need to belong.

“Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffersfrom social starvation.

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Aiding Survival

Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rates. These bonds led to the

following:

• Protecting against predators, especially for the young.

• Procuring food.• Reproducing the next offspring.

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Belongingness

• Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions.

• Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it.

• Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones.

• Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior.

• Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close friends are happier and healthier.