Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 9

Motivation

Motivation is a need or desire that

energizes behavior and directs it

towards a goal.

Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock

that pinned him down.

AP

Photo/ R

ocky Mountain N

ews, Judy W

algren

Perspectives on Motivation

Four perspectives used to explain motivation include the following:

1. Instinct Theory (replaced by the evolutionary perspective)

2. Drive-Reduction Theory3. Arousal Theory4. Hierarchy of Motives

Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species

and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951).

Where the woman builds different kinds of housesthe bird builds only one kind of nest.

© A

riel Skelley/ M

asterfile

Tony B

randenburg/ Bruce C

oleman, Inc.

Drive Reduction Theory

When the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was replaced by the drive-

reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the

need.

Incentive

Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our

drives.

A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

Arousal Theory

Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it.

Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the

absence of a need-based drive.

Harlow

Prim

ate Laboratory, U

niversity of Wisconsin

Randy F

aris/ Corbis

A Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that

certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs

like breathing, thirst, and hunger come

before psychological needs such as

achievement, self-esteem, and the need

for recognition.

Hierarchy of Needs

Hunger

When are we hungry?

When do we eat?

When there is no food in our stomach.

When we are hungry.

How do we know when our stomach is empty?Our stomach growls. These are also called hunger pangs.

The Physiology of Hunger

Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.

Stomachs Removed

Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small

intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).

Body Chemistry & the Brain

Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by

receptors (neurons) in the stomach,

liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in

the brain.

Hypothalamic Centers

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The

reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat

ravenously.

Hypothalamic Centers

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the

VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

Richard H

oward

Hypothalamus & Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.

Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase

StomachIncreases hunger

Insulin increase

PancreasIncreases hunger

Leptin increase

Fat cellsDecreases hunger

PPY increaseDigestive tract

Decreases hunger

Set Point

Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.” Heredity influences set

point and body type.

If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is

gained, the opposite takes place.

The Psychology of Hunger

Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia

patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998).

Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?

Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger

but what we feel hungry for!

Richard O

lsenius/ Black S

tar

Victor E

nglebert

Hot Cultures like Hot Spices

Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal-weight person (usually an

adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight.

Reprinted by perm

ission of The N

ew E

ngland Journal of M

edicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.

Lisa O

’Connor/ Z

uma/ C

orbis

Eating Disorders

Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-

calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Reasons for Eating Disorders

1. Sexual Abuse: Childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders.

2. Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern.

3. Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.

Obesity and Weight Control

Fat is an ideal form of stored energy and is readily available.

In times of famine, an overweight body was a sign of affluence.

Obesity

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A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases

the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back

problems.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Obesity in children increases their risk

of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease,

gallstones, arthritis, and

certain types of cancer, thus

shortening their life-expectancy.

Obesity and Mortality

The death rate is high among very overweight men.

Social Effects of Obesity

When women applicants were made to look overweight, subjects were less willing

to hire them.

Physiology of Obesity

Fat Cells: There are 30-40 billion fat cells in the body. These cells can increase in size (2-3 times their normal size) and number (75 billion) in an

obese individual (Sjöstrum, 1980).

Set Point and Metabolism

When reduced from 3,500 calories to 450 calories, weight loss was a minimal 6% and

the metabolic rate a mere 15%.

The obese defend their weight by conserving energy.

The Genetic Factor

Identical twin studies reveal that body weight has a genetic basis.

The obese mouse on the left has a defective gene for the hormone leptin. The mouse on the right sheds 40% of its

weight when injected with leptin.

Courtesy of John S

oltis, The R

ockefeller University, N

ew Y

ork, NY

Activity

Lack of exercise is a major contributor to obesity. Just watching TV for two hours

resulted in a 23% increase of weight when other factors were controlled (Hu &

others, 2003).

Food Consumption

Over the past 40 years, average weight gain has increased. Health professionals

are pleading with US citizens to limit their food intake.

Losing Weight

In the US, two-thirds of the women and half of the men say they want to lose

weight. The majority of them lose money on diet programs.

Plan to Lose Weight

When you are motivated to lose weight, begin a weight-loss program, minimize

your exposure to tempting foods, exercise, and forgive yourself for lapses.

Joe R. L

iuzzo

The Need to Belong

“[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our

need to belong.

“Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffersfrom social starvation.

20th C

entury Fox/ D

reamw

orks/ The K

obal Collection

Aiding Survival

Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rates. These bonds led to the

following:

1. Protecting against predators, especially for the young.

2. Procuring food.3. Reproducing the next offspring.

Belongingness

1. Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions.

2. Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it.

3. Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones.

4. Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior.

Emotion

Emotions are our body’s adaptive response.

Theories of Emotion

Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and

3) conscious experience.

Controversy

1) Does physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?

2) Does cognition (thinking) precede emotion (feeling)?

Commonsense View

When you become happy, your heart starts beating faster. First comes conscious

awareness, then comes physiological activity.B

ob

Sach

a

James-Lange Theory

William James and Carl Lange proposed

an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense

view. The James-Lange Theory proposes that

physiological activity precedes the

emotional experience.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard

questioned the James-Lange Theory and proposed that

an emotion-triggering stimulus

and the body's arousal take place

simultaneously.

Two-Factor Theory

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer

proposed yet another theory

which suggests our physiology and

cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal

and cognitive label.

Embodied Emotion

We know that emotions involve bodily responses. Some of these responses are very noticeable (butterflies in our stomach when fear arises), but others are more difficult to

discern (neurons activated in the brain).

Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System

During an emotional experience, our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us.

Arousal and Performance

Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal,

but optimal performance varies with task difficulty.

Physiological Similarities

Physiological responses related to the emotions of fear, anger, love, and

boredom are very similar.

Excitement and fear involve a similarphysiological arousal.

M. G

recco/ Stock Boston

Physiological Differences

Physical responses, like finger temperature and movement of facial muscles, change during fear,

rage, and joy.

The amygdala shows differences in activation during the emotions of anger and rage. Activity of the left hemisphere (happy) is different from

the right (depressed) for emotions.

Cognition and Emotion

What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)?

Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking?

Cognition Can Define Emotion

An arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event.

Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which may lead to rioting.

AP Photo/ N

ati Harnik

Reuters/ C

orbis

Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion

A subliminally presented happy face can encourage subjects to drink more than when

presented with an angry face (Berridge & Winkeilman, 2003).

Emotions are felt directly through the amygdala (a) or through the cortex (b) for

analysis.

Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion

When fearful eyes were subliminally presented to subjects, fMRI scans revealed

higher levels of activity in the amygdala (Whalen et al. 2004).

Courtesy of P

aul J. Whalen, P

hD, D

artmouth

College, w

ww

.whalenlab.info

Two Routes to Emotion

Zajonc and LeDoux emphasize that some emotions are immediate, without conscious appraisal.

Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions.

Expressed Emotion

Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice. Is this nonverbal language of emotion universal?

Detecting Emotion

Most of us are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal

communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than

a single happy face (Fox et al, 2000).

Detecting Emotion

Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to conceal. A feigned

smile may continue for more than 4-5 seconds while a genuine smile will have faded by then.

Which of Paul Ekman’s smiles is genuine?

Dr. P

aul Elkm

an, University of C

alifornia at San F

rancisco

Hindu Dance

In classical Hindu dance, the body is trained to effectively convey 10 different

emotions.

Netw

ork Photographers/ Alam

y

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men. When shown

sad, happy, and scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men.

Culture and Emotional Expression

When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at

recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989).

Elkm

an & M

atsumoto, Japanese and

Caucasian F

acial Expression of E

motion

Analyzing Emotion

Analysis of emotions are carried on different levels.

Experienced Emotion

Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions. Most ofthem are present in infancy, except for contempt,

shame, and guilt.

Lew

Merrim

/ Photo R

esearchers, Inc.

Nancy B

rown/ T

he Image B

ankT

om M

cCarthy/ R

ainbow

Patrick Donehue/ P

hoto Researchers, Inc.

Marc G

rimberg/ T

he Image B

ank

Bob D

aemm

rich/ The Im

age Works

Michael N

ewm

an/ PhotoE

dit

Anger

Anger “carries the mind away,” (Virgil, 70-19 B.C.), but “makes any coward

brave,” (Cato 234-149 B.C.).

Causes of Anger

1. People generally become angry with friends and loved ones who commit wrongdoings, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.

2. People are also angered by foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, and aches and pains.

Catharsis Hypothesis

Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release or

“catharsis.”

Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming.

Happiness

People who are happy perceive the

world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more

cooperative, rate job applicants more

favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied

lives.

Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon

When we feel happy we are more willing to help others.

Subjective Well-Being

Subjective well-being is the self-perceived feeling of happiness or satisfaction with life. Research on

new positive psychology is on the rise.http://w

eb.fineliving.com

Emotional Ups and Downs

Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative

moods stay more or less the same throughout the day.

Emotional Ups and Downs

Over the long run, our emotional ups and downs tend to balance. Although grave

diseases can bring individuals emotionally down, most people adapt.

Courtesy of A

nna Putt

Wealth and Well-being

Many people in the West believe that if they were wealthier, they would be

happier. However, data suggests that they would only be happy temporarily.

Wealth and Well-being

1. In affluent societies, people with more money are happier than people who struggle for their basic needs.

2. People in rich countries are happier than people in poor countries.

3. A sudden rise in financial conditions makes people happy.

However, people who live in poverty or in slums are also satisfied with their life.

Does Money Buy Happiness?

Wealth is like health: Its utter

absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of

happiness.

Happiness & Satisfaction

Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries shows Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer

countries) at the top of the list.

Values & Life Satisfaction

Students who value love more than money report higher life satisfaction.

Happiness & Prior Experience

Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like the adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to income levels. “Satisfaction

has a short half-life” (Ryan, 1999).

Happiness is not only relative to our past, but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that we are relatively worse off than those we compare ourselves with.

Happiness & Others’ Attainments

Predictors of Happiness

Why are some people generally more happy than others?