Chapter 1 Reading Guide

Name: __________________________

1. List the seven properties of life: -

- - - - - -

1.1 Themes connect the concepts of biology

2. What are emergent properties? Give two examples.

3. Life is organized on many scales. Figure 1.4 zooms you in from viewing Earth from space all the way to the level of molecules. Label the figure and give a brief definition of each level of organization below.biosphere - ecosystem - community - population - organism - organs/organ systems - tissues -cells -organelles -molecules -

4. Make a list here of the themes that are presented, and give an example that illustrates each theme. (Go to the Summary of Key Concepts at the end of the chapter for a concise look at the themes.)

Theme Example

1.

2

.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7. (Concept 1.2)

5. Define each of the following terms:

eukaryotic cell - prokaryotic cell - DNA -genes -

genome -negative feedback - positive feedback -

Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life

6. Based on Figure 1.14, answer the following: - Which level contains the greatest diversity of organisms? - The least?- Write the levels in order (most general to most specific).

7. Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and classifies organisms. Because of new molecular information, there have been many changes in placement of certain groups in recent years. Notice that all life is now organized in your text into 3 domains rather than the 5 kingdoms you may have learned earlier. Put the kingdoms mentioned in the text in the space above the proper domain names shown here.

8. What two main points were articulated in Darwin’s The Origin of Species?

9. What did Darwin propose as the mechanism of evolution? Summarize this mechanism.

10. Study Figure 1.22, which shows an evolutionary “tree.” - What is indicated by each twig? - What do the branch points represent? - Circle the most recent “common ancestor” shared by the bottom three Galápagos finch species.

Concept 1.3 Scientists use two main forms of inquiry in their study of nature

11. What are the two main types of scientific inquiry? Give an example of each.

12. What are data?

13. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data: - Which type would be presented in a data chart and could be graphed? - Which type is found in the field sketches made by Jane Goodall?

14. In science, how do we define hypothesis?

15. A scientific hypothesis has two important qualities. The first is that it is testable. What is the second?

16. Are scientific hypotheses proved? Explain your answer!

17. What is a controlled experiment?

18. The text points out a common misconception about the term “controlled experiment”. In the snake mimicry experiment, what factors were held constant?

19. Why are supernatural explanations outside the bounds of science?

20. Explain what is meant by a scientific theory by giving the three ways your text separates a theory from a hypothesis or mere speculation.-- -

Review these other basic aspects of science:

21. What is the difference between scientific theories and scientific laws?

22. Can a scientific theory ever become a scientific law? Can a law become a theory? Justify your response.

23. Define each type of variable in an experiment: independent variable - dependent variable -controlled variable -treatment group -control group/control treatment -

24. When graphing, which variable goes on the x-axis?Which goes on the y-axis?Label the conceptual graph with the names of these variables.

25. A good research question involves testing the effects of the independent variable on the dependent

variable. Pose an example research question:

26. A good hypothesis for AP Bio involves a prediction of the specific effects and a reason for that prediction. For the research question you posed in #25, write a hypothesis that has both of these parts (prediction and reason).

Chapter 2 Reading Guide Name: __________________________

Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds

1. Define and give an example of each term: element - atom - compound - molecule -

2. What four elements make up 96% of all living matter?

Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms

3. Sketch a model of an atom of helium, showing the electrons, protons, neutrons, and atomic nucleus. - What is the atomic number of helium? _________- Its atomic mass? ________

4. Here are some more terms that you should firmly grasp. Define each term. neutron - proton -electron -atomic number -atomic mass -isotope -electron shells/orbitals - valence shell/orbital - energy -

5. Consider this entry in the periodic table for carbon.- What is the atomic mass? ______ atomic

number? _______- How many electrons does carbon have? _______ neutrons? _______

6. Which is the only subatomic particle that is directly involved in the chemical reactions between atoms?

7. What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?

8. Here is an electron distribution diagram for sodium:- How many valence electrons does it have? ______ Circle the valence electron(s).

Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms

9. Complete the chart below.

10. What type of bond is seen in O2? Explain what this means.

11. What is meant by electronegativity?12. Explain the difference between a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond.

13. Draw a water molecule.- Which element is most electronegative?- Label the regions that are more positive or more negative.- Why is water considered a polar molecule? (This is a very important concept. Spend some time with this one!)

14. Another bond type is the ionic bond. Explain what is happening in the figure below between Sodium and Chlorine.

15. What is a hydrogen bond?- Indicate where the hydrogen bond occurs in this figure with an arrow.

16. Explain van der Waals interactions. Though they represent very weak attractions, when these interactions are numerous they can stick a gecko to the ceiling!

17. Here is a list of the types of bonds and interactions discussedin this section: hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, covalent bonds, ionic bonds. To the right of the arrow to the side, place them in

order from the strongest to the weakest.

18. Use morphine and endorphins as examples to explain why molecular shape is crucial in biology.

Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds

19. Write the chemical shorthand equation for photosynthesis. Label the reactants and the products.

20. For the equation you just wrote:- How many molecules of carbon dioxide are there? _____ - How many molecules of glucose? _________- How many elements in glucose? _________

21. What is meant by dynamic equilibrium?- Does this imply equal concentrations of each reactant and product?

Chapter 3 Reading Guide

Name: __________________________

Concept 3.1 The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding

1. Study the water molecules at the right. On the central molecule, label oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H).

2. What is a polar molecule? Why is water considered polar?

3. Now, add + and – signs to indicate the charged regions of each molecule. Then, use a highlighter to trace the hydrogen bonds.

4. Explain hydrogen bonding.

5. How many hydrogen bonds can a single water molecule form?

Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s fitness for life

Cohesion and Adhesion

6. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion.

7. Which is demonstrated when you see beads of water on a waxed car hood? ________________

8. Which property explains the ability of a water strider to walk on water? _________________

Moderation of Temperature

9. The calorie is a unit of heat. Define calorie.

10. Water has a high specific heat. What does this mean?

11. Explain how hydrogen bonding contributes to water’s high specific heat.

12. Which has a higher specific heat: water or alcohol? Why?

13. Summarize how water’s high specific heat contributes to the moderation of temperature. How is this property important to life?

14. Define evaporation.

15. How does the evaporation of water, with its high specific heat, help organisms maintain happy body

conditions?

Expansion upon Freezing

16. Ice floats! Consider what would happen if ponds and other bodies of water accumulated ice at the bottom. Describe why this property of water is impotant.

17. Now, explain why ice floats.

Solvent of Life

18. Review and define these terms: solvent - solute - solution -

19. Consider a cup of coffee to which you’ve added sugar. Which is the solvent? _____________ Solute? ____________

20. Explain why water is such a good solvent.

21. Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic. What determines whether molecules are hydrophobic vs. hydrophilic?

22. You already know that some materials, such as olive oil, will not dissolve in water, while others, such as salt, will. Explain this property in terms of hydrogen bonding.

23. Define molarity:

24. Google search the AP Biology Reference Sheet. If you wanted to dilute 0.5 L of a 2.0 M glucose solution to 0.75 M, how much water would you need to add? Final answer = __________ L - Step one: what is the dilution equation?- Step two: plug in numbers you have.- Step three: solve for the final volume. - Step four: subtract the starting volume from the final volume to find the difference.

Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms

25. What two ions form when water dissociates? You should have answered “hydronium (H3O+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions in the preceding question; however, by convention we will represent the hydronium ion as H+

26. What is the concentration of each ion in pure water? [H+] = ___________ [OH-] = ___________

27. Water has a pH of 7. pH is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration (also on the AP Bio reference sheet). Write this as a math equation: pH =

28. To go a step further, the product of H+ and OH- concentrations always equals 1x10-14. [H+][OH-] = 10-14 Water, which is neutral with a pH of 7, has an equal number of H+ and OH- ions. Now, define: acid - base -

29. Because the pH scale is logarithmic, each number change represents a 10x change in ion concentration. - How many times more acidic is a pH of 3 compared to a pH of 5?- How many times more basic is a pH of 12 compared to a pH of 8?- Explain the difference between a pH of 8 and a pH of 12 in terms of H+ concentrations.

30. On the pH chart, label pH 1-14. Label neutral, acid, base.- Indicate the locations of pure water, urine, gastric juice, and bleach.

31. Even a slight change in pH can be harmful to living things! How do buffers moderate pH change?

32. Exercise will result in increased production of CO2, which acidifies the blood. Explain the buffering system that minimizes blood pH changes.

33. Acid precipitation is increasing. Explain its sources.

34. Discuss how CO2 emissions affect marine life and ecosystems.

Chapter 4 Reading Guide

Name: __________________________

Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds

1. Study this figure of Stanley Miller’s experiment to simulate conditions thought to have existed on early Earth. Explain the elements of the experiment, using arrows (or number annotations) to indicate what occurs in various parts of the apparatus.

2. What was collected in the sample for chemical analysis? What was concluded from the results of this experiment?

Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms

3. Make an electron distribution diagram of carbon.- How many valence electrons does carbon have?- How many bonds can carbon form?- What type of bonds does it form with other elements?

4. What is a hydrocarbon? Name two. Are hydrocarbons hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

Concept 4.3 A small number of chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules

5. Here is an idea that will recur throughout your study of biology: change the structure, change the function. To the right are two important hormones regulating gender in humans: testosterone and estradiol (estrogen). Notice how similar these two molecules are, and yet you know what vastly different effects each has. Label which molecule is which and circle the differences between them.

6. Define functional group:

7. There are seven functional groups we will study. Complete the following chart:

8. You will need to master the chart and the information in it. Using the functional groups above as answer options, see if you can answer the following prompts:a. –NH2b. Can form cross-links that stabilize protein structure c. Key component of ATPd. Can affect gene expression e. CH3f. Has acidic propertiesg. –COOHh. Acts as a base

9. Circle and identify three functional groups in the molecule shown.

Chapter 5 Reading Guide

Name: __________________________

Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers

1. The large molecules of all living things fall into four categories. List them:

2. What is a polymer? What is a monomer?

3. Monomers are connected into polymers with what type of reaction? Polymers are broken into monomers with what type of reaction?

4. The root words of hydrolysis will be used many times to form other words you will learn this year. Define each: hydro- lysis

5. Consider the following reaction: C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11- The equation is not balanced; it is missing a molecule of water. Add it in on the correct side.- What kind of reaction is this?- Is C6H12O6 (glucose) a monomer or a polymer?- To summarize, when two monomers are joined, a molecule of _________ is always removed.

Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material

6. Look at a nutrition label on a food package. How many grams of carbohydrates are in it? ____ Each gram of carbs is equal to four food calories (kcal [1000 physics calories]). How many carb-based kcal are in your food? _____

7. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches. The monomers of all carbohydrates are called mono_______________.

8. Most monosaccharides are some multiple of (CH2O). For example, glucose is a 6-carbon sugar (a “hexose” sugar), so it is C6H12O6. Ribose is a pentose sugar; what is the formula of ribose?

9. Here is the abbreviated ring structure of glucose. Where are all of the carbons?

10. Look up these biologically important carbohydrates and list why each is important and/or where it’s found/used:glucose -starch - glycogen - cellulose - chitin - lactose - sucrose - fructose - ribose - deoxyribose -

11. Why can you not digest cellulose? What organisms can?

Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules

12. Look at your nutrition label again. One of these groups is a type of lipid. How do lipids appear on nutrition labels? _______ How many grams of it are in this food? _____ Each gram equals nine food calories (kcal).

13. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. What characteristic do all lipids share?

14. What are the building blocks of fats? Label them on this figure.

15. If a fat (triglyceride) is made of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol, how many water molecules will be removed from it? Again, what is this reaction called?

16. Draw a single fatty acid that is 8 carbons long and is unsaturated. Circle the part of your chain that makes it unsaturated, and explain what this means.

17. Name two saturated fats: Name two unsaturated fats:

18. Why are many unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?

19. What is a trans fat? Why should you limit them in your diet?

20. List four important functions of fats. - - - -

21. Here is a figure that shows the structure of a phospholipid. Label the sketch to show the phosphate group, the glycerol, and the fatty acid chains. Also indicate the region that is hydrophobic and the region that is hydrophilic.

22. Why are the “tails” hydrophobic?

23. Why is the “head” hydrophilic?

24. Label which of the two fatty acids is unusaturated. How do you know it’s unsaturated?

25. To summarize, a phospholipid has a glycerol attached to a phosphate group and two fatty acid chains. The “head” (phosphate) is hydrophilic, and the “tails” (fatty acids) are hydrophobic. Now, sketch the phosphor- lipid bilayer that makes up a cell membrane. Label the hydrophilic heads, the hydrophobic tails, and the location of water.

26. Study your sketch. Why are the tails all located in the interior?

27. What are steroids?

Concept 5.4 Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions

28. Table 5.1 is loaded with important information. Summarize the five focus types here.

Type of Protein Function Example

Enzymatic

Structural

Transport

Hormone

Receptor

29. Enzymes are an important type of protein. They will be studied more in detail in Chapter 8. For now, use this diagram to review enzymes. Label the active site, the substrate, and the products. Show

what happens to water.

30. Is this reaction dehyration or hydrolysis? __________________

31. The monomers of proteins are amino acids. Sketch an amino acid below. Label the central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and R group.

32. What is represented by R? How many different types are there?

33. Define these terms: dipeptide - polypeptide - peptide bond - Circle the peptide bonds in the molecule on the far-right of the diagram.

34. There are four levels of protein structure. Refer to Figure 5.21, and summarize each level in the table below.

35. Label each level of protein structure on this figure:

36. Remember when, in Chapter 4, we said “change the structure, change the function.” Explain how that principle applies to the shape of the active site in an enzyme.

37. Now explain how it applies to sickle-cell disease. In this case, why is the structure changed?

38. Besides mutation, which changes the primary structure of a protein, protein structure can be changed by denaturation. Define denaturation and list at least three ways a protein may become denatured.

Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information

39. The flow of genetic information is from DNARNAprotein. Use this figure to explain the process. Label the nucleus, DNA, mRNA, ribosome, and amino acids.

Level of StructureDescription

Primary (1°)

Secondary (2°)

Tertiary (3°)

Quaternary (4°)

40. The components of a nucleotide are a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. Label each on the figure.

41. There are five nitrogenous bases. Which four are found in DNA?

42. Which four are found in RNA?

43. How do ribose and deoxyribose sugars differ?

44. Here is a model of DNA, as proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick. What is this overall shape of DNA called? __________________________

45. What does it mean that the two strands are “antiparallel”?

46. Each strand of DNA has a “backbone” with the bases pointing to the middle (like rungs on a ladder).

Which two parts of the nucleotide make up the “backbone”?

47. For these two nucleotides of DNA, provide the complementary base: A - C -

48. In a DNA double helix, a region along DNA strand has this sequence of nitrogenous bases. Write the complementary strand. Indicate the 5’ and 3’ ends on the new strand as well 5’ TAGGCCT 3’