1899 FEDELE Garigliano 915 AD: Christian League destroys the Saracen Stronghold near Rome

7/31/2019 1899 FEDELE Garigliano 915 AD: Christian League destroys the Saracen Stronghold near Rome

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La battaglia del Garigliano

dell'anno 915e i monumenti che la ricordano

di P. Fedele

inArchivio della R. Societ Romana di Storia Patria, XXII, 1899, pp. 181-211.


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Battaglia del Garigliano (915)

Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.

Data Giugno915

Luogo Nei pressi del fiume Garigliano

Esito Vittoria Lega Cristiana, fine dell'espansione musulmana sulla Penisola italiana

Papa Giovanni XAlberico I di SpoletoNiccol Picingli Sconosciuto

La Battaglia del Garigliano, avvenuta nei pressi della localit Giunture, frazione di Sant'Apollinare, venne combattuta nel 915 tra le

forze della Lega cristiana e i Saraceni. La vittoria cristiana segn la fine dell'espansione musulmana sulla penisola italiana. Papa

Giovanni X diresse personalmente le forze cristiane nella battaglia.

I precedenti Dopo una serie di attacchi devastanti ai principali centri del Lazio (saccheggio di Roma e assedio di Gaeta nell'846,

distruzione di Montecassino nel 883, continue scorrerie per i villaggi), nella seconda met del IX secolo i Saraceni distrussero Traetto

e alla foce del Garigliano fondarono una colonia ricordata sempre con lo stesso nome di Traetto. Da quel momento cominciarono a

stringere alleanze con i nobili cristiani locali (principalmente con gli Ipati di Gaeta), traendo vantaggio dalle loro divisioni. Ci fu un

primo tentativo di Guido di Spoleto, lusingato dalla corona imperiale, contro il covo del Garigliano; un tentativo successivo attraverso

un'alleanza dei principi di Benevento e Capua, Napoli, Amalfi, resa nulla dall'alleanza tra Gaeta e i Saraceni. Il Papa Giovanni X

quindi si adoper per riunire i nobili cristiani in una lega, con l'intento di scacciare i Saraceni infedeli dalla loro roccaforte di Traetto

che minacciava anche Roma. I primi tentativi fallirono, nel 903 e nel 908, forse a causa del mancato apporto di importanti feudi comeGaeta e Napoli; intanto con le razzie ed i saccheggi la colonia saracena cresceva.

Quindi si decise di iniziare lunghi e complicati negoziati, per formare quella lega che doveva finalmente snidarli dal covo sul fiume.

L'iniziativa part dai Capuani, che si rivolsero a Bisanzio cercando appoggio; una potente armata bizantina giunse allora nelle acque

del Tirreno al comando dello stratega e patrizio imperiale Nicola Picingli. Si un alla lega anche Guaimario, principe di Salerno, e sulfar dell'estate del 915 l'esercito degli alleati con grosse schiere di Pugliesi e di Calabresi si accamp sulla riva sinistra del Garigliano.

La battaglia La lega cristiana che si form nel 915 era formata dal Papa e da principi del Sud Italia, longobardi e bizantini, come

Landolfo I di Benevento e suo fratello Atenolfo II, Guaimario II di Salerno, Gregorio IV di Napoli e suo figlio Giovanni, Giovanni I

di Gaeta e suo figlio Docibile. Rispose all'appello del Papa anche il marchese del FriuliBerengario, a quel tempo Re d'Italia, che invi

delle forze di supporto da Spoleto e dalle Marche, guidate da Alberico I, duca di Spoleto e Camerino suo protospatario. L'Impero

romano d'Oriente contribu inviando un forte contingente dalla Calabria e dalla Puglia sotto lo strategos di BariNiccol Picingli.Giovanni X in persona guidava le sue truppe provenienti dal Lazio e dalla Toscana. Furono stabiliti gli accordi per la strategia da

seguire in battaglia e per le successive spartizioni e si procedette al giuramento santo;"Noi vi promettiamo di non aver mai pace con

essi", - i Saraceni, - "finch non li abbiamo sterminati da tutta Italia. Di nuovo promettiamo a voi tutti soprascritti per Cristo Signoree pei meriti dei Santi e per tutti i sacramenti della fede che con tutte le forze e in ogni modo noi combatteremo i Saraceni e

cercheremo di sterminarli e che d'ora innanzi non abbiamo e non avremo pace con essi in alcun modo".

Le prime azioni di guerra avvennero nel Lazio settentrionale, dove una piccola squadra di saccheggiatori fu intercettata e distrutta. Icristiani ottennero una serie di vittorie come a Campo Baccano, sulla Via Cassia, e presso Tivoli e Vicovaro. Dopo queste sconfitte i

musulmani che occupavano gi da anni anche Narni e Tivoli, minacciando cos tutta l'Italia Centrale, si ritirarono a Traetto, la loro

roccaforte principale sul Garigliano: questo infatti era un insediamento fortificato (ribt) di cui non ancora certa l'esatta posizione.

L'assedio inizi nel giugno915. L'esercito della Lega Cristiana, al comando di Giovanni X e di Alberico, marchese di Camerino e

duca di Spoleto, scese verso il Garigliano accampandosi sulla riva destra del fiume stringendo i Saraceni in una tenaglia, mentre la

flotta bizantina di Niccol Picingli, fiancheggiata, com' probabile, dalle navi di Napoli, di Gaeta e di Roma, sbarrava inesorabilmentela strada del mare. La battaglia dur oltre tre mesi.

I Saraceni, fiaccati da mesi di duro accerchiamento ed assedio, dopo essere stati costretti alla fuga dal campo fortificato, al quale

dettero fuoco in un ulteritore tentativo di sottrarsi al massacro, tentarono una disperata sortita ritirandosi e asserragliandosi sulle vicine

colline. Qui resistettero a diversi attacchi di Alberico e Landolfo, finch finirono le riserve alimentari; resisi conto della situazionedisperata, in agosto tentarono la fuga per raggiungere la costa e fuggire in Sicilia. Secondo le cronache furono tutti catturati emassacrati. Il covo dei Saraceni, rovina di tanta parte d'Italia, era definitivamente distrutto e la penisola italica compresa Roma era

salva dal pericolo dell'invasione infedele.

Dalla toponomastica si evince che un importante scontro avvenne in localit Vattaglia (voce dialettale per battaglia), lungo un'ansa del

fiume Garigliano, presso cui ancora vi sono le teste di un ponte di epoca classica.

Grazie alla vittoria, Berengario fu ricompensato dal Papa con l'incoronazione imperiale, mentre Alberico pot garantirsi un maggiore

peso politico presso il Papa e l'aristocrazia romana, venendo nominato dal Pontefice console di Roma. Giovanni I di Gaeta potespandere il suo feudo sino al Garigliano e ricevette il titolo dipatricius da Bisanzio che permise alla sua famiglia di utilizzare il titolo

diDuca.


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Battle of Garigliano

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Battle of Garigliano

Date June 915

Location near the Garigliano River, Italy

Result Christian victory

Christian League Papal States (Rome/Latium and Tuscany) Principalities of Capua andBenevento Principality of Salerno Duchy of Gaeta Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Naples

Byzantine Empire

FatimidCaliphate

Alberic I of SpoletoNicholas Picingli(Niccol Picingli) Pope John X

The Battle of Garigliano was fought in 915 between Christian forces and the Fatimid Caliphate. Pope John X personally led the

Christian forces into battle.

Background After a series of ravaging attacks against the main sites of the Lazio in the second half of the 9th century, the Fatimids

established a colony next to the ancient city ofMinturnae, near the Garigliano River. Here they even formed alliances with the nearbyChristian princes (notably the hypati of Gaeta), taking advantage of the division between them. John X, however, managed to reunite

these princes in an alliance, in order to oust the Saracens from their dangerous strongpoint. The Christian armies united the pope with

several South Italian princes ofLombard or Greekextraction, including Guaimar II of Salerno, John I of Gaeta and his son Docibilis,

Gregory IV of Naples and his son John, and Landulf I of Benevento and Capua. The King of Italy, Berengar I, sent a support force

from Spoleto and the Marche, led by Alberic I, duke of Spoleto and Camerino. The Byzantine Empire participated by sending a strongcontingent from Calabria and Apulia under the strategos ofBari, Nicholas Picingli. John X himself led the milities from the Lazio,Tuscany, and Rome.

Battle The first action took place in northern Lazio, where small bands of ravagers were surprised and destroyed. The Christians

scored two more significant victories at Campo Baccano, on the Via Cassia, and in the area of Tivoli and Vicovaro. After these

defeats, the Muslims occupying Narni and other strongholds moved back to the main Fatimid stronghold on the Garigliano: this was a

fortifited settlement (kairuan) whose site, however, has not yet been identified with certainty. The siege began in June 915. After

being pushed out the fortified camp, the Saracens retired to the nearby hills. Here they resisted many attacks led by Alberic andLandulf. However, deprived of food and noticing their situation was becoming desperate, in August they attempted a sally to reach the

coast and escape to Sicily. According to the chronicles, all were captured and executed.

Aftermath Berengar was rewarded with the papal support and eventually the imperial crown, while Alberic's prestige after the

victorious battle granted him a preeminent role in the future history of Rome. John I of Gaeta could expand his duchy to the

Garigliano, and received the title ofpatricius from Byzantium leading his family to proclaim themselves "dukes".

Pope John X

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Birth name Giovanni da Tossignano

Born ??? Tossignano, Papal States

Died c. June 928 Rome, Papal States

Papacy

began

March 914

Papacy

endedMay 928

Pope John X (died c. June 928) was Pope from March 914 to May 928. A candidate of the Counts of Tusculum, he attempted to

unify Italy under the leadership ofBerengar of Friuli, and was instrumental in the defeat of the Saracens at the Battle of Garigliano.

He eventually fell out with Marozia, who had him deposed, imprisoned, and finally murdered. Johns pontificate occurred during the

period known as the Saeculum obscurum.

Early Career John X, whose fathers name was also John,[1]

was born at Tossignano, along the Santerno River.[2]

He was made a

deacon by Peter IV, the Bishop of Bologna, where he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, Count of

Tusculum, the most powerful noble in Rome. It was alleged by Liutprand of Cremona that John became her lover during a visit to

Rome;[3]

it has also been speculated that John was related to either Theodora or Theophylact.[4]

Regardless, it was through Theodoras

influence that John was on the verge of succeeding Peter as bishop of Bologna, when the post of Archbishop of Ravenna became

available.[2][5] He was consecrated as Archbishop in 905 by Pope Sergius III, another clerical candidate of the Counts of Tusculum.During his eight years as archbishop, John worked hard with Pope Sergius in an unsuccessful attempt to have Berengar of Friuli

crowned Holy Roman Emperor and to depose Louis the Blind.[2] He also had to defend himself from a usurper who tried to take his

see away, as well as confirming his authority over Nonantola Abbey when the abbot attempted to free it from the jurisdiction of the

Archbishop of Ravenna.[6]

After the death of Pope Lando in 914, a faction of the Roman nobility, headed by Theophylact of


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Tusculum, summoned John to Rome to assume the vacant papal chair. Although this was again interpreted by Liutprand as Theodora

personally intervening to have her lover made Pope, it is far more likely that Johns close working relationship with Theophylact, and

his opposition to the ordinations ofPope Formosus, were the real reasons for his being transferred from Ravenna to Rome.[7]

Since

switching sees was considered an infraction ofcanon law, as well as contravening the decrees of the Lateran Council of 769, which

prohibited the installation of a pope without election, Johns appointment was criticised by his contemporaries. [8] Nevertheless, whilst

Theophylact was alive, John adhered to his patrons cause.

The Saracen war and coronation of Berengar The first task that confronted John X was the existence of a Saracen outpost on the

Garigliano River, which was used as a base to pillage the Italian countryside. John consulted Landulf I of Benevento, who advised

him to seek help from the Byzantine Empire, and from Alberic, marquis ofCamerino, and governor of the duchy ofSpoleto.[9]

John

took his advice and sent Papal legates to King Berengar ofItaly, various Italian princes, as well as to Constantinople, seeking help to

throw out the Saracens. The result was a Christian alliance, a precursor to the Crusades of the following century. The forces of the

new Byzantine strategos ofBari, Nicolaus Picingli, joined those of various other south Italian princes: Landulf I of Benevento, John Iand Docibilis II of Gaeta, Gregory IV and John II of Naples, and Guaimar II of Salerno. Meanwhile, Berengar brought with him

troops from the northern parts of Italy, and the campaign was coordinated by John X, who took to the field in person, alongside Duke

Alberic I of Spoleto.[10]

After some preliminary engagements at Campo Baccano and at Trevi, the Saracens were driven to their

stronghold on the Garigliano. There, at the Battle of Garigliano, the allies proceeded to lay siege to them for three months, at the end

of which the Saracens burnt their houses and attempted to burst out of the encirclement. With John leading the way, all were

eventually caught and killed, achieving a great victory and removing the ongoing Saracen threat from the Italian mainland.[11]

John

then confirmed the granting ofTraetto to the Duke of Gaeta, as a reward for abandoning his Saracen allies. [12]Since King Berengar

had defeated and driven the Roman Emperor Louis the Blind out of Italy in 905, he had eagerly pressed for the imperial crown. John

X used this as a lever to push Berengar into supporting and providing troops to Johns great Saracen campaign.[10][13]

Having

completed his end of the bargain, Berengar now insisted that John do likewise. [14] So in December 915, Berengar approached Rome,and after being greeted by the family of Theophylact (whose support he secured), he met Pope John at St. Peters Basilica. On Sunday

3 December, John crowned Berengar as Roman Emperor, while Berengar in turn confirmed previous donations made to the See of

Peter by earlier emperors.[15]

Political realignments Although Berengar had the support of the major Roman nobility and the Pope, he had enemies elsewhere. In

923, a combination of the Italian princes brought about the defeat of Berengar, again frustrating the hopes of a united Italy, followed

by his assassination in 924.[16] Then in 925 Theophylact of Tusculum and Alberic I of Spoleto also died; this meant that within the

course of a year, three of Pope Johns key supporters had died, leaving John dangerously exposed to the ambitions of Theophylacts

daughter, Marozia, who, it was said, resented Johns alleged affair with her mother Theodora.[17]

To counter this rising threat, in that

year John X invited Hugh of Provence to be the next king of Italy, sending his envoy to Pisa to be among the first to greet Hugh as he

arrived. Soon after Hugh had been acknowledged king of Italy at Pavia, he met with John at Mantua, and concluded some type of

treaty with him, perhaps to defend Johns interests at Rome.[18]

However, a rival Italian king in the form of Rudolph II of Burgundy

meant that Hugh was not in a position to help John, and the next few years were a time of anarchy and confusion in Italy. Marozia in

the meantime had married Guy, Margrave of Tuscany . Soon a power struggle began between them and Pope John, with Johns

brother, Peter, the first to feel their enmity.[19]

John had Peter made Duke of Spoleto after Alberics death, and his increased power

threatened Guy and Marozia.[2] Peter was forced to flee to Lake Orta, where he sought the aid of a rampaging band ofMaygars. In 926

he returned to Rome in their company, and with their support he intimidated Guy and Marozia, and Peter was allowed to return to hisold role as principal advisor to and supporter of Pope John.

[20]

Affairs in the east Although these troubles were continuing to trouble John in Rome, he was still able to participate and influence

broader ecclesiastical and political questions across Europe. In 920, he was asked by the Byzantine Emperors Romanos I and

Constantine VII and the Patriarch of ConstantinopleNicholas Mystikos to send some legates to Constantinople to confirm the acts of

a synod which condemned fourth marriages (a legacy of the conflict which embroiled Constantines father Leo VI the Wise) thereby

ending a schism between the two churches.[21]In 925 John attempted to stem the use of the Slav liturgy in Dalmatia, and enforce the

local use ofLatin in the Mass. He wrote to Tomislav, "king (rex) of the Croats", and to Duke Michael of Zahumlje, asking them tofollow the instructions as articulated by Johns legates. [22][23] The result was a synod held in Spilt in 926, which confirmed Johns

request; it forbade the ordination of anyone ignorant of Latin, and forbade Mass to be said in the Slav tongue, except when there was a

shortage of priests.[24]

The decrees of the synod were sent to Rome for Johns confirmation, who confirmed them all except for the

ruling which placed the Croatian Bishop ofNona under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Spalatro. He summoned the parties to

see him at Rome, but they were unable to attend, forcing John to send some papal legates to settle the matter, which were only

resolved by Pope Leo VI after Johns deposition and death.[25] Around the same time, Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria made overtures toJohn, offering the renounce his nations obedience to the Patriarch of Constantinople, and place his kingdom under the ecclesiastical

authority of the popes at Rome. John sent two legates, who only made it as far as Constantinople, but whose letters urging Simeon to

come to terms with the Byzantine Empire were delivered to him.[26]

However, John did confirm Simeons title ofTsar(emperor, but

not Roman emperor), and it was Johns representatives who crowned Simeons son Peter I of Bulgaria as Tsar in 927.[27] Finally, John

sent a legate to act as intermediary to attempt to stop a war between the Bulgarians and Croatians.[28]

Affairs in western Europe John was just as vigorous in his activities in Western Europe. Early on in his pontificate he gave hissupport to Conrad I of Germany in his struggles against the German dukes. He sent a papal legate to a synod of bishops convoked by

Conrad at Altheim in 916, with the result that the synod ordered Conrads opponents to present themselves before Pope John at Rome

if they did not appear before another synod for judgement, under pain of excommunication.[29]

In 920, John was called upon by

Charles the Simple to intervene in the succession in the Bishopric of Lige, when Charles candidate Hilduin turned against him and

joined Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine in rebellion. Charles then tried to replace him with another candidate, Richer of Prm Abbey, butHilduin captured Richer, and forced Richer to consecrate him as bishop. John X ordered both men to appear before him at Rome, with

the result that John confirmed Richers appointment and excommunicated Hilduin.[30] When in 923 Charles was later captured byHerbert II, Count of Vermandois, John was the only leader who protested over Charles capture; he threatened Herbert with

excommunication unless he restored Charles to freedom, but Herbert effectively ignored him.[31]

Contemptuous of the popes

authority, in 925 Herbert had his five year old son Hugh made Archbishop of Reims, an appointment which John was constrained to

accept and confirm, as Herbert declared that if his son were not elected, he would carve up the bishopric and distribute the land to


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various supporters.[32]John also supported the spiritual side of the Church, such as his advice to Archbishop Herive of Reims in 914,

who asked for advice on converting the Normans to Christianity.[33] He wrote: Your letter has filled me at once with sorrow and with

joy. With sorrow at the sufferings you have to endure not only from the pagans, but also from Christians; with gladness at the

conversion of the Northmen, who once revelled in human blood, but who now, by your words, rejoice that they are redeemed by the

life-giving blood of Christ. For this we thank God, and implore Him to strengthen them in the faith. As to how far, inasmuch as they

are uncultured, and but novices in the faith, they are to be subjected to severe canonical penances for their relapsing, killing of priests,

and sacrificing to idols, we leave to your judgment to decide, as no one will know better than you the manners and customs of this

people. You will, of course, understand well enough that it will not be advisable to treat them with the severity required by the canons,

lest, thinking they will never be able to bear the unaccustomed burdens, they return to their old errors.[34] O

n addition, John supported

the monastic reform movement at Cluny Abbey. He confirmed the strict rule of Cluny for the monks there. [33] He then wrote to King

Rudolph of France, as well as local bishops and counts, with instructions to restore to Cluny the property of which Guido, abbot of

Gigny Abbey, had taken without permission, and to put the monastery under their protection.[35]

In 926, he increased the land attachedto the Subiaco Abbey in exchange for the monks reciting 100 Kyrie eleisons for the salvation of his soul.[36] In 924 John X sent a

Papal Legate named Zanello to Spain to investigate the Mozarabic Rite. Zanello spoke favourably of the Rite, and the Pope gave a

new approval to it, requiring only to change the words of consecration to that of the Roman one.[37]

Johns pontificate saw large

numbers of pilgrimages from England to Rome, including Wulfhelm, Archbishop of Canterbury in 927. Three years before, in 924,

King thelstan sent one of his nobles, Alfred, to Rome, on charges of plotting to put out the kings eyes, where he was supposed to

swear an oath before Pope John declaring his innocence of the charges, but he died soon afterwards in Rome.[38]

In 917 John also gave

the Archbishop of Bremen jurisdiction over the bishops in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Greenland.[39]Finally, during his

pontificate, John also restored the Lateran Basilica, which had crumbled in 897.[40]

Deposition and death The power struggle between John X and Guy of Tuscany and Marozia came to a conclusion in 928. Guy had

secretly collected a body of troops, and with them made an attack on the Lateran Palace when Peter, Duke of Spoleto, was caught offhis guard, and had only a few soldiers with him. Peter was cut to pieces before his brother's eyes, while John himself was thrown into

a dungeon, where he remained until he died.[41]

There are two variant traditions surrounding his death; the first has it that he was

smothered to death in the dungeon within a couple of months of his deposition. Another has it he died sometime in 929 withoutviolence, but through a combination of the conditions of his incarceration and depression.[42]According to John the Deacon, John X

was buried in the atrium of the Lateran Basilica, near the main entrance.[43]

He was succeeded by Pope Leo VI in 928.

Reputation and legacy For centuries, John Xs pontificate has been seen as one of the most disgraceful during the shameful period of

the Saeculum obscurum. Much of this can be laid at the feet of the Liutprand of Cremona, whose account of the period is both

inaccurate and uniformly hostile.[44]

His characterisation of John as an unscrupulous cleric who slept his way to the papal chair,

becoming the lover ofTheodora, and who held the throne ofSaint Peter as a puppet ofTheophylact I, Count of Tusculum until he was

murdered to make way for Marozias son Pope John XI, has coloured much of the analysis of his reign, and was used by opponents of

the Catholic Church as a propagandist tool.[45]

Thus according to John Foxe, John X was the son ofPope Lando and the lover of the

Roman harlot Theodora, who had John overthrow his supposed father, and set John up in his place. [46] While according to Louis

Marie DeCormenin, John was: The son of a nun and a priest... more occupied with his lusts and debauchery than with the affairs of

Christendom... he was ambitious, avaricious, an apostate, destitute of shame, faith and honour, and sacrificed everything to his

passions; he held the Holy See about sixteen years, to the disgrace of humanity.[47]However, in recent times, his pontificate has been

re-evaluated, and he is now seen as a man who attempted to stand against the aristocratic domination of the papacy, who promoted aunified Italy under an imperial ruler, only to be murdered for his efforts.

[48]So according to Ferdinand Gregorovius (not known for his

sympathies towards the Papacy), John X was the foremost statesman of his age. He wrote: John X, however, the man whose sins are

known only by report, whose great qualities are conspicuous in history, stands forth amid the darkness of the time as one of the most

memorable figures among the Popes. The acts of the history of the Church praise his activity, and his relations with every country of

Christendom. And since he confirmed the strict rule of Cluny, they extol him further as one of the reformers of monasticism.[49]

References Norwich, John Julius, The Popes: A History (2011) Levillain, Philippe, The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies, Routledge (2002)

Mann, Horace K., The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol. IV: The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy, 891-999 (1910)

Notes

1. ^ Mann, pg. 1522. ^ abcd Levillain, pg. 8383. ^ Norwich, John Julius, The Popes: A History (2011), pg. 75; Mann, pg. 1514. ^ Gregorovius, Ferdinand, The History of Rome in the Middle Ages, Vol. III, pg. 2525. ^ Richard P. McBrien,Lives of the Popes, (HarperCollins, 2000), 152.6. ^ Mann, pg. 1537. ^ Levillain, pg. 838; Mann, pg. 1538. ^ Mann, pg. 153; Levillain, pg. 8389. ^ Mann, pg. 15410. ^ ab Mann, pg. 15511. ^ Mann, pg. 155-15612. ^ Mann, pg. 15613. ^ Canduci, Alexander, Triumph & Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of Romes Immortal Emperors (2010), pg. 22314. ^ Mann, pg. 15715. ^ Mann, pgs. 158-15916. ^ Mann, pgs. 159-16017. ^ Mann, pg. 161; Norwich, pg. 7518. ^ Levillain, pg. 839; Mann, pg 16119. ^ Norwich, pg. 75; Mann, pgs. 161-16220. ^ Mann, pg. 16221. ^ Norwich, John Julius,Byzantium: The Apogee (1993), pg. 137; Mann, pgs. 133-134


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22. ^ Vlasto, A. P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of theSlavs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 209. ISBN0-521-07459-2, 9780521074599.

23. ^ Mann, pgs. 165-16624. ^ Mann, pg. 16625. ^ Levillain, pg. 839; Mann, pgs. 167-16826. ^ Mann, pg. 16927. ^ Levillain, pg. 839; Mann, pg. 17028. ^ Mann, pg. 17129. ^ Levillain, pg. 839; Mann, pgs. 171-17330. ^ Mann, pgs. 174-17531. ^ Levillain, pg. 839; Mann, pgs. 175-17632. ^ Mann, pg. 17633. ^ ab Levillain, pg. 83934. ^ Mann, pgs. 177-17835. ^ Mann, pgs. 178-17936. ^ Mann, pg. 17937. ^ Mann, pg. 18138. ^ Mann, pgs., 182-18339. ^ Mann, pg. 18440. ^ Levillain, pg. 839; Mann, pg. 18541. ^ Mann, pgs. 162-16342. ^ Norwich, pg. 75; Mann, pgs. 163-16443. ^ Mann, pg. 18544. ^ Mann, pg. 15145. ^ Mann, pgs. 151-15246. ^ John Foxe, George Townsend, Josiah Pratt, The acts and monuments of John Foxe, with a life and defence of the

martyrologist, Vol. II (1870), pg. 35

47. ^ DeCormenin, Louis Marie; Gihon, James L., A Complete History of the Popes of Rome, from Saint Peter, theFirst Bishop to Pius the Ninth (1857), pgs. 285-286

48. ^ Duffy, Eamon, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes (1997), pg. 8349. ^ Gregorovius, Ferdinand, The History of Rome in the Middle Ages, Vol. III, pg. 280

External links

Pope John X at Find a Grave Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes

Preceded by Lando Pope914928 Succeeded by Leo VI

Theodora and Marozia, one John Xs reputed lover, the other his reputed murderer

Berengar (seated on the left) whom John X crowned Holy Roman Emperor in December 915


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Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaTheophylact I (before 864 924/925) was a medieval Count of Tusculum who was the effective ruler of Rome from around 905

through to his death in 924. His descendants would control the Papacy for the next 100 years.

Biography Theophylact was the hereditary Count of Tusculum, a small hill town near the vicinity of Rome. He is mentioned for the

first time in a document of 901 aspalatine iudex of the Emperor Louis III. He remained in Rome, commanding a group of soldiersafter the emperors return to Provence in 902, and was prominent in the overthrow ofAntipope Christopher in January 904, whom he

very likely ordered to be killed whilst in prison later that year. Theophylact formed an alliance with Alberic I of Spoleto, and withtheir combined backing, Pope Sergius III was elected in Christophers place.

[1]During his pontificate, Theophylact became Sergius

sacri palatii vestararius and magister militum, effectively seizing control of the city. He was also granted other honorific titles, such

as senator, glorissimus dux, and dominus urbis.[2] Sometime between the end of Sergius pontificate and the start of John Xs,[3]

Theophylact was elected as the head of Rome, under the centuries old title ofRoman consul by the city's nobility. As per the ancient

office, this must have been for a year only, as in 915, he is referred to as a senator only, although first among the listed nobility. [4] In

this capacity, Theophylact was able to dominate the papal electoral process, with all popes until his death in 925 chosen after he had

hand-picked them. Theophylacts rule of Rome was shared to a large degree with his wife Theodora, who was styled senatrix and

serenissima vestaratrix of Rome. It was by her suggestion that the popes who followed Sergius III, Anastasius III and Lando, were

chosen by her husband for the papal see. Then in 914, she prevailed upon him to support her alleged lover as pope, having him

installed as Pope John X (although it has been suggested that John was in fact related to either Theodora or Theophylact).[5]

Theophylact worked closely with the able John X, who supported Theophylacts overall objectives with regards to strengthening the

imperial presence in Italy by supporting EmperorBerengar I of Italy. He fought alongside John X against the Saracens at the Battle of

Garigliano in 915, and was the popes principal political support until his death in either 924 or 925.[6]

Theophylact had two daughterswith Theodora: Marozia and Theodora. In the longer term, the heirs of Theophylact, the Tusculani, were the rivals of the Crescentii in

controlling Rome, and placed several popes on the Chair of St Peter. Their eventual heirs were the Colonna.Reputation It is now believed that Theodoras influence over Theophylact was overstated by misogynistic contemporary chroniclers

such as Liutprand of Cremona, who wished to exaggerate the corruption of the Roman and Papal court, as a counterpoint to rulers

such as Alberic I of Spoleto, and the future emperor Otto I, whom Liutprand later served. The charges of adultery against Theodora,

the use of the term harlot, and the presumption that she was using her feminine wiles to prostitute herself in order to influence her

husband and appoint numerous lovers to important posts were used to tarnish the rule of Theophylact and his successors. Later

historians, influenced by the moral tone of this critique, described the influence of Theodora and her descendants over the papacy as

the Pornocracy or the Rule of the Harlots. Modern historians now instead use the term Saeculum obscurum to describe the period

when the Papacy was under the direct control of the Roman nobility, in particular when it was under the domination of the family of

Theophylact.

Family tree

Theophylact I,Count of Tusculum864924

Theodora

Hugh of Italy

887-948(also married

Marozia)

Alberic I of

Spoletod. 925

Marozia890937

Pope Sergius III904911

TheodoraGratian

(Consul)

Alda of Vienne

Alberic II of

Spoleto

905954

David or

DeodatusPope John XI931935

Theodora Giovanni Crescentius

TheophylactPope John XII955964

PopeBenedict VII974-983

Marozia

Pope

JohnXIII965

972

Crescentius

the Elder

Gregory I, Count

of Tusculum

Pope Benedict

VIII10121024

Alberic III,

Count of

Tusculum

d. 1044

Pope John

XIX10241032

Peter, Duke of

the Romans Gaius Octavianus

Pope Benedict

IX10321048

References

Williams, George L., Papal Genealogy: The Families and Descendants Of The Popes (2004) Gregorovius, Ferdinand,History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages Vol. III (2010) Lindsay Brook. Popes and pornocrats in the early middle ages.


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Notes

1. ^ Williams, pg. 112. ^ Williams, pg. 11; Gregorovius, pg. 2513. ^ Gregorovius, pgs. 252-2534. ^ Gregorovius, pg. 2545. ^ Gregorovius, pg. 2526. ^ Williams, pg. 13

Alberic I of Spoleto

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaAlberic I (died c. 925) was the Lombardduke of Spoleto from between 896 and 900 until 920, 922, or thereabouts. He first appears as

a page to Guy III of Spoleto at the Battle on the Trebbia in 889 He may have later been the count of Fermo or margrave ofCamerino,

but whatever the case, he succeeded to Spoleto after murdering Duke Guy IV. He was recognised soon by King Berengar I, with

whom he fought the Magyars in 899 or 900. Alberic allied with his neighbour, the margrave of TuscanyAdalbert II, against Pope

Sergius III. The two then blocked the road to Rome to prevent Berengar's imperial coronation in 906 or 907. His alliance with the

Tusculani was very advantageous. By his marriage to Marozia, the daughter ofTheodora and Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum, he

received the title of "patrician of the Romans," patricius Romanorum. Most famously perhaps, Alberic was one of the three great

leaders of the Christian League which defeated the Saracens at the Battle of the Garigliano in June 915. He led his troops from

Spoleto and Camerino with those of Theophylact of Tusculum to join with Pope John Xand his contingent from Latium and

Adalbert of Tuscanyand Nicholas Picingli, the strategos ofBari, leading the Byzantine forces and Lombard and Greek princes of

the South: Guaimar II of Salerno, Landulf I of Benevento, Atenulf II of Capua, John I and the later Docibilis II of Gaeta, and Gregory

IV and the later John II of Naples. Even Berengar sent a contingent from La Marche. The battle went famously and many a pettyprince received titles of great honour. Alberic was appointed the "consul of the Romans" in 917 [1]. He became, however, a tyrant in

the Eternal City and people and pope expelled him. He was subsequently murdered in Orte between 924 or 926, probably because of

his reliance on marauding Hungarians who supported his power. The dates of his downfall and death are as uncertain as those of his

rise. He last appears in a datable document of 917, theLiber largitorius ofFarfa Abbey. He had three or four sons by Marozia:

Alberic II, who was later prince of Rome Constantino (d. after January 14, 945) Sergio, bishop of Nepi (d. before 963) and possibly also Pope John XI (many sources consider him illegitimate son ofPope Sergius III).

SourcesLexikon des MittelaltersMedieval Lands Project on Alberico, Marchese di Spoleto

1. ^Lindsay Brook. Popes and pornocrats in the early middle ages.

Nicholas Picingli

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaNicholas (orNicolaus) Picingli was the Byzantinestrategos ofBari in the thema ofLangobardia, who led the Byzantine contingent of

the Christian League in the Battle of Garigliano in 915 during the ByzantineArab Wars. He was appointed strategos of Bari by

Byzantine EmperorConstantine VII in 915 to replace Melisianus, and immediately set to work organizing the various south Italian

princes in a concerted effort to expel the Saracen presence. At sea, Picingli had the support of the Byzantine navy, while on land he

allied with Alberic I of Spoleto and Pope John X to form the Christian League. Picingli assembled the Byzantine forces from

Byzantium's Italian vassals: the Lombardprince of Salerno, Guaimar II, and the prince of a united Capua and Benevento, Landulf I.This force then marched north towards the River Garigliano, where the Saracens' chief fortress was, where the rulers ofGaeta and

Naples, Dukes John I and Gregory IV respectively, both technically Byzantine vassals, came to his camp to receive Byzantine titles

and the duke of Gaeta and his son, Docibilis, and the duke of Naples and his, John, were made patricians. This large force united witharmies led by Alberic I of Spoleto and Pope John X, who was personally leading an army of Latins and Romans. They met the

Saracens in June and the battle was a Muslim rout. He was relieved of his post in 921 during the usurpation ofRomanos I.

Sources Gwatkin, H.M., Whitney, J.P. (ed) et al. The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume III. Cambridge University Press, 1926.

Longobardia,

Theme of Longobardia 873ca. 965From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Capital Bari

- Byzantine conquest of Bari 873

- Establishment of the Catepanate of Italy 965

Longobardia (Greek: , also variously , Longibardia and , Lagoubardia), was a Byzantine

term for the territories controlled by the Lombards in Italy. In the 9th-10th centuries, it was also the name of a Byzantine military-


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civilian province (or thema) known as the Theme of Longobardia located in southeastern Italy. The term was traditionally used for

the Lombard possessions, with the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor distinguishing between "Great Longobardia" (Greek:

; Latin:Longobardia major), namely the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy, and "Lesser Longobardia" (Latin:

Longobardia minor), which comprised southern Italy, with the Lombard duchies of Spoleto, Salerno and Capua, the Byzantine

possessions, and the city-states (Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi) under Byzantine suzerainty.[1][2]In its strictest and most technical sense,

the name referred to the Byzantine thema which encompassed the modern Italian region ofApulia and parts ofBasilicata, with Bari as

its capital. Its exact origin and evolution are not entirely clear. Its establishment, perhaps first as a subordinate division (tourma) of the

thema of Cephallenia, dates to circa 876, when Bari was recovered by the Byzantines, who used it as a base to re-establish their

control over southern Italy, lost in previous centuries to the Lombards and Arabs.[3]

In the late 9th century, it appears that it was

administered jointly with other European themata of the Byzantine Empire:[4] in 891 the first known strategos of Longobardia,

Symbatikios, was also governor ofMacedonia, Thrace and Cephallenia, while his successor George administered Longobardia jointly

with its parent thema, Cephallenia.[5]

A dedicated strategos is only attested from 911 on.[4]

In 938 and 956, it also appears united withthe thema of Calabria, although the duration of this arrangement is unclear. At any rate, after circa 965, the two themata were

permanently united into the new Catepanate of Italy, with the catepan's seat again at Bari.[2][4]

Citations ^Kazhdan 1991, pp. 12491250. ^ abPertusi 1952, p. 181 ^Kazhdan 1991, pp. 256, 1250. ^ abcKazhdan 1991, p.

1250. ^Pertusi 1952, p. 180

Sources

Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, UnitedKingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-504652-6.

Pertusi, A. (1952) (in Italian). Constantino Porfirogenito: De Thematibus. Rome, Italy: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.Further reading

Oikonomids, N. A. (1965). "Constantin VII Porphyrognte et les Thmes de Cphalonie et de Longobardie" (in French).Revue des tudes byzantines 23 (23): 118123. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rebyz_0766-

5598_1965_num_23_1_1343.

Documents

1899 FEDELE Garigliano 915 AD: Christian League destroys the Saracen Stronghold near Rome