1314451638_Learning Pack 1 - Building Adapt & Conserv Principles

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Building Adaptation andConservation

By Tony Burke licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution

Non-Commercial Share Alike Licensehttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/


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OPEN RESOURCES FOR

BUILT ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION

(ORBEE)

Module Title:

BUILDING ADAPTATION AND CONSERVATION

Author:

TONY BURKE, University of Westminster

Title of this learning package:

Learning Package 1: Principles of Building Adaptation and Conservation

Titles of associated learning packages (not included here):

Learning Package 2: Building Conservation Practice

Learning Package 3: Building Adaptation: Technology and Practice


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Module: BUILDING ADAPTATION AND CONSERVATION

LEARNING PACKAGE 1: Principles of Building Adaptation and Conservation

Section 1

Introduction to the learning package (allow up to 2 hours)

Learning Outcomes

On completion of all the work associated with this learning package you should be able to:

Analyse the factors which influence the physical, functional and economic life of a building. Critically assess relevant issues in determining whether existing buildings should be adapted for new uses. Explain in detail how conservation philosophy has evolved in Britain from the nineteenth century to the

present day.

Evaluate a range of sources which provide the basis for modern conservation philosophy. Debate the main principles and philosophies which underpin conservation practice and the adaptive re-

use of buildings.

Introduction to this learning packageEverywhere we look, in cities, towns, suburbs, villages and the countryside, both in the UK and in most

countries around the world, we see evidence of the enduring nature of the built environment. Buildings are

fundamental to the way in which we relate to a place. Buildings indicate to us how society operates in any

location. When we look at the built environment we dont just see modern buildings. In many places in Britain

there are buildings from virtually every period in the last thousand years, and in some cases even earlier

periods. These buildings provide us with tangible evidence of life in bygone periods and they remind us of the

continuity of society. But not all old buildings survive. The built environment goes through a continuous cycle

of renewal. Some old buildings are demolished to make way for new buildings, whilst other buildings are

retained and adapted for new uses.

This learning package, and the other two packages which make up this module, are all about old buildings and

the decisions we make about their ongoing use. This package provides coverage of the fundamental conceptsand principles on which building adaptation and conservation are based. The package is broken down into the

following sections:

Section 1: Introduction to the learning package

Section 2: Understanding the life of a building

Section 3: Adapting and conserving existing buildings

Section 4: The evolution of building conservation

Section 5: A review of the principles and philosophies of building conservation

Section 6: Case Study

Before commencing Section 2, view this introductory presentation.

Introductory presentation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymsBHhUh9FA)

Familiarise yourself with the overall content of the package and make sure you understand the learning

outcomes. Browse through all sections of the package to get an overview of the structure.


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Section 2

Understanding the life of a building (allow up to 8 hours)

The need for buildings

Society has an almost insatiable appetite for buildings. The demand for buildings is met by:

The construction of new buildings on green field sites. The demolition of existing buildings and their replacement with new buildings. The adaptation of existing buildings.

This learning package, and the other two packages which make up this module, are primarily concerned with

the second and third of these points. We will consider the factors which influence decisions about existing

buildings. In particular, we will focus on the specific issues which arise when existing buildings are considered

to have some historic value.

Decisions about an existing building typically have to be made when the building is no longer performing at the

level demanded by the owners or occupiers. Building performance has been defined as:

The degree to which a building ..... serves its users and fulfils the purpose for which it was built oracquired; the ability of a facility to provide the shelter and service for which it is intended (Iselin and

Lemer, 1993, cited in Douglas, 2002).

When a new building is designed and constructed there is an expectation that certain levels of performance

will be met. These levels will be dictated by statutory requirements (e.g. health and safety, Building

Regulations etc) and user requirements (such as space, standard of finishes etc).

Over the life of the building its physical condition can deteriorate significantly, e.g. due to the effect of the

weather or day-to-day wear and tear, and this can have a significant impact on the ability of the building to

meet the expectations of the occupants. This deterioration can be arrested through maintenance and repair,

and most building owners or occupiers undertake general maintenance and repairs on their properties.

Generally speaking, maintenance refers to actions which retain and item in, or restore it to, a state in which it

can perform its required function (BS3811: 1993). In other words, maintenance works essentially maintain

the performance of the building at the designed standard of performance. The term repairs is generally

taken to mean works which restore a building to its original condition, and this can include replacement of

failed components. However, when repair works are carried out they often result in a beneficial improvement

which goes beyond the designed standard of performance. For example, if a buildings windows have failed,

their replacement with new windows may be classed as a repair, even though the new windows may actually

perform to a much higher standard than those which they replaced.

So the physical condition of a building can be maintained roughly at the designed standard through

maintenance, and some improvements can even be achieved through repairs. However, over the life of the

building many other changes may occur which affect the building. For example: Changes can occur in the statutory requirements of buildings, e.g. new requirements in relation to

health and safety, access for disabled people etc.

The occupants of a building may change, and the new occupants may have different expectationsfrom the previous occupants.

The needs of the existing occupants can change, e.g. an increase or decrease in family size, or thegrowth or diversification of a business.

New technology affects the ways in which buildings are used. Social and economic change can render the existing use of a building obsolete.

The result of such changes is typically that the users expectations of a building are going up, whilst the

performance of the building in relation to those expectations is actually declining. Eventually, a point may be

reached where the performance of the building has declined to such an extent that it has fallen below theminimum acceptable standard.


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The illustration below illustrates this point graphically:

(Based on Riley & Cotgrave, 2005)

To view an animated screencast of this graph go to:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-vmEVie0TbU

When the building reaches a point where it has fallen below the minimum acceptable standard of

performance, a major decision has to be made. Essentially there are three broad choices:

Sell the building and its site and identify an alternative building. Demolish the existing building and construct a new building in its place. Undertake works to the existing building to bring the building up to a completely new level of

performance.

In this module, we are primarily (though not solely) concerned with the third option. The works required to

bring a building up to a completely new level of performance represent a significant intervention in the

building.

Interventions in buildings

Clearly the type of interventions we are referring to go way beyond the level of maintenance and repairs. The

works involved will bring the building up to a whole new standard of performance which is significantly better

than the original designed standard. Typically such works might be described as alterations, conversion,

extension, improvement, modernisation, refurbishment, rehabilitation, renovation, restoration and so on.

It will be evident that the terminology associated with works to existing buildings is very wide ranging. The

terms are not mutually exclusive, and there may be significant overlap between them. For the purposes of this

module, we are going to use a single term which, as Douglas (2002) suggests, is an all-embracing term which

refers to any work to an existing building which goes beyond maintenance and repairs. The term is adaptation.

Paraphrasing Douglas (2002) we can identify some pointers as to what adaptation means:

Adaptation should involve substantive improvement rather than just maintenance of existing orprevious standards.

Adaptation is about responding to change.So, this module will consider many of the challenges faced in carrying out these works of adaptation to existingbuildings, particularly when those buildings have some historic value.

Building performance over the life of a building, and the necessary interventions.


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The life of a building

Referring back to the animated chart above, we saw that if the actual performance of the building declines

significantly in relation to the expected performance of the building then a point is reached when a major

decision has to be made. One might argue that when a building reaches this point it has effectively come to

the end of its life. Is that a fair comment to make?

To answer this question we have to be aware of what we mean by the life of a building, because in effect a

building can be considered as having several different types of life.

Physical life

The physical life of a building can be defined as the period which a building lasts before its deterioration is

beyond repair. Buildings generally have long physical lives, and provided the structure is basically sound, it is

possible to extend the physical life of a building almost indefinitely by appropriate care and maintenance. This

is evidenced by the fact that there are many very old buildings which survive. It is actually quite rare for the

physical life of a building to be the critical factor in deciding whether to replace a building.

Functional life

As discussed above, over the course of time a building can become increasingly unsuitable for the purpose for

which it was designed. This may be as a result of changes in legislation, advances in technology, changes inworking practices, or even changes in fashion. At this point, it might be argued that the buildings functional

life is at an end: the building has become obsolete or redundant. Douglas (2006) provides an interesting

discussion of the concepts of building obsolescence and redundancy. He draws a distinction between the two

terms, though it is important to note that the distinction is quite a subtle one, and it is understandable why

they are often used to refer to the same thing. In simple terms obsolescence refers to a building going out of

use, typically because it is out of date or old fashioned. On the other hand redundancy refers to a building

being surplus to requirements, perhaps because of an over-supply of that type of building. A building could

therefore be well maintained and perfectly capable of fulfilling the purpose for which it was designed (in which

case, we cannot really say that it is obsolete), but if there is no demand for that type of building it can be

argued that the building is redundant.

Regardless of whether a building has become obsolete or redundant, it is important to remember that it maybe possible to adapt the building to another use. Thus, it is possible for a building to have a series of functional

lives.

Economic life

There are two main situations which indicate that a building is at the end of its economic life:

When the savings which could be derived from a new building are beneficial compared to the costsof providing a replacement.

When the value of the site on which the building stands is such that replacement of the building witha new (larger) building will yield significantly higher returns.

It would be fair to say that it is usually the economic life of the building which is most influential in

determining the future of a building.


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Activity

We have seen above that changes of various types can have a significant impact on the life of a building.

Listed below are various scenarios. Think carefully about the scenarios and make some notes about what

impact you think they will have on the life of a building.

In considering your responses, think particularly about the concepts of obsolescence and redundancy.

Example:

There has been a massive decline in manufacturing industry in the UK. Most manufacturing now takesplace overseas. There has been a shift in the economy from manufacturing to services.

Potential impact:

A lot of buildings were built to accommodate specific manufacturing activities. Some of these datefrom the nineteenth century and many more from the twentieth century. The size, shape and layout of

these buildings was often designed with a particular manufacturing process in mind. As manufacturing

industry has shifted overseas these buildings have effectively become redundant. There simply is not

the demand for this type of building. Often the size, shape and layout of the buildings makes it difficult

to accommodate alternative uses. In many cases the demolition of the buildings and the

redevelopment of the site is the only viable option.

Scenarios for you to consider:

1. Changes in shopping practices have led to an increase in out-of-town shopping centres and a growthin internet shopping.

2. There have been significant changes in the policies for dealing with the mentally ill. The Care in theCommunity policy means that people with mental health problems are more likely to be treated in

their own homes than in hospitals or institutions.

3. Over the past 150 years there have been many changes to goods transportation systems. There havebeen shifts away from waterways (e.g. canals) to railways to road transport, and from shipping to airtransport. Each transportation system has had its associated goods storage facilities.

4. Changing population patterns, new immigrant communities and an increasingly secular society havelead to a steep decline in congregations at many churches, particularly in urban areas.

5. Farming practices have changed dramatically in the past sixty years, with a shift from small,traditional practices towards large scale agro-industry.

Check your responses by viewing this short presentation (screencast)

Reflect on the responses you gave and highlight any issues which were unclear. Go back over the pages above

to clarify any areas which you did not fully understand. For further information on any of the areas, follow up

some of the references listed.


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Section 3:

Adapting and conserving existing buildings (allow up to 9 hours)

In the previous section we have examined why buildings become obsolete or redundant. Now we need to

consider why we might re-use those buildings rather than just demolish them and redevelop the site. We will

consider some of the main factors which influence a decision to re-use an existing building.

There are many reasons why a building might re-used as opposed to being demolished. Some of the reasons

are essentially practical it might simply make commercial or practical sense to retain the existing building.

However, in some cases there are social, ethical, or philosophical reasons for retaining existing buildings. In

such cases we enter the realms of building conservation.

It must be stressed at this point that the re-use of an existing building will invariably require some significant

intervention to the building itself. This might mean alteration, extension, refurbishment or any other type of

intervention which, for the purposes of this module, we are referring to as adaptation. We are therefore

concerned primarily with the adaptive re-use of buildings rather than just straightforward re-use.

Lets start by examining some of the main factors that are relevant when decisions are taken about existingbuildings. These factors are not mutually exclusive and, in the case of some buildings, several factors may

apply:

The availability of buildings

It may seem blindingly obvious, but one of the main reasons why old buildings are re-used is simply because

they are there! There is a large stock of existing buildings which have become redundant or obsolete for the

reasons covered above. If a developer or a building user requires accommodation for whatever purpose, there

is a readily available stock to choose from.

Economic advantages

Virtually all developments can only proceed if they are financially viable. In most cases this will require

consideration of the cost of carrying out the development as compared with the likely return on thecompleted development. There are a number of factors which can favour the re-use of an existing building

rather than the construction of a new building:

Construction costsIt is often the case (though by no means always) that the costs of carrying out works to an existing building will

be cheaper than those incurred in demolishing and constructing a new building. The basic structure, together

with foundations, will already exist so it is likely that significant cost advantages can be achieved. However, it

needs to be borne in mind that the works required to bring an old building up to modern requirements can

often be very expensive.

Shorter development periodAgain, generally, the overall period for a project involving works to an existing building is likely to be shorterthan that required for a new building. Time will normally be saved at the design phase, on obtaining consents,

and during the construction phase. This can mean that the period over which the project has to be financed is

reduced, and the building is available for occupation earlier and can therefore produce returns sooner.

Use of existing infrastructureWhen new buildings are constructed it is generally necessary to provide a completely new infrastructure for

them, including roads, drainage, water supply, electricity, gas, telecommunications and so on. When existing

buildings are re-used, the infrastructure may already exist, even if upgrading may be required. Significant cost

advantages can therefore be achieved.

Plot ratiosThe term plot ratio refers to the ratio between the total floor area of a building and the area of the site (or

plot) on which the building stands. For example, in round terms, a six-storey building occupying half the space

on a plot would have a plot ratio of 3:1. Many local authorities impose plot ratio limits on new developments.


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Older buildings, particularly those from the Victorian period, were built to quite high plot ratios, often 7:1, so a

developer can sometimes benefit from higher plot ratios (and therefore more lettable floor space) when an

existing building is retained.

Heritage

The term heritage is widely misused but in the context of conservation it is a term which regularly arises.

Many people hold the view that historic buildings represent a primary part of our heritage and we therefore

have a moral duty to hand that heritage on to future generations.

History

Old buildings provide material evidence of what the past was like. Knowledge of the past helps us to

understand the present and to plan for the future. This can include looking at historical patterns of

development and learning lessons for new developments.

Some buildings or structures have a special claim as monuments. They were built to endure or to act as

memorials. Examples might include cathedrals, palaces, triumphal arches and so on. These buildings are so

important that they transcend the usual arguments about whether or not they should be preserved. Other

buildings might not have been built as monuments but their existence is so rare that they are worthy of special

consideration.

Some buildings have a close historical association. This can be association with achievement (e.g the first ever

use of a particular material), association with people (e.g. a famous person lived here), or association with an

event (e.g. an important treaty was signed here).

Architecture

Some buildings are the products of outstanding architects. Others provide links in the chain of architectural

development. Certain buildings are landmarks in architectural history, or may be designed in styles which are

expressive of the spirit of the age.

The quality of the buildings

One of the main reasons for re-using old buildings is simply the quality of the buildings themselves. Many oldbuildings, particularly those with some architectural or historic significance, have a special character which

cannot be recreated in modern buildings. The quality might be derived from the architectural style, the

materials and workmanship, or the character that can only be acquired with age. This special quality is often

difficult to define, but it is undoubtedly highly valued. Many organisations, from both the public sector and the

commercial world, like to project an image of stability and dependability to the public, and buildings have an

important role in this regard.

Character and appearance

Some buildings are aesthetically pleasing they may be outstanding architectural masterpieces, or they may

be simple and picturesque. People derive satisfaction from the beauty, harmony, character and scale of

historic buildings and areas, and many historic buildings are representative of local materials and traditions.

Stability and continuity

It has been suggested that the continued existence of familiar surroundings may satisfy a psychological need.

Old buildings also express the continuity of human society they are symbolic of its permanence. Historic

buildings and areas provide a link between the past and the present they are expressive of the deep roots of

society. The late Graeme Shankland, an architect and planner, once said that a city without old buildings is

like a man without a memory. (Stevenson, 2011)

Social factors

Lessons were learnt from the widespread redevelopment of areas in the 1960s which swept away many long

established communities and historic town centres and replaced them with high rise blocks, ring roads and

multi-storey car parks. Nowadays the role of old buildings in preserving the character of an area is recognised.

Furthermore, the adaptive re-use of old buildings is often used as a catalyst for the regeneration of an entire

area. A report in 2006 stated that historic buildings and areas matter to communities and may form part of


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their identity whether large or small, urban or rural. Iconic historic buildings can play a critical role as a focus

for regeneration in our towns and cities. (RICS et al, 2006)

Sustainability

There has been recognition of the environmental impact of buildings since at least the 1970s, but nowadays

the issue of sustainability is very high on the agenda amongst politicians, organisations and indeed the general

public. Riley & Cotgrave (2005) point out that buildings are believed to account for 50% of all energy used

globally. Half of that is consumed during the construction of the building and half during the life of the

building. The half that is consumed during the construction of the building is referred to as embodied energy,

i.e. the energy associated with the manufacture and transportation of the materials used to construct the

building.

The implication of this is fairly clear: if existing buildings are re-used rather than being demolished and

redeveloped, then significant savings can be made in energy usage. Most of the savings are derived from the

fact the embodied energy in re-using an existing building will be far less than that associated with a new

building:

To demolish a Victorian terraced house is to throw away enough embodied energy to drive a car

around the world five times. None of this is wasted if the building is refurbished. (RICS et al, 2006)

It is also important to remember that demolition and construction generate a huge amount of waste. The

demolition material has to be disposed off, as does the excavated material from substructure works and

general waste materials from the construction works. By re-using existing buildings the amount of waste

generated is reduced considerably.

Finally, we should also remember that sustainability is not just about reducing energy consumption and

wastage. Sustainable development is also concerned with the maintenance of viable, sustainable communities.

As was seen in the previous section on social factors, older buildings have an important role to play in this

regard.

Policies and controls over development

There is a wide range of legislation, regulations, and other policies, both national and local, which impinge onbuilding development. Many of these will have a direct bearing on decisions affecting the choice between re-

use and redevelopment. For example:

Listed buildings and conservation areasIf a building is listed then special consent will be required before any works can be carried out which will affect

the character of the building. Also, if a building is located in a conservation area then consent will be required

to demolish it. There will generally be a presumption in favour of retaining a historic building. Clearly, for the

owners of such buildings, the development options are severely constrained and they are effectively forced

into re-use of the building.

Planning permissionDevelopment control legislation (as set out in the Town and Country Planning Act 1990) requires that planningpermission be obtained for any development. The term development refers to the carrying out of building

.... operations in, on, over or under land but specifically excludes works of improvement or alteration which

only affect he interior of the building or do not materially affect the external appearance of the building. This

means that many schemes involving the re-use of an existing building will not actually require planning

permission at all, or perhaps will only require it for limited aspects of the scheme (e.g. the change of use of the

building). This could be very attractive to a prospective developer, who could avoid the potentially time-

consuming and costly process of steering the delicate path through the planning maze.

Other policy issuesThe government is responsible for bringing forward land use policies which are in line with their overall

national objectives. These policies are implemented through legislation, regulations, tax incentives, policy

statements and so on. Many of these policies may specifically encourage the re-use of existing buildings. Forexample, there are many urban regeneration policies currently being implemented around the country which

seek to improve local environments. Furthermore, housing policies encourage the use of existing developed


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sites (as opposed to greenfield sites) for housing developments. These policies indirectly impact on decisions

about the re-use of existing buildings.

Disadvantages of re-using old buildings

Clearly there are many benefits to be derived from re-using old buildings, but it would be wrong to assume

that it is always preferential to new build. Douglas (2002) summarises some of the main drawbacks as follows:

Functional

It may be the case that an adapted building simply cannot match requirements in terms of performance. The

older building may not function well as regards layout, floor to ceiling heights, and the efficient use of the site.

Technical

As a general rule the extended life of an adapted building is still only about half of that of a new building.

Furthermore, many existing buildings contain some latent defects which are too difficult or too expensive to

resolve.

EconomicOld buildings are often more expensive to maintain than new buildings. In some cases the rental income which

can be obtained from an old building does not match that for a new building, although research carried out on

behalf of English Heritage has suggested that creative use of historic buildings can bring good returns see

RICS et al (2006). Energy costs may be higher in adapted buildings because it can be difficult to achieve

modern insulation standards by retro-fitting. Sometimes the costs of adaptation can be quite high because the

specialist materials needed (e.g. to match existing materials) are expensive.


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Activity

Consider each of the following existing buildings. In each case there are strong arguments for demolishing the

buildings and replacing them. Identify the relevant factors which might influence a decision to retain the

building rather than demolish it.

1. A cathedral dating from the fourteenth century. The stonework requires ongoing maintenance andrepair which costs tens of thousands of pounds each year. The building is very expensive to heat.

2. A former farm cottage, parts of which date from the fifteenth century, though with later alterations inthe sixteenth and seventeenth century. The cottage was once surrounded by farm land but the

surrounding area is now a prime residential suburb. The site would have a development value far in

excess of the value of the cottage.

3. A parish church dating from the sixteenth century. The roof coverings require replacement. Damppenetration has caused significant damage internally. There is evidence of structural problems

suggesting the building may require underpinning. Congregations at the church have declined.

4. A brick-built dockside warehouse dating from the eighteenth century which has stood empty for thirtyyears. The waterside location lends itself to a residential redevelopment.

5. An art deco style factory building dating from the 1930s which closed in 1970 and has been used forstorage. The building is adjacent to a major trunk road and has good road links into the nearby city.



to clarify any areas which you did not fully understand. For further information on any of the areas, follow up



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Section 4:

The evolution of building conservation (allow up to 12 hours)

We have already touched on some aspects of the concept of building conservation in the previous section,

when we examined the reasons why buildings might be retained. The reasons included heritage, history,

architecture, character and appearance. All of these factors are fundamental to any study of buildingconservation, but in this section we will look specifically at conservation as a concept. We will first consider

what we mean by the term conservation, and then we will look at how the philosophy of building

conservation has evolved from the Victorian period to the present day.

What is Conservation?

The British Standard BS7913:1998 defines conservation as:

Action to secure the survival or preservation of buildings, cultural artefacts, natural resources,

energy or any other thing of acknowledged value for the future (BSI, 1998)

In relation to buildings, we generally use the term conservation to apply to historic buildings which have been

afforded some protection by the law. Statutory protection is given to buildings, or groups of buildings, which

have some historical value. There are two principal forms of protection: Listed buildings are those buildings included on a list maintained by the Secretary of State. Special

consent is required before works are carried out which affect the character of these buildings.

Conservation areas are areas designated by local authorities as having some special character orappearance which should be preserved.

The concept of conservation is incredibly important in the context of this module, because the extent of the

works which we are allowed to carry out to certain buildings may be severely constrained by the fact that a

building may be listed or in a conservation area. It is therefore vital that we appreciate the philosophy, the

legal basis, and the principles and practice of building conservation.

Undoubtedly the concept of building conservation stirs considerable emotion in many people. For the past

forty years in particular, arguments have regularly sprung up between those who wish to carry out work toexisting buildings and those who see it as their duty to preserve the nations heritage. It is therefore

worthwhile to briefly examine some of the key arguments for and against conservation.

THE EVOLUTION OF CONSERVATION PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

In 1961, a monumental Doric Arch at the entrance to Euston Station in London was demolished to make way

for the redevelopment of the station. The arch had been designed by the architect, Philip Hardwick in the

1830s as the gateway to a major railway terminus. The fact that the demolition was allowed to take place says

a lot about the prevailing mood of the era. The period following the Second World War in Britain was generally

one of renewal. The countrys infrastructure had been badly damaged as a result of the war, and much of whatremained was considered by many to be outdated. The opportunity was therefore taken to build new housing,

and redevelop towns and cities. In doing so, many old buildings and structures were simply swept away.

Within a decade of the demolition of Euston Arch the mood had significantly changed, and there was

considerable public concern about the loss of many older buildings. It was during the 1970s that popular

campaigns such as those by organisations such as SAVE Britains Heritage began to take hold in the public

conscience. It is fair to say that ever since this period, decisions about older buildings have been much more

carefully considered.

Read more about Euston Arch and the campaign to rebuild it here: http://www.eustonarch.org/

Read more about the work of SAVE Britains Heritage here: http://www.savebritainsheritage.org/

Despite the broad acceptance of the importance of building conservation since the 1970s, it would be wrong

to assume that the idea is a modern one. The principles of building conservation are based on the inter-


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relationship of many different values historical, aesthetic, moral and symbolic, and these have evolved over

centuries. Therefore, to fully appreciate the philosophy of conservation it is important to understand its

origins.

Conservation prior to the 19th

Century

It was only during the 19th

century that conservation was written about in anything like modern terms.

However, there are some examples of conservation practice prior to this period. There is limited evidence of

ancient Greek and Roman societies preserving monuments. Several more examples are to be found in the

middle ages, e.g. a requirement to preserve the original fabric of Canterbury Cathedral following a fire in 1174,

and a royal proclamation in 1560 forbidding the defacing of monuments.

By the latter half of the 17th

century there was an increasing interest in archaeological and architectural

antiquities. This continued in early the 18th

century when the notable architect, Sir John Vanbrugh attempted

in vain to prevent the demolition of Woodstock Manor.

Throughout the 18th

century there was a fashion for the romantic and the picturesque replica ruins and

follies were incorporated in landscaped parks and gardens. Groups such as the Society of Antiquaries (founded

in 1707) began to an academic interest in the study of antiquities. However, conservation in the modern sense

was not really considered, and there were no statutory controls.

Read more about the Society of Antiquaries here: http://www.sal.org.uk

Cathedral restoration

By the latter half of the 18th

century many medieval churches and cathedrals were in a very poor state of

repair. Architects were employed to initiate repairs to the fabric of many buildings. Foremost amongst these

was James Wyatt who had been appointed Surveyor to the Fabric at Westminster Abbey in 1776. He

undertook major reconstruction works at several cathedrals including Lichfield, Salisbury, Durham and

Hereford, but in many cases his works went far beyond repair.

The works often involved removing features which he considered detracted from the buildings impact and

replacing them in a style which he decided was more appropriate. In some cases his chosen style bore no

relation to the original building e.g. at Hereford a Norman triforium* and clerestory* were replaced in an Early

English Gothic style. His designs were based on his own personal preferences rather than any consideration of

the history of the building. His work attracted considerable criticism, not least from the Society of Antiquaries

who described his work as barbarous, scandalous and dishonest, and as a result the nickname Wyatt the

Destroyer was coined. This is perhaps the first significant example of intellectual arguments being used

against the restoration of historic buildings.

*Follow these links for Wikipedia descriptions of:

Triforium http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triforium

Clerestory http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerestory

Sir George Gilbert ScottNo discussion of 19

thcentury restoration would be complete without reference to George Gilbert Scott (1811-

78). Scott was the most prolific architect of the century in 30 years he was involved with over 730 buildings,

including cathedrals, churches, colleges and secular buildings. Much of his restoration work involved the

removal of sections of medieval fabric and reinstatement of what he considered to be original features.

His work resulted in him being the subject of much debate both during and after his life.

His skill as an architect was beyond question his work was always based on extensive research. However, he

has been widely criticised for unscrupulous restorations in which he stripped away substantial sections of

medieval cathedrals and replaced them in a style which he himself considered more appropriate. Indeed it is

this aspect of his work which attracted the particular opposition of one man who is widely seen as one of the

founding fathers of conservation: John Ruskin.


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John Ruskin

Ruskin was born in 1819, and by his thirties was an established art critic and arbiter of public taste. His

extensive written work, published in books and journals, demonstrates his love of medieval buildings. He was

outspoken in his criticism of the works which were being undertaken at many cathedrals and other medieval

buildings. He loved these buildings, and viewed the so-called restoration works as being morally wrong. This

small selection of quotations from his various publications illustrates this point:

.......the greatest glory of a building is not in its stones, nor in its gold. Its glory is in its Age......

.......(restoration) means the most total destruction which a building can suffer

.......(restoration) is a lie from beginning to end

It is ...... no question of expediency or feeling whether we shall preserve the buildings of past times or

not. We have no right whatever to touch them. They are not ours. They belong partly to those who

built them, and partly to all the generations of mankind who are to follow us.

Ruskin was an implacable adversary of Scott. He persuaded the Society of Antiquaries to issue a memorandum

condemning the pernicious practice of restoration. He urged the church authorities to adopt a more

preservationist approach to their buildings. Undoubtedly Ruskins ideas were central to the rise of the anti-

restoration movement of the 19th

century.

William Morris

Morris was born in 1834, and became passionately interested in the arts from an early age. He was educated

at Oxford, and became an expert in archaeology and the English Gothic. He spent a short time articled to the

architect G. E. Street, but established himself as a craftsman and designer of wall coverings and textiles.

He promoted the ideals of naturalism and pride in craftsmanship.He was greatly influenced by Ruskins

writings and he shared Ruskins distaste for industrialisation and his passion for the imprint of the human

hand on the worked surface. In the 1870s he became disturbed by the continuing church restorations, and

when he read of proposals by George Gilbert Scott for restoration works at Tewkesbury Abbey he was so

incensed that he wrote a letter to The Athenaeum proposing the setting up of an association to protect against

the restoration of historic buildings.

This rallying call resulted in the establishment of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) in

1877. Morris himself became secretary of SPAB and drafted its manifesto, the main emphasis of which was to

urge architects to:

...stave off decay by daily care, to prop a perilous wall or mend a leaky roof by such means as are

obviously meant for support or covering, and show no pretence of other art, and otherwise resist all

tampering with either the fabric or ornament of the building as it stands ...

Morriss influence cannot be overstated modern day conservation thinking has been largely based on the

SPAB manifesto. SPAB succeeded in generating public concern about historic buildings and provided the basis

for the growth of preservationist activity in Britain.

Read more about SPAB here http://www.spab.org.uk/

The development of the SPAB philosophy

The societys ideas gradually began to attract wider interest. Although the SPAB manifesto remained at the

heart of the societys philosophy, practitioners involved in works to historic buildings increasingly recognised

that a dogmatic set of principles could not be universally applied to all buildings. Consequently, the philosophy

evolved:

It was accepted that some conservation problems could simply not be solved by strict adherence tothe SPAB Manifesto

In some cases it would be appropriate to extend existing buildings. Modest additions to ancientbuildings were not opposed to the SPAB principles provided that they were not a reproduction of paststyles, i.e. the extensions should not seek to imitate earlier work.


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In 1929 Albert Powys drew together much of the evolving expertise in conservation in a single publication

Repair of Ancient Buildings. The book seemed to redefine the object of repair to preserve and give new life

to fine and old buildings . and in so doing . avoid making reproductions. Significantly, Powys added that

it was not wise to lay down dogmatic rules

The Second World War and its aftermath

The war left many historic town and city centres badly damaged as a result of bombing, and thousands of

buildings had been destroyed. Authorities and owners faced technical, social and economic problems in

deciding how best to deal with surviving buildings.

Conservation philosophy at this time was still mainly concerned with medieval buildings and monuments.

Many cities such as London and Bath, contained huge numbers of Georgian buildings in need of repair, but

there was no established approach to dealing with such buildings. The Georgian Group had been established

before the war (1937) as a breakaway group from SPAB because some members were disappointed at SPABs

apparent lack of interest in buildings dating from the 1714 1840 period.

Read more about the Georgian Group here: http://www.georgiangroup.org.uk/docs/about/index.php

The conservation approach which emerged involved much a good deal of restoration, thus continuing thetrend away from the strict SPAB manifesto principles.

In parallel with the shift in philosophy, legislation was introduced via the Town and Country Planning Acts of

1944 and 1947 which required the compilation of statutory lists of buildings of architectural and historic

interest. Thus, for the first time, statutory protection was afforded to historic buildings.

Reconstruction and redevelopment

The most significant effect of the war was the reconstruction and redevelopment which followed it. Much of

Britains infrastructure and building stock was seen as a legacy of an outdated society, and there was a widely

accepted belief in the need for wholesale renewal. The results of this can be seen in virtually every town and

city in the country. Vast swathes of old buildings were swept away to make way new shopping centres and ring

roads. Communities were broken up as close knit terraces were demolished and replaced with tower blocks.These decisions were justified by the prospect of a better future, though in reality much of the architecture

and planning of the period was fuelled by profit motives.

At first the public accepted, and even welcomed, the changes. Gradually, however, it became clear that

Britains heritage and character was being eroded and the main beneficiaries seemed to be the developers.

There was a ground swell in public opinion against indiscriminate redevelopment and towards a more sensitive

approach.

Conservation in the post war period

Although the period is dominated by new development some progress was made in the field of conservation.

The systematic compilation of statutory lists of historic buildings took place over a twenty year period. The

Victorian Society was formed in 1958, reflecting the fact that even buildings less than 100 years old werevalued.

Read more about the Victorian Society here: http://www.victoriansociety.org.uk/

In 1964 a congress of architects and specialists in historic buildings was held in Venice a charter was agreed,

setting out the principles of conservation of monuments and sites. The Venice Charter remains an

authoritative document of international significance. In 1967 the Civic Amenities Act gave powers to local

authorities to make provision for the protection of areas, as distinct from just individual buildings.

The pendulum swings

By 1970s the tide had definitely turned in favour of the conservation movement. An organisation known as

SAVE Britains Heritage had been borne out of concern at the loss of so many country houses. High profile

publicity campaigns gained widespread support to protect many buildings. Membership of established groups

such SPAB, Georgian Group and Victorian Society continued to grow. Local authorities were using their new


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found powers to designate conservation areas. Even housing policy abandoned incentives for demolition in

favour of grants for rehabilitation.

The popular mood was neatly summarised by Pearce (1989) in his book, Conservation Today:

. a general antipathy to the results of post-war planning .. the brief thrill of the new .. had

rapidly given way to the pain at the destruction of historic fabric and loss in environmental

quality

Conservation at the end of the 20th

Century

In the final few decades of the twentieth century building conservation became established practice. It was

widely accepted that historic buildings deserve protection and that any decisions affecting the future of

historic buildings and areas should be carefully considered. Indeed the range of buildings subject to protection

was significantly extended, with many buildings from the post war period becoming listed. Some buildings

built as recently as the 1970s were even listed.

English Heritage (EH) was established in 1983 as the governments executive agency responsible for issues

associated with the historic environment. EH has been highly influential in setting policies and providing

guidance to local authorities on decisions relating to the conservation of buildings. During the 1980s and 1990sEH was subject to much criticism from developers and building designers for being high handed and anti-

progressive in its attitude towards new developments. These criticisms of EH were symptomatic of a wider

debate, particularly amongst the built environment professions, about whether controls over historic

buildings and areas had in fact gone too far. Here are just some of the arguments presented against the

concept of conservation:

Many people argue that excessive emphasis on conservation inhibits progress and change. By attachingtoo much importance to old buildings innovation and new styles may be stifled.

It is suggested that there is a danger that people in general will start to view anything modern withdisdain, and will prefer old styles. This argument is most relevant in the context of new housing

developments which are often designed in historical styles. Housebuilders argue that they are simplyresponding to public demand.

If we were to take ourselves forward 100 years, what will people identify as the architectural style of thelate 20

th/ early 21

stcentury when they look back. Will there be anything which distinguishes this period?

Consider also a historic building which has evolved over many centuries. Much of the historic interest of

the building is derived from the fact that the various phases are evidenced by additions from different

periods. Will there be anything from this period?

Some commentators argue that the obsession with the past and the nostalgia for everything old is areflection of a country which is afraid to look forward. It is suggested that Britain cannot come to terms

with the fact that it no longer has an empire and is no longer a world dominating power. Some people

perhaps prefer the security of the glorious days of the past rather than the uncertainty of the future.

Whilst many old buildings are worthy of protection there are many thousands of old buildings which are ofquestionable value and yet are retained despite their inefficiency. They do not make efficient use of land

nor do they function well. Retaining such buildings forces people to live and work in unsuitable conditions.

Furthermore, older buildings may be very inefficient in energy terms.

Building conservation today

It is fair to say that during the first decade of the 21st

century there is generally greater plurality in attitudes

towards the conservation of historic buildings. Undoubtedly there are still conservation purists who maintain

that the principles enshrined in William Morriss SPAB Manifesto should still guide decisions about works to

historic buildings. However, many people working with historic buildings recognise that if the buildings are to


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be retained they must be capable of contributing to modern society. If this requires some adaptation to the

buildings for them to function effectively then so be it.

This change in attitude is reflected in the guidance provided in recent years by English Heritage. EH refer to

their current approach as Constructive Conservation. This is defined as:

a positive and collaborative approach to conservation that focuses on actively managing change. The aim

is to recognise and reinforce the historic significance of places, while accommodating the changes

necessary to ensure their continued use and enjoyment. (English Heritage, 2011)

Defining conservation in the context of building adaptation

We have seen how established views on conservation emerged in the 19th

century but only became embedded

in practice towards the end of the 20th

century. We have also noted that the concept of conservation is not

universally accepted, either by the public or by professionals working in the built environment.

Robert Maguire, an architect, writing back in 1997 in the Journal of Architectural Conservation suggested that

there has been a polarisation in the understanding of the term conservation when applied to buildings. He

put forward two alternative definitions for the term:

Conservation means retaining and, where necessary, adapting or adding to old environments, in sucha way that a fresh entity is created to serve modern life, in which the old is respected and valued for

its contribution.

Conservation means retaining old environments and creating conditions in which they may surviveinto the future (but essentially unchanged) and users must accept the limitations on their way of life

such restriction of change imposes

These two definitions might be thought of as being at opposite ends of a spectrum. It is likely that many

peoples views on conservation will fall somewhere between the two.

We are now going to do a brief activity which provides an opportunity for you to reflect on the history of the

conservation movement and your own views on conservation.


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Activity

You are asked to view three online documents which represent historical and contemporary views on the

principles of conservation. You do not necessarily need to read them in detail, but you should note the key

terms used and the style of language adopted. Make notes about each one as you read them.

1. The SPAB Manifestohttp://www.spab.org.uk/what-is-spab-/the-manifesto/

The full text of the manifesto of the Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings, as drafted by William

Morris himself in 1877.

2. The Venice Charterhttp://www.international.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.htm

The International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites, presented at

the International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice, 1964.

3. English Heritage: Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance (2008)http://www.english-

heritage.org.uk/content/publications/docs/conservationprinciplespoliciesandguidanceapril08web.pdf

In particular, you should focus on pages 51 -63.

When you have considered all three documents, think about your own views on conservation in the context of

Robert Maguires two definitions. Imagine that the two definitions are at opposite ends of a scale which is

numbered 1-5. Whereabouts on that scale do you think your view of conservation falls?

Conservation means retaining and, where

necessary, adapting or adding to old

environments, in such a way that a fresh entity is

created to serve modern life, in which the old is

respected and valued for its contribution.

Conservation means retaining old environments

and creating conditions in which they may survive

into the future (but essentially unchanged) and

users must accept the limitations on their way of

life such restriction of change imposes

1 2 3 4 5

You should make a note of your choice and come back to this activity after you have completed this module tosee if your view has changed.


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Section 5:

A review of the principles and philosophies of building conservation(allow up to 7 hours)

Introduction

In some respects, the types of conservation issues which arise in relation to buildings in the early 21st

centuryare not actually that far removed from those which arose in the nineteenth century. However, the experience

of dealing with the conservation of a huge variety of historic buildings has thrown up situations in which it is

difficult to apply a rigid set of principles.

As we have seen, SPAB acknowledged as long ago as 1929 that it is unwise to be too dogmatic in the

application of conservation principles. The fact is that every single building has its own particular set of

circumstances. It is not just the age of the building that may differ, but also the relative importance of the

building and the extent of the changes which have taken place throughout the life of the building. We

therefore cannot simply lay down a set of conservation rules to applied to any building which is considered

historic.

Having said that, there are some general philosophies which tend to underpin all conservation work, and it isuseful to have a basic understanding of these philosophies. The purpose of this section is therefore to highlight

some of the broadly accepted principles which underlie conservation practice today.

Sources of guidance for conservation work

Clearly there is no single source which can be referred to as a set of rules. Conservation philosophy has

evolved over the past 150 years, and continues to do so. The following list represents some of the commonly

cited sources:

The SPAB Manifesto: Many people involved in conservation believe that the manifesto still provides adefensible philosophy. However, whilst the basic principles of the manifesto might still be broadly

accepted, we must also recognise that social and economic pressures, and greater understanding of

traditional building materials and construction methods, have led to the principles being applied indifferent ways.

Conservation charters: We have mentioned the 1964 Venice Charter previously, and like the SPABManifesto this charter remains an influential document. The Venice Charter led directly to the founding of

the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). The precise application of conservation

principles will differ from one country to another and consequently a large number of supplementary

charters have been produced by member nations of ICOMOS, for example, The Burra Charter (Australia

ICOMOS 2002).

BS7913: A comprehensive British Standard (BS7913: 1998 The Principles of the Conservation of HhistoricBuildings) provides a good source of guidance.

English Heritage: EH produces various advice and guidance notes and these carry some weight due to theorganisations official advisory status.

Professional bodies such as the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS), have set out theirinterpretations of the ethics to be followed in conservation work. For example in 2009 the RICS published

Historic Building Conservation: Guidance Note.

Common themes:

Naturally, there will be significant differences in emphasis between all these different sources, but there do

seem to be common themes which run through most of them. The following section outlines some of the key

principles recognised in modern conservation practice:


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The purpose of repair

The primary purpose of repair is to restrain the process of decay without damaging the character of the

building.

Research and recording

Before any intervention takes place, the historic development of the building or area must be fully analysed

and the condition and features of the building or site must be fully recorded.

Minimum intervention

Repair work should not encroach on the original fabric any more than is absolutely necessary to secure the

future of the building.

Honesty in repairs

Repairs should be executed with no attempt at disguise or artificial ageing, but should not be unnecessarily

obtrusive or unsympathetic. Repairs should not distress the common man, but not confuse the expert

Avoidance of unnecessary damage

Historic evidence must not be destroyed, falsified or removed. The unnecessary replacement of historic fabric

will reduce the value of the building or area.

Avoidance of speculative restoration or reconstruction

Reinstatement of crucial elements of the original design may be justified provided such work is based on

incontestable evidence. Conjectural work is potentially deceptive and must be avoided.

Reversibility

Changes that are made should, wherever possible, be reversible in order to allow the widest range of options

for future development or the correction of unforeseen problems.

Use of appropriate techniques and materials

In undertaking repairs, the existing materials and methods of construction should generally be matched unless

the fabric has failed because of inherent defects. New materials and techniques should only be used whenthey have proved themselves over a long period and the benefits of their use outweigh any potential harm to

the character of the building.

Acceptability of adaptations and new uses

Generally, the best use for a historic building is the use for which it was designed. However, adaptations and

new uses may be appropriate if the original use cannot be continued or if conservation cannot otherwise be

achieved.

Acceptability of new works

New work to historic buildings or in historic areas is acceptable if the existing fabric is acknowledged as the

framework for the design, and the aesthetic integrity or coherence of the whole is not impaired.

Design of new works

Contemporary additions must be creative works in their own right and imitations of traditional forms should

be avoided. Work should complement rather than copy the existing fabric.

Continued maintenance

Protection must involve a continuing programme of maintenance in accordance with accepted conservation

principles.


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Activity

The following scenarios are put forward to highlight some of the difficult philosophical issues faced in

conservation situations. Consider each scenario and, by reference to the principles outlined above, comment on

the issues which arise.

1. A Victorian church in a town centre is in an extremely poor state of repair. Congregations are decliningand there is some debate over whether expenditure on repairs can be justified. There is a proposal to

incorporate a stylish coffee bar within the church building whilst retaining the nave for worship.

2. An eighteenth century house is to be completely refurbished and updated by new owners. The roof iscovered in hand-made plain clay tiles, many of which are cracked and broken, and water penetration

has occurred. A survey report recommends that the roof covering is renewed, but enquiries reveal that

replacement with hand made tiles will cost around 10 000 whereas concrete interlocking tiles will

only cost 4 500.

3. The pointing to the stonework on a church originating in the fourteenth century is in extremely poorcondition, and is virtually non-existent in some exposed areas. This is allowing rain penetration and

causing subsequent damage internally. It is proposed to re-point all the stonework, ensuring that the

joints in exposed areas receive a good strong sand and cement mortar.

4. On the same church as in Scenario No. 3, several stone gargoyles at the top of the bell tower haveweathered so badly that they are in danger of breaking off. The gargoyles are to be replaced with

reproductions in GRP (glass-reinforced plastic).

5. An observatory tower built in 1831 stands on a coastal cliff. The building is listed and is viewed as avery significant local landmark. Unfortunately, coastal erosion means that the building is in danger of

crashing into the sea below. A decision is taken to dismantle the building stone by stone and rebuild it

25 metres inland.



to clarify any areas which you did not fully understand. For further information on any of the issues, follow up



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Section 6:

Case Study (allow up to 12 hours)

This is a hypothetical case study intended to highlight some of the key issues associated with this learning

package. Although the building is obviously real, the scenario presented in the case study is entirely fictional.

You should not attempt to contact the local authority responsible for the library, nor should you make any

enquiries based on the scenario in the case study.

The building

The photographs below show exterior and interior views of a public library located in a suburb of London.

The building is located on the edge of a busy town centre, and the surrounding premises are mainly

commercial buildings. The building is listed (Grade II). The front elevation is in a Baroque style and has central

large bow window with a polished granite plinth. There are recessed entrances under rounded arches, and a

Dutch style gable with open segmental pediment with balustrade and finial. The interior has many original

features, including a grand Jacobean style staircase. The ceiling has deep moulded beams and there are anumber of ionic columns, panelled piers and a series of elliptical arched openings.

Scenario

The local authority responsible for the library has recently built a new civic centre in the town centre which

incorporates a state-of- the-art, purpose-built information resources centre. This houses a substantial

reference library and hundreds of open-access computer terminals connected to the internet. Since the new

centre has opened the number of users of the old library has declined to the point where it is no longer viable.

There is limited scope in the building for increasing capacity or for accommodating new technology. The

council has therefore decided to close the library permanently and dispose of the building. The buildings

location in a busy commercial district means that demolition and redevelopment would provide the greatestreturn.

Tasks

1. Has this building has effectively reached the end of its life? Consider this point in terms of its physical,functional and economic life.

2. Put forward some arguments as to why the building should be retained. For the purposes of this task,the fact that the building is listed is not in itself a valid argument. You should refer to the issues

covered in Section 3 above.

3. Suggest some alternative uses for this building, and state your reasons for the suggestions.4. Using one of your suggested alternative uses, set out the key conservation principles which you think

will apply in adapting the building to its new use.


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Photographs

EXTERIOR

Front elevation Rear elevation

Entrance door on front elevation Upper storey windows and parapet at rear

Bow window to front elevation


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INTERIOR

Jacobean staircase

Base of column

View from staircase to main library area Head of column

Acknowlegement

The is grateful to Eleanor Wise for permission to use the photographs above


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References and suggested further reading

Australia ICOMOS (2002) The Burra Charter [Online] Available at http://australia.icomos.org/wp-

content/uploads/BURRA_CHARTER.pdf(Accessed 15th April 2011)

Brereton, Christopher (1995) The Repair of Historic Buildings: advice on Principles and Methods English

Heritage

BSI (1998) BS7913:1998 Guide to the principles of the conservation of historic buildingsBritish Standards

Institute

Douglas, James (2002) Building Adaptation Butterworth-Heinemann

Earl J. (2003) Building Conservation Philosophy Donhead Publishing

English Heritage (2011) Constructive Conservation in Practice [Online] Available at: http://www.english-

heritage.org.uk/professional/advice/conservation-principles/constructive-conservation/constructive-

conservation-in-practice/ (Accessed 15th

April 2011)

Feilden, B. (2003) Conservation of Historic Buildings Architectural Press

Highfield, David (2000) Refurbishment and Upgrading of Buildings E&FN Spon

ICOMOS (2003) The Venice Charter 1964 [Online] Available at

http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.htm (Accessed 15th April 2011)

Pickard RD (2006) Conservation and the Built Environment Longman

Plimmer, F, Pottinger, G, Harris, S, Waters, M & Pocock, Y (2008); New Build and Refurbishment in the

Sustainable Communities Plan; BRE Press (Information Paper IP2/08)

Powys, A R(1929 reprinted 1985) Repair of Ancient Buildings SPAB

RICS; British Property Federation; English Heritage; Drivers Jonas (2006) Heritage Works: The use of historic

buildings in regeneration [Online] Available at http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/content/imported-docs/f-

j/heritageworks.pdf

RICS Practice Standards, UK (2009) Historic Building Conservation : Guidance Note

Riley, Mike & Cotgrave, Alison (2005) Construction Technology 3: The Technology of Refurbishment and

Maintenance Palgrave

SPAB (2009) The Manifesto [Online] Available at http://www.spab.org.uk/what-is-spab-/the-manifesto/

(Accessed 15th

April 2011)

Stevenson, G (2011) Graeme Shankland in Graham Stevenson [Online] Available at

http://www.grahamstevenson.me.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=517:graeme-

shankland&catid=19:s&Itemid=120 (Accessed 14th April 2011)

Documents

1314451638_Learning Pack 1 - Building Adapt & Conserv Principles