1/23/2012

1

THE JOURNEY OF ADULTHOOD

Barbara R. Bjorklund

SOCIAL ROLES

Chapter 5

New thinking about roles…

With few exceptions, roles are neither

gained nor lost, they change as the life

circumstances of the individual change.

1/23/2012

2

Age-Related Changes in Social Roles

Social roles: expected behaviors and

attitudes that come with one’s position

in society.

Social role transitions: roles change

over the lifespan.

Social Roles and Transitions

Biological clock

Social clock

Gender Roles

Gender roles: describe what men and women

actually do in a given culture during a given

historical era.

1/23/2012

3

What do you think?

Boys will be boys and girls will be girls.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes: sets of shared, often

inaccurate and inflexible beliefs about what

all men and all women have in common.

Common male stereotype: instrumental

qualities (e.g., competence)

Common female stereotype: communal

qualities (e.g., affiliation)

How are gender roles learned?

Proximal Cause-Based Theories

Learning-schema theory: children learn through

gender-polarized lenses that make gender

distinctions

Social role theory: children learn through

observing division of labor within their

culture

1/23/2012

4

Gender Role Theories

Distal Cause-Based Theory

Evolutionary psychology: origins to gender roles

nested in responses by primitive ancestors

Blended Approach

Biosocial perspective: bias for gender roles

evolved over course of human evolution (Distal-

Cause Theory) and interacts with current cultural

and social experiences (Primary-Cause Theory)

Transition to Adulthood

How do symmetrical and asymmetrical

changes affect gender roles

within a culture?

Characteristics of Transitions to

Adulthood

Variability among young adults

Lack of well-defined rules and expectations

Long transition period helps to correct problem

trajectories

1/23/2012

5

Emerging Adulthood

From 18 to 25 years of age

Five distinct characteristics:

• Identity exploration

• Instability

• Self-focused

• Feeling in-between

• Possibilities

Social Roles in Young Adulthood

Significant individual variability in the

sequence and timing of roles.

Leaving (and returning) home

Becoming a spouse or partner

Becoming a parent

• Increasing number.

• Proportion decreases with age.

• Process of moving out of parents’ home

is more complex.

• Return is not unusual.

Leaving (and returning) home

1/23/2012

6

Leaving (and Returning) Home

Findings from Cohen and colleagues suggest

process of moving from childhood to

independent adult is more complex

• More intermediate steps

• More backtracking/second chances

• More options

Becoming a Spouse or Partner

Marital rates are decreasing, rates of

cohabitation are increasing.

Egalitarian roles at the beginning of

marriage.

Household tasks tend to divide along gender

lines.

Strong link between marital happiness and

health (stronger link in men).

Cohabitation

Cohabitation: Living together without

marriage; national and international ethnic

differences and patterns

Types:

Prelude to marriage

Alternative to marriage

Alternative to single

1/23/2012

7

Figure 5.3: The percentage of women who have

cohabited by the age of 45 for 17 countries shows

that the prevalence of this living arrangement

depends on the economy, partnership laws and

benefits, availability of affordable housing, and

religion of each country, among other things.

Marital Status and Health

Social relationships enhance health

Marital selection effect

Marital resources effect

Marital crisis effect

True or false?

Marital stability is the same as

marital satisfaction.

1/23/2012

8

Key Components of Marital Discord

and Poor Health

• Verbal conflict

• Discussions with hostility related to higher

heart rates, blood pressure, muscular

reactivity, and changes in endocrine and

immune functions

Gender Differences in Effects of

Marriage on Health

• Marriage/health connection affects both

genders

• Bigger differences between gender and

marital status

Figure 5.4: Self-reported health of married men and

women over four decades

1/23/2012

9

Becoming a Parent

85% of adults in the US will eventually become

parents.

Early family-life-cycle has a significant

impact on pattern of later life.

Curvilinear relationship between marital

satisfaction and family stage.

After birth of first child, marked shift toward

traditionalism (parental imperative)

Becoming a Parent

Parental Investment Theory

Gender role behaviors and interests differences

Related to time and resources invested in each

child

1/23/2012

10

Economic Exchange Theory

• Men and women function as couple to

exchange goods and services.

• Women contribute ability to bear children;

men assume responsibility of paid work.

• Fathers spend more time at job; mothers

spend less time.

• Lesbian couples show similar patterns.

Parenthood and Marital Happiness

Parenthood accompanied by decrease in marital

satisfaction across age groups, SES groups,

and countries.

Not all new parents show decline.

Marital friendship related to sustained marital

happiness at parenthood onset.

Social Roles in Middle Adulthood

• Existing roles are redefined and renegotiated.

• Most find this time of life characterized by

better physical and psychological health.

• More life satisfaction than in younger years.

• Often role transition in work setting.

• Relationship with parents change.

1/23/2012

11

Departure of the Children:

The Empty Nest

• Postparental role characterized by change but

not necessarily abandonment of parental

involvement with adult children.

• Transition more positive than negative for

most.

• Can be second honeymoon, fewer daily

family responsibilities.

Gender Roles at Midlife

Men and women become more traditionally

gendered

Crossover of gender roles versus expansion of

gender roles

Becoming a Grandparent

The role of grandparent is often added during

the middle adult years.

For some, role of grandparent becomes one of

surrogate parenting.

1/23/2012

12

Caring for an Aging Parent

Parent care increases when spouse is not

available due to divorce, poor health, or

death.

Let’s look at Figure 5.8 on the next slide to

review the percentage of aging parents and

their overall health status.

Figure 5.8: About 78% of middle-aged adults (aged

40-59) have at least one living parent, and for over a

third of those, at least one parent is not in good

health.

Gender and Caregiving: Who

Provides Care?

Daughters and daughters-in-law more likely to

take care of parent in poor health.

Sisters are often “coordinators”

Brothers are often “helpers” and/or

“coproviders”

1/23/2012

13

Impact of Caregiving

Caregivers of elderly parents report more

depressive symptoms, lower marital

satisfaction, and other caregiver burdens.

This may create a generational squeeze.

So what IS a generational squeeze?

Role strain theory: there is a limit to the

number of roles a person can take on, and

multiple roles can exacerbate stress.

Role enhancement theory: multiple roles are

beneficial because some roles serve as buffers

against the stress from other roles.

Social Roles in Late Adulthood

No typical way in which adults react to role

transitions in late adulthood.

People in late adulthood often:

Live alone.

Become a care receiver.

1/23/2012

14

Living Alone

Often a new challenge of late adulthood.

Experienced more by women than men

Influenced by proximity of family, including

location and relationship with children and

grandchildren

Becoming a Care Receiver

Numerous advantages to receiving care from

family members.

Risks of elder abuse and negative psychological

effects of loss of independence.

Social Roles in Atypical Families

Lifelong singles

Childless

Divorced (and remarried)

1/23/2012

15

Lifelong Singles

Singlehood is increasing in the US.

Life long singles must cope with violating

social expectations.

Challenge to find a supportive network and a

kin confidant.

Financial resources also buffer against problems

in adulthood.

Figure 5.10: The percentage of never-married men and

women decreases with age, and by the age of 65,

more than 95% have married at least once.

The Childless

Childlessness is often choice.

Rate of US childlessness is increasing.

For women, major career differences when

childless.

Childless couples are not faced with

generational squeeze and as happy in late

adulthood as couples with children.

1/23/2012

16

Figure 5.11: The percentage of women over 40 in the

US who are childless has almost doubled in the past

30 years.

Divorced (and Remarried) Adults

Divorce and remarriage add more complexity to

adult roles.

Increases the chance for role conflict and role

strain.

Financial implications.

The Effect of Variations in Timing

Social timing refers to roles occupied and length

and order of occupation.

There are culturally different expectations

(social clock).

Basic shape of role transition patterns similar

for most adults.

1/23/2012

17

Chapter Review

1. Adulthood is still largely structured by the

patterns of _____ adults take on and the

transitions they experience.

2. Gender _____ are fairly diverse and describe

what people really do within their roles as

men and women; gender _____ are shared

beliefs about what men and women have in

common.

Chapter Review

3. _____theory states that gender roles are

based on distorted views that exaggerate

gender differences. _____theory states that

gender roles are based on observations of

male and female behavior.

4. The transition from emerging adult to

adulthood is a change in _____ from

dependent child to independent adult.

Chapter Review

5. Adults in the United States are marrying at

later ages, and a greater percentage are

_____before marriage.

6. Although gender roles are _____ within

early committed relationships, men and

women divide household tasks along gender

stereotypical lines, and women do more

hours of housework even when both work

full time.

1/23/2012

18

Chapter Review

7. Married men and women are mentally and

physically healthier than those who are not

currently married, giving rise to the “_____

effect.”

8. Adults are delaying the transition to _____ in

the United States and other developed

countries.

Chapter Review

9. When men and women become parents, their

_____ roles become more traditional.

10.In the _____ years of adulthood, the role of

parent changes from a day-to-day role to a

more distant one as children move out of the

house and start their own families, but the

role of parent does not end.

Chapter Review

11.Another role in the middle years is that of

_____ for aging parents. About a third of

middle-aged men and women have at least

one parent in poor health who requires care.