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History 105History of England

Documents Workbook

4th EditionEdited by Lisa M. Lane


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Assignment #1: British Pre-history ...............................................................................1Tacitus, The Germania........................................................................................1

Assignment #2 -- Anglo-Saxon Britain........................................................................4Bede -- The Ecclesiastical History (7th c.)........................................................4St. Boniface's Martyrdom..................................................................................5Alfred the Great's Laws (9th c.).........................................................................6

Trial by Ordeal (c. 900) ......................................................................................6The Song of Maldon (991) ...............................................................................7Peasant Dues (1050) and Feudal Contract (c. 1000) ....................................8

Assignment #3 -- Norman England ..............................................................................9St. Anselm (1077-78) .......................................................................................9Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (1087) ........................................................................10John of Salisbury on Tyranny (12th c.) ............................................................10Geoffrey of Monmouth on King Arthur (1136)................................................11Pope Innocent III to King John (1214).............................................................13Magna Carta (1215) ..........................................................................................13

Assignment #4 -- High and Late Middle Ages...........................................................16London (1173) ...................................................................................................16Mill Dispute (12th c.) ..........................................................................................18

Ipswich Town Charter (1200) ...........................................................................18Southampton Merchant Guild Charter (13th c.)...............................................19Adelard of Bath -- Natural Questions (12th c.).................................................20A Monastic Manor (1326) .................................................................................21

Readings -- Late Medieval Crisis.................................................................................23Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (14th c.)...............................................................23Piers Plowman (14th c.).....................................................................................25Margaret Paston -- Letters (1440s)..................................................................26English Peasant Revolt (1381).........................................................................27

Assignment #5 -- Reformation and Elizabethan England ..........................................29Sir Thomas More -- Utopia (1516) ..................................................................29The Act of Supremacy (1534)..........................................................................31Cranmer's Letter to Mary I (1550s)..................................................................31Elizabeth's Armada Speech (1588); ...............................................................33Shakespeare -- Hamlet (1604) ........................................................................33Witches of Huntingdon (1646)..........................................................................34

Assignment #6 -- Civil War and Glorious Revolution ................................................36James I on Kingship (1598)..............................................................................36The Petition of Right (1628)..............................................................................37Charles I and His Sentence (1649)..................................................................38Hobbes -- Leviathan (early 17th c.).................................................................40The Levellers at Putney (1647)........................................................................41Locke's Second Treatise on Government (1690)..........................................43English Bill of Rights (1689)..............................................................................44

Reading -- Science and Enlightenment ........................................................................46

Francis Bacon -- Empirical Method (1620) ......................................................46Newton's Principia (1687) .................................................................................47Pope on Nature (1734) .....................................................................................48Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776).........................................................49Hume on Miracles (ca. 1779) ............................................................................49

Assignment #7 -- The Eighteenth Century..................................................................51Burke and Paine on French Revolution (1790s) .............................................51Wordsworth on the French Revolution (1805)................................................53Mary Wollstonecraft on Women (1792)..........................................................54Malthus on Population (1789)...........................................................................55


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Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice (1813) ......................................................56Assignment #8 -- Industrialization .................................................................................59

Sanford on Women (1833) ..............................................................................59The Sadler Report -- Industrial Conditions ......................................................60Ure on Factory Work (1835).............................................................................62Engels on the Working Class (1845)...............................................................64

John Stuart Mill on Liberty (1859)....................................................................65Booth -- Darkest England (1890) .....................................................................66Assignment #9 -- Victorianism and New Imperialism.................................................68

Rhodes' Confession of Faith (1877)................................................................68Chamberlain on Imperialism (1890s)...............................................................69Kipling -- The White Man's Burden (1899) .....................................................70Pearson on Social Darwinism (1900) ...............................................................71Hobson on Imperialism (1902) ........................................................................72Pankhurst on Militancy (1913) ...........................................................................73

Assignment #10 -- The Great War, Twenties, and Depression ...............................76Women in the Factories (1917)........................................................................76Keynes on the Peace (1919) ...........................................................................77P.G. Wodehouse -- Right Ho, Jeeves (1922) ..............................................78

Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932); ..................................................80Orwell on the Dole (1937).................................................................................81Hughes -- London Between the Wars ............................................................83

Assignment #11 -- World War II -- Prelude and Engagement..................................86Chamberlain on Appeasement (1938)...........................................................86Churchill on Appeasement (1938)...................................................................87Marchant's Description of the Blitz (1941) .......................................................89

Assignment #12 -- Post-War and Cold War ..............................................................92Churchill on the....................................................................................................92Len Deighton -- Berlin Game (1983)...............................................................93

Assignment #13 -- 1960s to Now ...............................................................................96Sillitoe's Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner (1959).............................96Harold Pinter's The Homecoming (1965)........................................................97Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead (1967)...............98Arnold Toynbee (1972)....................................................................................103

Thatcher on Conservatism (1975)..........................................................................104Amnesty International (1989)...........................................................................106Lord Butler, Review of Intelligence on Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq(2004)..................................................................................................................108


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Documents forAssignment #1: British Pre-history

TAClTUS, FROM THE GERMANIA (AD 55-115)Tacitus was a Roman historian.

Training of youth.[The Germans] transact no public or private business without being armed. It is not,

however, usual for any one to wear arms till the state has recognized his power to usethem. Then in the presence of the council one of the chiefs, or the young man's father, orsome kinsman, equips him with a shield and a spear. These arms are what the "toga" is withus, the first honour with which youth is invested. Up to this time he is regarded as a memberof a household, afterwards as a member of the common weaIth...

Warlike ardour of the people. When they go into battle, it is a disgrace for the chief to be surpassed in valour, a

disgrace for his folIowers not to equal the valour of the chief. And it is an infamy and areproach for life to have survived the chief, and returned from the field. To defend, to protecthim, to ascribe one's own brave deed to his renown, is the height of loyalty. The chief fightsfor victory; his men fight for their chief. If their native state sinks into the sloth of prolongedpeace and repose, many of its noble youths voIuntarily seek those tribes which are wagingsome war, both because inaction is odious to their race, and because they win renownmore readily in the midst of peril, and cannot maintain a numerous following except byviolence and war...

Habits in time of peace. Whenever they are not fighting. They pass much of their time in the chase, and still

more in idleness, giving themselves up to sleep and to feasting, the bravest and the mostwarlike doing nothing, and surrendering the management of the household, of the home,and of the land, to the women, the old men, and all the weakest members of the family...

Arrangement of their towns. Subterranean dwellings.It is well known that the nations of Germany have no cities, and that they do not even

tolerate closely contiguous dwellings. They live scattered and apart, just as a spring, ameadow, or a wood has attracted them. Their villages they do not arrange in our fashion,with the buildings connected and joined together, but every person surrounds his dwellingwith an open space, either as a precaution against the disasters of fire, or because they donot know how to build. No use is made by them of stone or tile; they employ timber for allpurposes, rude masses without ornament or attractiveness...

Dress.They all wrap themselves in a cloak which is fastened with a clasp or, if this is notforthcoming, with a thorn, leaving the rest of their person bare. They pass whole days onthe hearth by the fire. The wealthiest are distinguished by a dress which is not flowing, likethat of the Sarmatae and Parthi, but is tight, and exhibits each limb. They also wear the skinsof wild beasts; the tribes on the Rhine and Danube in a careless fashion, those of the interiorwith more elegance, as not obtaining other clothing by commerce. These select certainanimals, the hides of which they strip off and vary them with the spotted skins of beasts, theproduce of the outer ocean, and of seas unknown to us. The women have the same dress


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as the men, except that they generally wrap themselves in linen garments, which theyembroider with purple, and do not lengthen out the upper part of their clothing into sleeves.The upper and lower arm is thus bare, and the nearest part of the bosom is also exposed.

Marriage laws.Their marriage code, however, is strict, and indeed no part of their manners is more

praiseworthy. Almost alone among barbarians they are content with one wife, except avery few among them, and these not from sensuality, but because their noble birthprocures for them many offers of alliance. The wife does not bring a dower to the husband,but the husband to the wife...Lest the woman should think herself to stand apart fromaspirations after noble deeds and from the perils of war, she is reminded by the ceremonywhich inaugurates marriage that she is her husband's partner in toil and danger, destined tosuffer and to dare with him alike both in peace and in war. The yoked oxen, the harnessedsteed, the gift of arms, proclaim this fact. She must live and die with the feeling that she isreceiving what she must hand down to her children neither tarnished nor depreciated, whatfuture daughters-in-law may receive, and may be so passed on to her grandchildren.

Thus with their virtue protected they live uncorrupted by the allurements of publicshows or the provocations of feasts. Clandestine correspondence is equally unknown tomen and women. Very rare for so numerous a population is adultery, the punishment for

which is prompt, and in the husbands power. Having cut off the hair of the adulteress andstripped her naked, he expels her from the house in the presence of her kinsfolk, and thenflogs her through the whole village. The loss of chastity meets with no indulgence; neitherbeauty, age, nor wealth will procure the culprit a husband. No one in Germany laughs atvice, nor do they call it the fashion to corrupt and to be corrupted. Still better is the conditionof those states in which only maidens are given in marriage, and where the hopes andexpectations of a bride are then finally terminated. They receive one husband, as havingone body and one life, that they may have no thoughts beyond, no further-reachingdesires, that they may love not so much the husband as the married state. To limit thenumber of their children or to destroy any of their subsequent offspring is accountedinfamous, and good habits are here more effectual than good laws elsewhere.

Their children. Laws of succession.In every household the children, naked and filthy, grow up with those stout frames

and limbs which we so much admire. Every mother suckles her own offspring, and neverentrusts it to servants and nurses. The master is not distinguished from the sIave by beingbrought up with greater delicacy. Both live amid the same flocks and lie on the same groundtill the freeborn are distinguished by age and recognized by merit. The young men marrylate, and their vigour is thus unimpaired. Nor are the maidens hurried into marriage; thesame age and a similar stature is required; well-matched and vigorous they wed, and theoffspring reproduce the strength of the parents. . . .

Hereditary feuds. Fines for homicide. Hospitality.It is a duty, among them to adopt the feuds as well as the friendships of a father or a

kinsman. These feuds are not implacable; even homicide is expiated by the payment of a

certain number of cattle and of sheep and the satisfaction is accepted by the entire family,greatly to the advantage of the state since feuds are dangerous in proportion to a peoplesfreedom. No nation indulges more profusely in entertainments and hospitality. To exclude anyhuman being from their roof is thought impious; every German, according to his means,receives his guest with a welI-furnished table. When his supplies are exhausted, he whowas but now the host becomes the guide and companion to further hospitality, and withoutinvitation they go to the next house...


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Habits of life. On waking from sleep, which they generally proIong to a late hour of the day, they

take a bath, oftenest of warm water, which suits a country where winter is the longest of theseasons. After their bath they take their meal, each having a separate seat and table of hisown. Then they go armed to business, or no less often to their festaI meetings. To passan entire day and night in drinking disgraces no one. Their quarrels, as might be expected

with intoxicated people, are seldom fought out with mere abuse, but commonIy withwounds and bloodshed...


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Documents forAssignment #2: Anglo-Saxon Britain

BEDE: THE ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY (7th c.)Bede was a Northumbrian Christian scholar.

At this time, a great and frequent controversy happened about the observance ofEaster; those that came from Kent or France affirming, that the Scots [Celtic Christians] keptEaster Sunday contrary to the custom of the universal church.

... Queen Eanfleda [of Northumbria] and her followers also observed the same asshe had seen practised in Kent, having with her a Kentish priest that followed the Catholicmode, whose name was Romanus. Thus it is said to have happened in those times thatEaster was twice kept in one year, and that when the king [Oswy of Northumbria, a CelticChristian] having ended the time of fasting, kept his [Celtic] Easter, the queen and herfollowers were still fasting, and celebrating Palm Sunday...

... it was agreed, that a synod should be held in the monastery of Streaneshalch,which signifies the Bay of the Lighthouse, where the Abbess Hilda, a woman devoted toGod, then presided; and that there this controversy should be decided. The kings, bothfather and son, came thither, Bishop Colman with his Scottish clerks, and Agilbert with thepriests Agatho and Wilfrid, James and Romanus were on their side; but the Abbess Hildaand her followers were for the Scots, as was also the venerable Bishop Cedd, long beforeordained by the Scots, as has been said above, and he was in that council a most carefulinterpreter for both parties.

King Oswy first observed, that it behooved those who served one God observethe same rule of life; and as they all expected the same kingdom in heaven, so they oughtnot to differ in the celebration of the divine mysteries; but rather to inquire which was thetruest tradition, that the same might lie followed by all; he then commanded his bishop,Colman, first to declare what the custom was which he observed, and whence it derived its

origin. Then Colman said, "The Easter which I keep, I received from my elders, who sentme bishop hither; all our forefathers, men beloved of God, are known to have kept it afterthe same manner; and that the same may not seem to any contemptible or worthy to berejected, it is the same which St. John the Evangelist, the disciple beloved of our Lord, withall the churches over which he presided, is recorded to have observed."

Then Wilfrid, being ordered by the king to speak, delivered himself thus:''The Easter, which we observe, we saw celebrated by all at Rome, where the

blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, lived, taught, suffered, and were buried... To this Colman rejoined: Did Anatolius, a holy man, and much commended in churchhistory, act contrary to the law and Gospel, when he wrote, that Easter was to becelebrated from the fourteenth to the twentieth? Is it to be believed that our most reverendFather Columba and his successors, men beloved by God, who kept Easter after thesame manner, thought or acted contrary to the divine writings? ...

[Wilfrid replied, If] that Columba of yours (and, I may say, of ours, if he was Christsservant), was a holy man and powerful in miracles, yet could he be preferred before themost blessed prince of the apostles, to whom our Lord said, "Thou art Peter, and upon thisrock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it, and to thee I willgive the keys of the kingdom of heaven?

When Wilfred had spoken thus, the king said "Is it true, Colman, that these wordswere spoken to Peter by our Lord? He answered, It is true, O king!'' Then says he,Can you show any such power given to your Columba? Colman answered, "None.Then added the king, Do you both agree that these words were principally directed to


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Peter, and that the keys of heaven were given to him by our Lord? They both answered,We do.

Then the king concluded, "And I also say unto you, that he is the doorkeeper, whomI will not contradict, but will, as far as I know and am able, in all things obey his decrees, lest,when I come to the gates of the kingdom of heaven, there should be none to open them,he being my adversary who is proved to have the keys." The king having said this, all

present, both great and small, gave their assent, and renouncing the more imperfectinstitution, resolved to conform to that which they found to be better.

ST. BONIFACES MARTYRDOM (754)

Traveling therefore through all Friesland [Netherlands], he [Boniface] earnestlypreached the word of God, overthrowing the pagan worship and destroying the erroneousrites of heathenism; and when he had broken the power of the temples, he built churcheswith great zeal. And he baptized many thousands of persons, men, women and children...

Therefore, after the splendour of the faith shone through Friesland, as we have said,and the happy end of this saints life drew near, he now pitched his tents by the bank of a

river... Since he had announced to the people, now scattered far and wide, a solemn dayfor the confirmation of the neophyte, and for the laying on of hands by the bishop and theconfirmation of those lately baptized, everyone had returned to his own house, that theymight all present themselves on the day fixed for their confirmation according to the expresscommand of the holy bishop.

But when the aforesaid day grew light, and, the sun having arisen, the dawn brokeforth, there arrived, on the contrary, enemies in place of friends, and, in fact, newexecutioners in place of fresh practitioners of the faith; and an immense crowd of enemies,with glittering weapons, armed with spears and shields, rushed on the camp. Thensuddenly his young followers sprang from the camp against them and rushed to arms onboth sides, longing to defend the saints -- the martyrs to be -- against the insensate host ofthe raging people. But immediately the man of God heard the assault of the stormingcrowd, he summoned to him his band of clerics, took the relics of saints which he was wont

to have constantly with him, and came out of the tent. And he hastily reproved the youngmen and forbade them to do battle, saying: Cease, boys, from fighting and leave offstrife, for we are truly taught by the testimony of the Scriptures not to render evil for evil, buteven good for evil. For now approaches the day long hoped for, and the desired time ofour dissolution is at hand. Be strengthened therefore in the Lord, and bear gladly what hisgrace allows; hope in him, and he will set free your souls." And to those standing by,priests and also deacons, and men in lower orders as well, given up to the service of God,he said, admonishing them with fatherly words: Men and brothers, be of good courage,and fear not them that kill the body, since they cannot kill the soul which remains for ever; butrejoice in the Lord and fix the anchor of your hope on God, for he will straightway give youthe reward of eternal salvation and will grant you a seat in the celestial hall with the angelichosts of the heavenly city. Do not give yourselves up to the vain delight of this world, donot take joy in the fleeting adulation of the gentiles; but undergo with constancy the sudden

moment of death here, that you may reign with Christ for ever." And while he was urging onhis disciples to the crown of martyrdom with such encouragement and teaching, suddenly amob of pagans raging over them attacked with swords and all martial equipment, andcovered in blood the bodies of the saints by a happy death.


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ALFRED THE GREATS LAWS (9th c.)

Also we enjoin, that a man who knows his adversary to be residing at home, shall nothave recourse to violence before demanding justice of him.

1. If he has power enough to surround his adversary and besiege him in his house,

he shall keep him therein seven days, but he shall not fight against him if he (his adversary)will consent to remain inside (his residence). And if, after seven days, he will submit andhand over his weapons, he shall keep them unscathed for thirty days, and send formalnotice of his position to his kinsmen and friends.

2. If, however, he flees to a church, the privileges of the church shall be respected, aswe have declared above.

3. If, however, he has not power enough to besiege him in his house, he shall ride tothe ealdorman [officer of the shire] and ask him for help. If he will not help him, he shall rideto the king before having recourse to violence.

4. And further, if anyone chances on his enemy, not having known him to be at home,and if he will give up his weapons, he shall be detained for thirty days, and his friends shallbe informed (of his position). If he is not willing to give up his weapons, then violence maybe used against him. If he is willing to surrender and hand over his weapons, and anyoneafter that uses violence against him (the pursued), he shall pay any sum which he incurs,whether wergeld [money paid in recompense for injury or death] or compensation forwounds, as well as a fine, and his kinsman shall forfeit his claim to protection as a result of hisaction.

5. We further declare that a man may fight on behalf of his lord, if his lord is attacked,without becoming liable to vendetta [family vengeance or blood revenge]. Under similarconditions a lord may fight on behalf of his man.

6. In the same way a man may fight on behalf of one who is related to him by blood,if he is attacked unjustly, except it be against his lord. This we do not permit.

7. A man may fight, without becoming liable to vendetta, if he finds another (man)with his wedded wife, within closed doors or under the same blanket; or (if he finds anotherman) with his legitimate daughter (or sister); or with his mother, if she has been given inlawful wedlock to his father.

TRIAL BY ORDEAL (c. 900)From Anglo-Saxon Records and Chancells

And with regard to the ordeal, according to the commands of God and of thearchbishop and of all the bishops, we order that, as soon as the fire has been brought toheat the iron or Water for the ordeal, no one shall come into the church except the priest andthe man to be tried. And if the ordeal is by iron, nine feet, according to the feet of the man tobe tried, shall be measured from the starting post to the final mark. If, on the other hand, it isto be ordeal by water, that shall be heated until it becomes boiling hot, whether the kettle isof iron or of brass, or of lead, or of clay. And if the process is "single" the hand shall beplunged in for the stone upto the wrist; if it is "threefold," up to the elbow. And when thewater for the ordeal is ready, two men from each party shall go in and they shall agree that itis as hot as we have ordered.


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Then an equal number of men from both parties shall go in and stand along thechurch on each side of the ordeal, and all of them shall be fasting and shall have heldthemselves from their wives during the previous night. And the priest shall sprinkle them allwith holy water; and he shall give them the Book to kiss and make over them the sign ofChrist's cross.

... then shall the iron be laid on the starting post. And nothing else shall be said

inside the church except prayer to God Almighty that He disclose the fullness of truth. Andafter the man has undergone the ordeal, his hand shall be bound up and sealed; and afterthe third day it shall be inspected to see whether, within the sealed wrapping, it is foul orclean. And if any one breaks these provisions, the ordeal shall be counted a failure for him,and lie shall pay a fine of 120sto the King.

"THE SONG OF MALDON" (991)

The section of this poem describes the death of Ealdorman Brihtnoth of Essex, a lord whofought bravely against the renewal of the Danish invasions in the later 10th century.

Then Brihtnoth began toarray his men; he rode and gave counsel and taught hiswarriors how they should stand and keep their ground, bade them hold their shields aright,firm with their hands and fear not at all. When he had meetly arrayed his host, he alightedamong the people where it pleased him best, where he knew his bodyguard to be mostloyal.

Then the messenger of the Vikings stood on the bank, he called sternly, utteredwords, boastfully speaking the seafarers' message to the earl, as he stood on the shore.Bold seamen have sent me to you, and bade me say, that it is for you to send treasurequickly in return for peace, and it will be better for you all that you buy off an attack withtribute, rather than that men so fierce as we should give you battle..."

Brihtnoth lifted up his voice, grasped his shield and shook his supple spear, gaveforth words, angry and resolute, and made him answer: "Hear you, sea-rover, what this folksays? For tribute they will give you spears, poisoned point and ancient sword, such war

gear as will profit you little in the battle. Messenger of the seamen, take back a message,say to your people a far less pleasing tale, how that there stands. Then one of the warriorslet a dart fly from his hand, so that it pierced all too deeply Ethelreds noble thegn [thane, orlord]. By his side stood a warrior not yet full grown, a boy in war. Right boldly he drewfrom the warrior the bloody spear, Wulfstan's son, Wulfmaer the young, and let theweapon, wondrous strong, speed back again; the point drove in so that he who had socruelly pierced his lord lay dead on the ground. Then a man, all armed, approached the earl,with intent to bear off the warriors treasure, his raiment and his rings and his well-deckedsword. Then Brihtnoth drew his blade, broad and of burnished edge, and smote upon hismail. All too quickly one of the seamen checked his hand, crippling the arm of the earl. Thenhis golden-hilted sword fell to the earth; he could not use his hard blade nor wield a weapon.Yet still the white-haired warrior spoke as before, emboldened his men and bade the

heroes press on. He could not longer now stand firm on his feet. The earl looked up toheaven and cried aloud: I thank thee, Ruler of Nations, for all the joys that I have met with inthis world. Now I have most need, gracious Creator, that thou grant my spirit grace, that mysoul may fare to thee, into thy keeping, Lord of Angels, and pass in peace. It is my prayerto thee that fiends of hell may not entreat it shamefully.

Then the heathen wretches cut him down and both the warriors who stood near by,Ailfnoth and Wulfmaer, lay overthrown; they yielded their lives at their lords side...

Now was fallen the peoples chief, Ethelreds earl. All the retainers saw how theirlord lay dead. Then the proud thegns pressed on, hastened eagerly, those undauntedmen. All desired one of two things, to lose their lives or to avenge the one they loved...


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PEASANT DUES (1050) AND FEUDAL CONTRACT (c. 1000)

Survey of Peasant DuesHere are recorded the dues which the peasants must render at Hurstbourne. First fromevery hide [about 120 acres] they must render 40 pence at the autumnal equinox,and 6church mittan of ale and 3 sesters of wheat for bread, and they must plough 3acres in theirown time, and sowthem with their own seed, and bring it to the barn in their own time, andgive 3 pounds of barley as rent, and mow half an acre of meadow as rent in their own time,and make it into a rick, and supply 4 fothers of split wood as rent, made into a stack in theirown time, and supply 16 poles of fencing as rent likewise in their own time, and at Easterthey shall give 2 ewes with 2 lambs -- and we reckon 2 young sheep to a full-grownsheep -- and they must wash the sheep and shear them in their own time, and work as theyare bidden every week except three -- one at midwinter, the second at Easter, the third atthe Rogation Days.

Feudal Contract

Form of a Feudal Contract Concerning Land and ServicesTo my great lord, (lord's name), I, (vassal's name):Since, as was well-known, I had not wherewith to feed and clothe myself, I came unto

you and told you my wish, to commend myself to you and to put myself under yourprotection. I have now done so, on the condition that you shall supply me with food andclothing as far as I shall merit by my services, and that as long as I live I shall perform suchservices for you as are becoming to a freeman, and never have the right to withdraw fromyour power and protection, but shall remain under them all the days of my life. It is agreedthat if either of us shall try to break this contract he shall pay (a specified amount), and thecompact shall still hold. It is also agreed that two copies of this letter shall be made andsigned by us, which also has been done.


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Documents forAssignment #3: Norman England

ST. ANSELMS ONTOLOGICAL PROOF OF GOD (1077-78)

"Truly there is a God, although the fool has said in his heart, There is no God."And so, Lord, do you, who gives understanding to faith, give me, so far as you know

it to be profitable, to understand that you are as we believe... And indeed, we believe thatyou are a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. Or is there no such nature[being], since the fool has said in his heart, there is no God? [Psalms 14:1] But, at any rate,this very fool, when he hears of this being than which I speak -- a being than which nothinggreater can be conceived -- understands what he hears, and what he understands is in hismind; although he does not understand it exists.

For it is one thing for an object to be in the mind, and another to understand that theobject exists. When a painter first conceives of what he will later perform, he has it in hismind, but he does not yet consider it to exist, because he has not yet performed it. Butafter he has made the painting, he both has it in his mind, and understands that it exists,because he has made it.

Hence, even the fool is convinced that something than which nothing greater can beconceived, at least exists in the mind. For, when he hears of this he understands it. Andwhatever is understood, exists in the mind. And assuredly that, than which nothing greatercan be conceived, cannot exist in the mind alone. For, suppose it exists in the mind alone;then it can be conceived to exist in reality; which is greater.

Therefore, if that than which nothing greater can be conceived can be conceived, it[which exists only in the mind] cannot be greater than that which is [or exists in reality] thevery being than which nothing greater can be conceived [i.e., God]. But obviously this isimpossible. Hence, there is no doubt that there exists a being, than which nothing greatercan be conceived, and it exists both in the mind and in reality.

"God cannot be conceived not to exist. God is that, than which nothing greatercan be conceived. That which can be conceived not to exist is not God."

And this being assuredly exists so truly, that it cannot be conceived not to exist. For,it is possible to conceive of a being which cannot be conceived not to exist. Hence, if that,than which nothing greater can be conceived, can be conceived not to exist, it is not that,than which nothing greater can be conceived. But this is an irreconcilable contradiction. Thereis, then, so truly a being than which nothing greater can be conceived to exist, that it cannoteven be conceived not to exist; and this being you are, O Lord, our God.

So truly, therefore, do you exist, O Lord, my God, that you cannot be conceived notto exist; and rightly. For, if a mind could conceive of a being better than you, the creaturewould rise above the creator; and this is most absurd. And, indeed, except for you alone,whatever else there is can be conceived not to exist. You alone, therefore, exist more truly

than all other beings, and hence to a higher degree than all other. For, whatever else existsdoes not exist so truly, and hence exists to a lesser degree. Why then, has the fool said inhis heart, there is no God... since it is so evident, to a rational mind, that you do exist in thehighest degree of all? Why, except that he is dull and a fool?


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ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE (1087)The Rule and Way of William the Conqueror in England

If any person desires to know what kind of man he was, or what worship he had, or of howmany lands he was lord, then will we write about him so as we understood him, who have oftenlooked upon him, and at another time sojourned in his court. The King William about whom wespeak was a very wise man, and very powerful, more dignified and strong than any of hispredecessors were. He was mild to the good men who loved God, and over all measure seveto the men that gainsayed his will. On that same stead where God granted him that he mightsubdue England, he reared a noble monastery, and there placed monks, and well endowed it. his days was the noblemonastery in Canterbury built, and also very many others over allEngland. This land was also plentifully supplied with monks, and they lived their lives after the ruof St. Benedict...

So also was he a very rigid and cruel man, so that no one durst do anything against his wilHe had earls in his bonds, who had acted against his will; bishops he cast from their bishoprics, aabbots from their abbacies, and thanes into prison; and at last he spared not his own brotherOdo...

Amongst other things is not to be forgotten the good peace that he made in this land; so

that a man who had any confidence in himself might go over his realm, with his bosom full of goldunhurt. Nor durst any man slay another man, had he done ever so great evil to the other. And ifany common man lay with a woman against her will, he forthwith lost the members that he hadsinned with. He truly reigned over England, and by his capacity so thoroughly surveyed it, thatthere was not a hide of land within England that he knew not who had it, or what it was worth, andafterwards set it down in his Writ...

Certainly in his time men had great hardship, and very many injuries. Castles caused he tbe made, poor men to be greatly oppressed. The king was so very rigid, and took from hissubjects many a mark of gold, and more hundred pounds of silver, which he took by right and witgreat unright from his people, for little need. He had fallen into covetousness, and altogether lovgreediness... Alas! that any man should be so proud, to so raise himself up, and account himseabove all men. May the Al-mighty God show mercy to his soul, and grant him forgiveness of hissins! These things we have written concerning him, both

good and evil, that good men may imitate their goodness, and wholly flee from the evil, and gothe way that leads us to the kingdom of heaven.

JOHN OF SALISBURY ON TYRANNY (12th c.)

Wherein the prince differs from the tyrant has already been set forth above...Wherefore it will be easier to make known here, and in fewer words, the oppositecharacteristics of the tyrant. A tyrant, then, as the philosophers have described him, is onewho oppressesthe people by rulership based upon force, while he who rules inaccordance with the laws is a prince. Law is the gift of god, the model of equity, a standardof justice, a likeness of the divine will, the guardian of well being a bond of union and

solidarity between peoples, a rule defining duties, a barrier against the vices and thedestroyer thereof, a punishment of violence and all wrong-doing. The law is assailed byforce or by fraud, and, as it were, either wrecked by the fury of the lion or undermined bythe wiles of the serpent. In whatever way this comes to pass, it is plain that it is the grace ofGod which is being assailed, and that it is God himself who in a sense is challenged tobattle. The prince fights for the laws and the liberty of the people; the tyrant thinks nothingdone unless he brings the laws to nought and reduces the people to slavery. Hence theprince is a kind of likeness of divinity; and the tyrant, on the contrary, a likeness of theboldness of the Adversary, even of the wickedness of Lucifer, imitating him that sought to


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build his throne to the north and make himself like unto the Most High, with the exception ofhis goodness. For had he desired to be like unto Him in goodness, he would never havestriven to tear from Him the glory of His power and wisdom. What he more likely did aspireto was to be equal with him in authority to dispense rewards. The prince, as the likeness ofthe Deity, is to be loved, worshipped and cherished; the tyrant, the likeness of wickedness,is generally to be even killed. The origin of tyranny is iniquity, and springing from a

poisonous root, it is a tree which grows and sprouts into a baleful pestilent growth, and towhich the axe must by all means be laid. For if iniquity and injustice, banishing charity, hadnot brought about tyranny, firm concord and perpetual peace would have possessed thepeoples of the earth forever, and no one would think of enlarging his boundaries. Thenkingdoms would be as friendly and peaceful, according to the authority of the great fatherAugustine, and would enjoy as undisturbed repose, as the separate families in a well-ordered state, or as different persons in the same family; or perhaps, which is even morecredible, there would be no kingdoms of all, since it is clear from the ancient historians that inthe beginning these were founded by iniquity as presumptuous encroachments against theLord, or else were extorted from Him.

GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH ON ARTHUR (1136)After the death of Utherpendragon, the leaders of the Britons assembled from their

various provinces in the town of Silchester and there suggested to Dubricius, theArchbishop of the City of the Legions, that as their King he should crown Arthur, the son ofUther. Necessity urged them on, for as soon as the Saxons heard of the death of KingUther, they invited their own countrymen over from Germany, appointed CoIgrin as theirleader and began to do their utmost to exterminate the Britons. They had already over-runall that section of the island which stretches from the River Humber to the sea namedCaithness.

Dubricius lamented the sad state of his country. He called the other bishops to himand bestowed the crown of the kingdom upon Arthur. Arthur was a young man only fifteenyears old; but he was of outstanding courage and generosity, and his inborn goodness

gave him such grace that he was loved by almost all the people... In Arthur courage wasclosely linked with generosity, and he made up his mind to harry the Saxons, so that withtheir wealth he might reward the retainers who served his own household. The justness ofhis cause encouraged him, for he had a claim by rightful inheritance to the kingship of thewhole island. He therefore called together all the young men whom I have just mentionedand marched on York.

As soon as this was announced to CoIgrin, he assembled the Saxons, Scots andPicts, and came to meet Arthur with a vast multitude. Once contact was made between thetwo armies, beside the River Douglas, both sides stood in grave danger for their lives.Arthur, however, was victorious. Colgrin fled, and Arthur pursued him; then Colgrin enteredYork and Arthur besieged him there.

Arthur pursued the Saxons relentlessly until they reached Caledon Wood. Therethey re-formed after their flight and made an effort to resist Arthur. The Saxons joined battleonce more and killed a number of the Britons, for the former defended themselves man-fully. They used the shelter of the trees to protect themselves from the Britons' weapons.As soon as Arthur saw this, he ordered the trees round that part of the wood to be cut downand their trunks to be placed in a circle, so that every way out was barred to the enemy.Arthur's plan was to hem them in and then besiege them, so that in the end they should dieof hunger. When this had been done, he ordered his squadrons to surround the wood andthere he remained for three days. The Saxons had nothing at all to eat. To preventthemselves dying of sheer hunger, they asked permission to come out, on theunderstanding that, if they left behind all their gold and silver, they might be permitted to


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return to Germany with nothing but their boats. What is more, they promised that theywould send Arthur tribute from Germany and that hostages should be handed over. Arthurtook counsel and then agreed to their petition. He retained all their treasure, and tookhostages to ensure that the tribute should be paid. All that he conceded to the Saxons waspermission to leave.

As the Saxons sailed away across the sea on their way home, they repented of the

bargain which they had made. They reversed their sails, turned back to Britain and landedon the coast near Totnes. They took possession of the land, and depopulated thecountryside as far as the Severn Sea, killing off a great number of the peasantry. Then theyproceeded by a forced march to the neighbourhood of Bath and besieged the town. Whenthis was announced to King Arthur, he was greatly astonished at their extraordinary duplicity.He ordered summary justice to be inflicted upon their hostages, who were all hangedwithout more ado. He put off the foray with which he had begun to harass the Scots and thePicts, and he hastened to break up the siege... He finally reached the county of Somersetand approached the siege. 'Although the Saxons, whose very name is an insult to heavenand detested by all men, have not kept faith with me,' he said, 'I myself will keep faith withmy God. This very day I will do my utmost to take vengeance on them for the blood of myfellow countrymen. Arm yourselves, men, and attack these traitors with all your strength!With Christ's help we shall conquer them, without any possible doubt!'

As Arthur said this, the saintly Dubricius, Archbishop of the City of the Legions,climbed to the top of a hill and cried out in a loud voice: 'You who have been marked withthe cross of the Christian faith, be mindful of the loyalty you owe to your father-land and toyour fellow countrymen! If they are slaughtered as a result of this treacherous behaviour bythe pagans, they will be an everlasting reproach to you, unless in the meanwhile you doyour utmost to defend them! Fight for your fatherland, and if you are killed suffer deathwillingly for your country's sake. That in itself is victory and a cleansing of the soul. Whoeversuffers death for the sake of his brothers offers himself as a living sacrifice to God andfollows with firm footsteps behind Christ Himself, who did not disdain to lay down His life forHis brothers. It follows that if any one of you shall suffer death in this war, that death shall beto him as a penance and an absolution for all his sins, given always that he goes to meet itunflinchingly.'

Without a moment's delay each man present, inspired by the benediction given bythis holy man, rushed off to put on his armour and to obey Dubricius' orders. Arthur himselfput on a leather jerkin worthy of so great a king. On his head he placed a golden helmet,with a crest carved in the shape of a dragon; and across his shoulders a circular shield calledPridwen, on which there was painted a likeness of the Blessed Mary, Mother of God, whichforced him to be thinking perpetually of her. He girded on his peerless sword, calledCaliburn, which was forged in the Isle of Avalon. A spear called Ron graced his right hand;long, broad in the blade and thirsty for slaughter. Arthur drew up his men in companies andthen bravely attacked the Saxons, who as usual were arrayed in wedges. All that day theyresisted the Britons bravely, although the latter launched attack upon attack. Finally, towardssunset, the Saxons occupied a neighbouring hill, on which they proposed to camp. Relyingon their vast numbers, they considered that the hill in itself offered sufficient protection.However, when the next day dawned, Arthur climbed to the top of the peak with his army,

losing many of his men on the way. Naturally enough, the Saxons, rushing down from theirhigh position, could inflict wounds more easily, for the impetus of their descent gave themmore speed than the others, who were toiling up. For all that, the Britons reached thesummit by a superlative effort and immediately engaged the enemy in hand-to-handconflict. The Saxons stood shoulder to shoulder and strove their utmost to resist.

When the greater part of the day had passed in this way, Arthur went berserk, for herealized that things were still going well for the enemy and that victory for his own side wasnot yet in sight. He drew his sword Caliburn, called upon the name of the Blessed Virgin,and rushed forward at full speed into the thickest ranks of the enemy. Every man whom he


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struck, calling upon God as he did so, he killed at a single blow. He did not slacken hisonslaught until he had dispatched four hundred and seventy men with his sword Caliburn.

POPE INNOCENT Ill TO KING JOHN, 1214

Innocent, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to his well-beloved son in Christ,John illustrious king of the English, and to his legitimate freeborn heirs for ever.

The King of kings and lord of lords, Jesus Christ, a priest for ever after the order ofMelchisedech, has so established in the Church his kingdom and His priesthood that theone is a kingdom of priests and the other a royal priesthood, as is testified by Moses in thelaw and by Peter in his Epistle; and over all He has set one whom he has appointed as HisVicar on earth, so that, as every knee is bowed to Jesus, of things in heaven, and things inearth, and things under the earth, so all men should obey this Vicar and strive that there maybe one fold and one shepherd. All secular kings for the sake of God so venerate this Vicar,that unless they seek to serve him devotedly they doubt if they are reigning properly. Tothis, dearly beloved son, you have paid wise attention; and by the merciful inspiration ofhim in whose hand are the hearts of kings which he turns whithersoever He wills, you have

decided to submit in a temporal sense yourself and your kingdom to him to whom youknew them to be spiritually subject, so that kingdom and priesthood, like body and soul, forthe great good and profit of each, might be united in the single person of Christ's Vicar. Hehas deigned to work this wonder, who being alpha and omega has caused the end to fulfillthe beginning and the beginning to anticipate the end, so that those provinces which from ofold have had the Holy Roman Church as their proper teacher in spiritual matters should nowin temporal things also have her as their peculiar sovereign. You, whom God has chosenas a suitable minister to effect this, by a devout and spontaneous act of will and on thegeneral advice of your barons have offered and yielded, in the form of an annual paymentof a thousand marks, yourself and your kingdoms of England and Ireland, with all their rightsand appearances, to God and to SS Peter and Paul His apostles and to the Holy RomanChurch and to us and our successors, to be our right and our property.

MAGNA CARTA, 1215

John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke of Normandy andAquitaine, count of Anjou, to the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciars,foresters, sheriffs, reeves, servants and all bailiffs and his faithful people greeting. Knowthat by the suggestion of God and for the good of our soul and those of all ourpredecessors and of our heirs, to the honor of God and the exaltation of holy church, andthe improvement of our kingdom, by the advice of our venerable fathers Stephen,archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England and cardinal of the holy Roman church,[and other churchmen] ... and of the noblemen William Marshall, earl of Pembroke, [andothers]...

In the first place we have granted to God, and by this our present charter confirmed,for us and our heirs forever, that the English church shall be free, and shall hold its rightsentire and its liberties uninjured; and we will that it thus be observed; which is shown by this,that the freedom of elections, which is considered to be most important and especiallynecessary to the English church, we, of our pure and spontaneous will, granted, and by ourcharter confirmed, before the contest between us and our barons had arisen; and obtaineda confirmation of it by the lord Pope Innocent III; which we will observe and which we willshall be observed in good faith by our heirs forever.


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We have granted moreover to all free men of our kingdom for us and our heirs foreverall the liberties written below, to be had and holden by themselves and their heirs from usand our heirs.

If any of our earls or barons, or others holding from us in chief by military service shallhave died, and when he has died his heir shall be of full age and owe relief, he shall havehis inheritance by the ancient relief; that is to say, the heir or heirs of an earl for the whole

barony of an earl a hundred pounds; the heir or heirs of a baron for a whole barony ahundred pounds; the heir or heirs of a knight, for a whole knight's fee, a hundred shillings atmost; and who owes less let him give less according to the ancient custom of fiefs.

If moreover the heir of any one of such shall be under age, and shall be wardship,when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance without relief and without a fine...

No widow shall be compelled to marry so long as she prefers to live without ahusband, provided she gives security that she will not marry without our consent, if sheholds from us, or without the consent of her lord from whom she holds, if she holds fromanother...

No scutage [payment instead of military service] or aid shall be imposed in ourkingdom except by the common council of our kingdom, except for the ransoming of ourbody, for the making of our oldest son a knight, and for once marrying our oldest daughter,and for these purposes it shall be only a reasonable aid; in the same way it shall be done

concerning the aids of the city of London.And the city of London shall have all its ancient liberties and free customs, as well by

land as by water. Moreover, we will and grant that all other cities and boroughs and villagesand ports shall have all their liberties and free customs.

And for holding a common council of the kingdom concerning the assessment of anaid otherwise than in the three cases mentioned above, or concerning the assessment of ascutage we shall cause to be summoned the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, andgreater barons by our letters under seal; and besides we shall cause to be summonedgenerally, by our sheriffs and bailiffs all those who hold from us in chief, for a certain day, thatis at the end of forty days at least, and for a certain place; and in all the letters of thatsummons, we will express the cause of the summons, and when the summons has thusbeen given the business shall proceed on the appointed day, on the advice of those whoshall be present, even if not all of those who were summoned have come...

No one shall be compelled to perform any greater service for a knight's fee, or forany other free tenement than is owed from it...

No constable or other bailiff of ours shall take anyone's grain or other chattels, withoutimmediately paying for them in money, unless he is able to obtain a postponement at thegood-will of the seller.

No constable shall require any knight to give money in place of his ward of a castle ifhe is willing to furnish that ward in his own person or through another honest man, if hehimself is not able to do it for a reasonable cause; and if we shall lead or send him into thearmy he shall be free from ward in proportion to the amount of time by which he has beenin the army through us.

No sheriff or bailiff of ours or any one else shall take horses or wagons of any freeman for carrying purposes except on the permission of that free man.

Neither we nor our bailiffs will take the wood of another man for castles, or foranything else which we are doing, except by the permission of him to whom the woodbelongs.

No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed, or outlawed, orbanished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor send upon him, exceptby the legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.

To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny, or delay right or justice.All merchants shall be safe and secure in going out from England and coming into

England and in remaining and going through England, as well by land as by water, for


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buying and selling, free from all evil tolls, by the ancient and rightful customs, except in timeof war...

All forests which have been afforested [i.e. made into royal forests] in our time shallbe disafforested immediately; and so it shall be concerning river banks which in our timehave been fenced in...

And immediately after the re-establishment of peace we will remove from the

kingdom all foreign-born soldiers, cross-bow men, servants, and mercenaries who havecome with horses and arms for the injury of the realm.If anyone shall have been dispossessed or removed by us without legal judgment of

his peers, from his lands, castles, franchises, or his right we will restore them to himimmediately...

All fines which have been imposed unjustly and against the law of the land, and allpenalties imposed unjustly and against the law of the land are altogether excused, or will beon the judgment of the twenty-five barons of whom mention is made below in connectionwith the security of the peace, or on the judgment of the majority of them, along with theaforesaid Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury...

Since, moreover, for the sake of God, and for the improvement of kingdom, and forthe better quieting of the hostility sprung up lately between us and our barons, we havemade all these concessions; wishing them to enjoy these in a complete and firm stability

forever, we make and concede to them the security described below; that is to say, thatthey shall elect twenty-five barons of the kingdom, whom they will, who ought with all theirpower to observe, hold, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties which wehave conceded to them...

Wherefore we will and firmly command that the Church of England shall be free, andthat the men in our kingdom shall have and hold all the aforesaid liberties, rights andconcessions, well and peacefully, freely and quietly, fully and completely, for themselvesand their heirs, from us and our heirs, in all things and places, forever, as before said. It hasbeen sworn, moreover, as well on our part as on the part of the barons, that all these thingsspoken of above shall be observed in good faith and without any evil intent. Witness theabove named and many others. Given by our hand in the meadow which is calledRunnymede, between Windsor and Staines, on the fifteenth day of June, in theseventeenth year of our reign.


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Documents forAssignment #4: High and Late Middle Ages

LONDON (1173)A description by William Fitz-Stephen

Of the Site ThereofAmong the noble cities of the world that Fame celebrates the City of London of the

Kingdom of the English, is the one seat that pours out its fame more widely, sends to fartherlands its wealth and trade, lifts its head higher than the rest. It is happy in the healthiness ofits air, in the Christian religion in the strength of its defences, the nature of its site, the honourof its citizens, the modesty of its matrons; pleasant in sports; fruitful of noble men.

Of Religion

There is in the church there the Episcopal Seat of St. Paul; once it was Metropolitan,and it is thought will again become so if the citizens return into the island, unless perhaps thearchiepiscopal title of Saint Thomas the Martyr [Thomas Becket], and his bodily presence,preserve to Canterbury where it is now, a perpetual dignity. But as Saint Thomas hasmade both cities illustrious, London by his rising, Canterbury by his setting, in regard of thatsaint, with admitted justice, each can claim advantage of the other. There are also, asregards the cultivation of the Christian faith, in London and the suburbs, thirteen largerconventual churches, besides lesser parish churches one hundred and twenty-six.

Of the Strength of the CityIt has on the east the Palatine Castle, very great and strong, of which the ground plan

and the walls rise from a very deep foundation, fixed with a mortar tempered by the bloodof animals. On the west are two towers very strongly fortified, with the high and great wall of

the city having seven double gates, and towered to the north at intervals. London waswalled and towered in like manner on the south, but the great fishbearing Thames riverwhich there glides, with ebb and flow from the sea, by course of time has washed against,loosened, and thrown down those walls. Also upwards to the west the royal palace isconspicuous above the same river, an incomparable building with ramparts and bulwarks,two miles from the city, joined to it by a populous suburb.

Of GardensEverywhere outside the houses of those living in the suburbs are joined to them,

planted with trees, the spacious and beautiful gardens of the citizens.

Of Pasture and TilthAlso there are, on the north side, pastures and a pleasant meadow land, through with

flow rivers streams, where the turning wheels of mills are put in motion with a cheerful sound.Very near lies a great forest, with woodland pastures, coverts of wild animals, stags, fallowdeer, boats and wild bulls. The tilled lands of the city are not of barren gravel but fat plainsof Asia that make crops luxuriant, and fill their tillers barns with Ceres sheaves.

Of SpringsThere are also about London, on the north side excellent suburban springs, with

sweet, wholesome, and clear water that flows rippling over the bright stones; among whichHoly Well, Clerken WelI, and Saint Clements are frequented by greater numbers, and


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visited more by scholars and youth of the city when they go out for fresh air on summerevenings. It is a good city indeed when it has a good master.

Of Honour of the CitizensThat city is honoured by her men, adorned by her arms, populous with many

inhabitants, so that in the time of sIaughter of war under King Stephen, of those going out to

muster twenty thousand horsemen and sixty thousand men on foot were estimated to be fitfor war. Above all other citizens, everywhere, the citizens of London are regarded isconspicuous and noteworthy for handsomeness of manners and of dress, at table and inway of speaking...

Of SchoolsIn London three principal churches have by privilege and ancient dignity, famous

schools; yet very often by support of some personage, or of some teachers who areconsidered notable and famous in philosophy, there are also other schools by favour andpermission. On feast days the masters have festival meetings in the churches. Theirscholars dispute, some by demonstration, others by dialectics; some recite enthymemes,others do better in using perfect syllogisms. Some are exercised in disputation for display,as wrestling with opponents; others for truth, which is the grace of perfectness. Sophists

who feign are judged happy in their heap and flood of words. Others paralogize. Someorators, now and then, say in their rhetorical speeches something apt for persuasion, carefulto observe rules of their art, and to omit none of the contingents. Boys of different schoolsstrive against one another in verses, and contend about the principles of grammar.

Of the Ordering of the CityThose engaged in the several kinds of business, sellers of several things, contractors

for several kinds of work, are distributed every morning into their several localities andshops. Besides, there is in London on the river bank, among the wines in ships and cellarssold by the vintners, a public cook shop; there eatables are to be found every day,according to the season, dishes of meat, roast, fried and boiled, great and small fish, coarsermeats for the poor, more delicate for the rich, of game, fowls, and small birds.

Outside one of the gates there, immediately in the suburb, is a certain field, smooth(Smith) field in fact and name. Every Friday, unless it be a higher day of appointedsolemnity, there is in it a famous show of noble horses for sale. Earls, barons, knights, andmany citizens who are in town, come to see or buy. In another part of the field stand bythemselves the goods proper to rustics, implements of husbandry, swine with long flanks,cows with full udders, oxen of hulk immense, and woolly flocks.

To this city from every nation under heaven merchants delight to bring their trade...This city ... is divided into wards, has annual sheriffs for its consuls, has senatorial and lowermagistrates, sewers and aqueducts in its streets, its proper places and separate courts forcases of each kind, deliberative, demonstrative, judicial; has assemblies on appointeddays. I do not think there is a city with more commendable customs of church attendance,honour to God's ordinances, keeping sacred festivals, almsgiving, hospitality, confirmingbetrothals, contracting marriages, celebration of nuptials, preparing feasts, cheering the

guests, and also in care for funerals and the interment of the dead. The only pests ofLondon are the immoderate drinking of fools and the frequency of fires. To this may beadded that nearly all the bishops, abbots, and magnates of England are, as it were, citizensand freemen of London; having there their own splendid houses, to which they resort,where they spend largely when summoned to great councils by the king or by theirmetropolitan, or drawn thither by their own private affairs.


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MILL DISPUTE (12th c.)This passage from Jocelin of Brokelands chronicle demonstrates the lord's monopoly overthe building and use of mills.

Herbert the Dean [a monk in charge of an abbeys manors] set up a windmill onHabardun; and when the Abbot heard this, he grew so hot with anger that he would

scarcely eat or speak a single word. On the morrow, after hearing mass, he ordered theSacrist [person responsible for altars and vessels of the church] to send his carpentersthither without delay, pull everything down, and place the timber under safe custody.Hearing this, the Dean came and said that he had the right to do this on his free fief, and thatfree benefit of the wind ought not to be denied to any man; he said he also wished to grindhis own corn [cereal grain] there and not the corn of others, lest perchance he might bethought to do this to the detriment of neighboring mills. To this the Abbot, still angry, madeanswer, "I thank you as I should thank you if you had cut off both my feet. By God's face, Iwill never eat bread till that building be thrown down. You are an old man, and you ought toknow that neither the King nor his Justiciar [a royal officer] can change or set up anythingwithin the liberties of this town without the assent of the Abbot and the Convent. Why haveyou then presumed to do such a thing? Nor is this thing done without detriment to my mills,as you assert. For the burgesses [townsmen] will throng to your mill and grind their corn totheir hearts' content, nor should I have the lawful right to punish them, since they are freemen. I would not even allow the Cellarer's [monk in charge of provisions] mill which was builtof late, to stand, had it not been built before I was Abbot. Go away," he said, "go away;before you reach your house, you shall hear what will be done with your mill." But the Deanshrinking in fear from before the face of the Abbot by the advice of his son MasterStephen, anticipated the servants of the Abbot and caused the mill which he had built to bepulled down by his own servants without delay, so that, when the servants of the Sacristcame, they found nothing left to demolish.

IPSWICH TOWN CHARTER (1200)

John, by the grace of God king, etc. Know that we have granted and by our presentcharter have confirmed to our burgesses of Ipswich our borough of Ipswich, with allappurtenances and with all its liberties and free customs, to be held of us and our heirs bythem and their heirs in hereditary right, paying to our exchequer every year at Michaelmasterm, by the hand of the reeve of Ipswich, the just and accustomed farm [annual fee set bythe citizens] and, at the same time, the increment of 100s. sterling by tale [Exchequer tally]that they used to pay. We have also granted that all burgesses of Ipswich are to be quit oftoll, stallage, lastage, pontage [taxes for having a stall, attending markets, and using abridge], and all other customs throughout all our land and throughout the ports of the sea.We have granted to them that, with the exception of our officials, none of them shall beimpleaded in any plea outside the borough of lpswich, save only in pleas concerningforeign tenures; and that they shall have their gild merchant; that no one shall be lodged orshall take anything by force within the borough of Ipswich; that they shall justly have their

lands and their pledges and all their debts, by whomsoever owed; that, with regard to theirlands and tenures inside the borough of Ipswich, justice shall be assured them according tothe custom of the borough of Ipswich and of our free boroughs; that, with regard to theirdebts established at Ipswich and their pledges made in the same place, the pleas shall beheld at Ipswich; and that none of them shall be adjudged in mercy with respect to hischattels except according to the law of our free boroughs. We also forbid any one in all ourland, on pain of 10 forfeiture to us, to exact toll, stallage, or any other custom from the menof Ipswich. Wherefore we will and straitly command that the aforesaid burgesses shall haveand hold the aforesaid liberties and free customs well and in peace, as they have been and


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are best and most freely enjoyed by the other burgesses of our free boroughs in Englandsaving in all things to our citizens of London their liberties and free customs.

Furthermore, we will and grant that our said burgesses, by the common counsel of theirtown, shall elect two of the more lawful and discreet men of their town and present them to our ch

justice at our exchequer; which men shall well and faithfully keep the reeveship of our aforesaidborough of Ipswich. And so long as they well conduct themselves in that office, they shall not b

removed except by the common counsel of the aforesaid burgesses. We also will that in thesame borough, by the common council of the aforesaid burgesses, four of the more lawful anddiscreet men of the borough shall be elected to keep the pleas of the crown and other matters thpertain to us and to our crown in the same borough, and to see that the reeves of that borough

justly treat both rich and poor.

SOUTHAMPTON MERCHANT GUILD CHARTER (13th c.)

In the first place, there shall be elected from the guild merchants and established analderman, a steward, a chaplain, four skevins [stewards of a guild] and an usher. And it is tobe known that whosoever shall be alderman shall receive from each one entering into theguild fourpence; the steward, twopence; the chaplain, twopence; and the usher, one penny.And the guild shall meet twice a year: that is to say, on the Sunday next after St. John theBaptist's day, and on the Sunday next after St. Mary's day.

And when the guild shall sit, the alderman is to have, each night so long as the guildsits, two gallons of wine and two candles, and the steward the same; and the four skevinsand the chaplain, each of them one gallon of wine and one candle, and the usher one gallonof wine.

And when the guild shall sit, the lepers of La Madeleine shall have of the alms of theguild, two sesters [approximately eight gallons] of ale, and the sick of God's House and ofSt. Julian shall have two sesters of ale. And the Friars Minors shall have two sesters of aleand one sester of wine. And four sesters of ale shall be given to the poor wherever theguild shall meet.

And when a guildsman dies, all those who are of the guild and are in the city shall

attend the service of the dead, and the guildsmen shall bear the body and bring it to theplace of burial. And whoever will not do this shall pay according to his oath, two pence, tobe given to the poor. And those of the ward where the dead man shall be ought to find aman to watch over the body the night that the dead shall lie in his house. And so long asthe service of the dead shall last, that is to say the vigil and the mass, there ought to burnfour candles of the guild, each candle of two pounds weight or more, until the body isburied. And these four candles shall remain in the keeping of the steward of the guild.

And when a guildsman dies, his eldest son or his next heir shall have the seat of hisfather, or of his uncle, if his father was not a guildsman, and of no other one; and he shall givenothing for his seat. No husband can have a seat in the guild by right of his wife, nordemand a seat by right of his wife's ancestors.

And no one of the city of Southampton shall buy anything to sell again in the samecity, unless he is of the guild merchant or of the franchise. And if anyone shall do so and is

convicted of it, all which he has so bought shall be forfeited to the king; and no one shall bequit of custom unless he proves that he is in the guild or in the franchise, and this from yearto year.

And no one shall buy honey, fat, salt herrings, or any kind of oil, or millstones, or freshhides, or any kind of fresh skins, unless he is a guildsman: nor keep a tavern for wine nor sellcloth at retail, except in market or fair days; nor keep grain in his granary beyond fivequarters, to sell at retail, if he is not a guildsman; and whoever shall do this and be convicted,shall forfeit to the king.


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If any guildsman falls into poverty and has not the wherewithal to live, and is not ableto work or to provide for himself, he shall have one mark from the guild to relieve hiscondition when the guild shall sit. No one of the guild nor of the franchise shall avowanother's goods for his by which the custom of the city shall be injured. And if any one doesso and is convicted, he shall lose the guild and the franchise; and the merchandise soavowed shall be forfeited to the king.

And no private man nor stranger shall bargain for or buy any kind of merchandisecoming into the city before a burgess of the guild merchant, so long as the guildsman ispresent and wishes to bargain for and buy this merchandise; and if anyone does so and isconvicted, that which he buys shall be forfeited to the king.

No one shall go out to meet a ship bringing wine or other merchandise coming to thetown, in order to buy anything, before the ship be arrived and come to anchor for unloading;and if any one does so and is convicted, the merchandise which he shall have bought shallbe forfeited to the king.

ADELARD OF BATH: NATURAL QUESTIONS (12th c.)

ADELARD: I take nothing away from God, for whatever exists is from Him andbecause of Him. But the natural order does not exist confusedly and without rationalarrangement, and human reason should be listened to concerning those things it treats of.But when it completely fails, then the matter should be referred to God. Therefore, sincewe have not yet completely lost the use of our minds, let us return to reason...

... It is difficult for me to talk with you about animals, for I have learned one thing,under the guidance of reason, from Arabic teachers; but you, captivated by a show ofauthority, are led around by a halter. For what should we call authority but a halter? Indeed,

just as brute animals are led about by a halter wherever you please, and are not told whereor why, but see the rope by which they are held and follow it alone, thus the authority ofwriters leads many of you, caught and bound by animal-like credulity, into danger. Whencesome men, usurping the name of authority for themselves, have employed great license in

writing, to such an extent that they do not hesitate to present the false as true to such animal-like men. For why not fill up sheets of paper, and why not write on the back too,when youusually have such readers today who require no rational explanation and put their trust onlyin the ancient name of a title? For they do not understand that reason has been given toeach person so that he might discern the true from the false, using reason as the chief judge.For if reason were not the universal judge, it would have been given to each of us in vain. Itwould be sufficient that it were given to one (or a few at most), and the rest would becontent with their authority and decisions. Further, those very people who are calledauthorities only secured the trust of their successors because they followed reason; andwhoever is ignorant of reason or ignores it is deservedly considered to be blind. I will cutshort this discussion of the fact that in my judgment authority should be avoided. But I doassert this, that first we ought to seek the reason for anything, and then if we find an authorityit may be added. Authority alone cannot make a philosopher believe anything, nor should it

be adduced for this purpose......I believe that man is dearer to the Creator than all the other animals. Nevertheless

it does not happen that he is born with natural weapons or is suited for swift flight. But hehas something which is much better and more worthy, reason I mean, by which he so farexcels the brutes that by means of it he can tame them, put bits in their mouths, and trainthem to perform various tasks. You see, therefore, by how much the gift of reason excelsbodily defenses...


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NEPHEW: Since we have been discussing things having to do with the brain, explain, ifyou can, how the philosophers determined the physical location of imagination, reason andmemory. For both Aristotle in the Physics (an erroneous reference) and other philosophersin other works, have been able to determine that the operations of imagination are carriedon in the front part of the brain, reason in the middle, and memory in the back, and so theyhave given these three areas the names imagination, rational and memorial. But by what

skill were they able to determine the site of each operation of the mind and to assign toeach small area of the brain its proper function, since these operations cannot be perceivedby any sense?

ADELARD: To one who does not understand, everything seems impossible: butwhen things are understood, everything becomes clear. I would guess that whoever firstundertook this task learned something about it from sense experience. Probably, someonewho had formerly had a very active imagination suffered an injury to the front of his head andafterwards no longer possessed the imagination faculty, although his reason and memoryremained unaffected. And when this happened it was noticed by the philosopher. Andsimilarly injuries to other parts of the head impeded other functions of the mind so that itcould be established with certainty which areas of the brain controlled which mental functions,especially since in some men these areas are marked by very fine lines. Therefore, from

evidence of this sort, which could be perceived by the senses, an insensible and intellectualoperation of the mind has been made clear.

A MONASTIC MANOR: DARNHALL (1326)

Here begin the customs of the bond-tenants of the manor of Dernale [Darnhall].One is that they ought to [appear in] court at the will of the lord, [in this case, the

abbot of the monastery] or of his bailiff [agent] upon being summoned only, even duringthe night, and they ought all to come the next day.

And whereas some of them have been accustomed to give part of their land to theirsons, so that it came about that after their death their sons have by the carelessness of the

bailiffs of the place been received as holding those same lands without doing to the lordanything for their seisin [possession of property] in their father's time; those sons who holdland ought to do suit of court, or obtain the lord's grace to redeem the suit at the will of thelord, on account of the great loss which has by this means been suffered by the lord.

Also they all [must use] the mill under pain of forfeiture of their grain, if they at anytime withdraw suit; and every year they owe pannage [fee for the right to pasture in forestareas] for their pigs.

Also they ought to make redemption of their daughters, if they wish to marry out ofthe manor, at the will of the lord.

They will also give leyrwithe [a fine for a female serf found guilty of fornication] fortheir daughters, if they fall into carnal sin.

Also, when any one of them dieth, the lord shall have all the pigs of the deceased, all

his goats, all his mares at grass, and his horse also, if he had one for his personal use, all hisbees, all his bacon-pigs, all his cloth of wool and flax, and whatsoever can be found of goldand silver. The lord also shall have all his brass pots or pot, if he have one (but who ofthese bond-tenants will have a brass pot for cooking his food in?), because at their deaththe lord ought to have all things of metal...

Also the lord shall have the best ox for a "hereghett" [recompense for property lentby the lord] and holy Church another. After this the rest of the animals ought to be dividedthus, if the deceased has children, to wit, into three parts -- one for the lord, one for the wife,one for the children; and if he leaves no children, they shall be divided into two parts -onefor the lord and one for the wife of the deceased, equally...


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Also it is not lawful for the bond-tenant to make a will, or bequeath anything, withoutlicence of the lord of the manor.

And as to the sheep, let them be divided like all the other goods of the deceasedwhich ought to be divided. But this is inserted in this place by itself, because, when theconvent first came to Darnhale, the bond-tenants said that no division ought to be made ofthe sheep, but that all the sheep ought to remain wholly to the wife of the deceased. Which

is quite false, because they always used to divide them without gainsaying it at all, untilWarm le Grantuenour was bailiff of Darnhale; and while he was bailiff he was corrupted withpresents, and did not exact the lord's share of all things in his time; and afterwards the bondtenants endeavoured to make this a precedent and custom, which they by no means oughtto do, because they have been accustomed so to do according to the customs of thismanor in the times of former lords...

Also, if the lord wishes to buy corn or oats, or anything else, and they have such things tosell, it shall not be lawful to them to sell anything elsewhere, except with the lord's licence[permission] if the lord is willing to pay them a reasonable price.


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Documents forReadings: Late Medieval Crisis

CHAUCERS CANTERBURY TALES (14th c.)

When the sweet showers of April fall andDown through the drought of March to pierceThen people long to go on pilgrimagesAnd palmers [pilgrims carry palm leaves] long to seek the stranger strandsof far-off saints, hallowed in sundry lands,And specially, from every shire's endIn England, down to Canterbury they wendTo seek the holy blissful martyr [Thomas Becket], quickIn giving help to them when they were sick.

It happened in that season that one day

In Southwark, at The Tabard as I layReady to go on pilgrimage and startFor Canterbury, most devout at heart,At night there came into that hostelrySome nine and twenty in a companyOf sundry folk happening then to fallIn fellowship, and they were pilgrims allThat towards Canterbury meant to ride...By speaking to them all upon the tripI was admitted to their fellowshipAnd promised to rise early and take the wayTo Canterbury, as you heard me say.

But none the less, while I have time and space,Before my story takes a further pace,It seems a reasonable thing to sayWhat their condition was, the full arrayOf each of them, as it appeared me,According to profession and degree,And what apparel they were riding in...

There was a Monk, a leader of the fashions;Inspecting farms and hunting were his passions,A manly man, to be an abbot able,Many [were] the dainty horses in his stable...The Rule of good St. Benet [Benedict] or St. MaurAs old and strict he tended to ignore;

He let go by the things of yesterdayAnd followed the new world's more spacious way.He did not rate that text at a plucked henWhich says that hunters are not holy menAnd that a monk uncloistered [i.e. without a monastery] is a mereFish out of water, flapping on the pier,That is to say a monk out of his cloister.That was a text he held not worth an oyster;And I said I agreed with his opinion;


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What! Study until reason lost dominionPoring on books in cloisters? Must he toilAs Austin bade and till the very soil?Was he to leave the world upon the shelf?Let Austin have his labor to himself.This Monk was therefore a good man to horse;

Greyhounds he had, as swift as birds, to course.Hunting a hare or riding at a fenceWas all his fun, he spared for no expense...

A holy-minded man of good renownThere was, and poor, the Parson to a town,Yet he was rich in holy thought and work.He also was a learned man, a clerk,Who truly knew Christ's gospel and would preach itDevoutly to parishioners, and teach it.Benign and wonderfully diligent,And patient when adversity was sent(For so he proved in great adversity)He much disliked extorting tithe or fee

Nay rather he preferred beyond a doubtGiving to poor parishioners round aboutFrom his own goods and Easter offerings.He found sufficiency in little things.Wide was his parish, with houses far asunder,Yet he neglected not in rain or thunder,In sickness or in grief, to pay a callOn the remotest whether great or smallUpon his feet, and in his hand a stave.This noble example to his sheep he gave,First following the word before he taught it,And it was from the gospel he had caught it...He did not set his benefice to hireAnd lea