1 The Beginningsot English:Old and MiddleEnglish600-1485

Setting the Scene

'd at the Battle oj Hastings, 1066.

The first literature in English goes back to the period between aboutAD410 and 1066. These are Anglo-Saxon times and are known asthe early medieval period. In 410 the Romans left Britain, and in

1066 the Norman Conquest began the late medieval period ofhistory.

It was a time of wars and invasions - Britain was invaded bymany peoples from Europe: Angles, Saxons, lutes, Vikings andfinally Normans. These invasions left many traces in the form ofcastles and towns, as well as in culture and language. The languageknown as Old English is the language of the first literature inEnglish. But it was a long time before it was actually written down:the first stories and poems were spoken, and we do not knowexactly when these stories were first told. There were two culturesthrough the Anglo-Saxon period: the Christian culture, whieh hadarrived in England in 597 with Saint Augustine, and the heroieculture, of leaders and heroes who defended their lands againstinvaders.

The Norman Conquest at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 was thelast successful invasion of Britain. The Normans took power, andWilliam the Conqueror became King of England. William tried tobring peace to the country after many centurie s of wars andinvasions but did not always succeed. The Normans brought withthem many French influences, and the French language began tomix with Old English into a more modem language. Scandinavianinfluences were also strong and Latin was still the language of theChurch, so there were many influence s on English language andculture. Out of these influence s a new national identity began todevelop. Parts of France remained British until as late as 1558;

2 THE PEN GUl N GUIDE TO LITERATURE IN ENGLISHTHE BEGINNINGS OF ENG

Wales was part of the Kingdom of England from 1282. Scotlandwas the main enemy for another three hundred years, and manywars against the Scots were fought in the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies.

The first parliament was in 1265, and English became thelanguage of national law in 1362. The Magna Carta of 1215reduced the power of the king, giving more power and propertyrights to the aristocrats. The city of London became the capital ofthe country, and the local southem dialect of English became themain spoken form of English, although 10cal dia1ects remainedstrong, as they still do today. Trade with Europe became moreimportant. A new c1assof traders and merchants grew up, as tradebetween nations replaced war.

poetie shepherd, and in amonastery,and his shortpoem

Nu we seu10n herigeanMeotodes meahte ond

Now we must praise cOf the Lord the power

Old English

Two features of most Old .

the gap in the middle of e:modem editors use to shov

alliteration (the letter 'h' in tJthe sound of the poem, remilong before it was writtendov

Another name from the e~

know nothing about him. WeDeor's Lament but the nam

songs who has no job, and]returning always to the refrail1

PERSONAL AND RELIGIOUS VOICES

The language of the earliest English literature came from manydifferent places. The literature itself and its subjects were influencedby different countries, and by different places, peoples and cultures,but the question of what is English about English literature is still abig question today, as more and more writers use the Englishlanguage. The subjects of the first literature are subjects whieh arefamiliar even now: war, religion, personal sadness and happiness. Itwas the Christian monks in the monasteries who first wrote down the

words of the early literature - they were the only people who couldread and write, and for many centuries they guarded culture andlearning. But only a few fragments remain of all the writing that themonks kept. They reflect the two cultures, of Christianity and ofheroie actions, with the occasional personal voice coming through.Most of the texts from this period are anonymous, but one or twonames are attached to texts. The very first fragment is caUed'Caedmon's Hymn'. There is a legend that Caedmon was a shepherdin Northumbria, in the far north of Eng1and, and the voiee of Godcame to him, so his 'Hymn' is the first song of praise in Englishliterature. Of course, the monks at nearby Whitby soon heard of this

Pres ofereode; pisses s

Of that there was an end

This is not only a poem aboutone of the first texts to talk oj

suffering. Deor's Lament is

eighth eentury, many years aftfrom these centurie s is Cynevtwo names. He mayaiso havethe texts he wrote are found in

Deor s Lament is also written.

written in England but now JBook, are among the few ex~

monks in preserving texts fnpoems are aU religious in tone

other similar topics.

~TURE IN ENGLISHTHE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH: OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH 3

, England from 1282. Scotlandhree hundred years, and many:in the fourteenth and fifteenth

poetic shepherd, and in about 670, Caedmon entered theirmonastery,and bis short poem entered bistory:

265, and English became the2. The Magna Carta of 1215ving more power and propertyf London became the capital ofl dialectof Englishbecamethehough local dialects remained.de with Europe became morend merchants grew up, as trade

Nu we sculon hengean heofonnces Weard,Meotodes meahte ond bis modgepanc

Now we must praise ofheaven's kingdom the KeeperOf the Lord the power and his wisdom

CES

Two features of most Old English poetry are immediately elear:the gap in the middle of each line, called the caesura, whichmodem editors use to show the rhythm of the verse, and thealliteration (the letter 'h' in the first line). Both of these influencethe sound of the poem, reminding us that the poetry was spokenlong before it was wntten down.

Another name from the early medieval period is Deor, but weknow nothing about him. We do not know the author of the poemDeor's Lament but the narrator, Deor, is a writer and singer ofsongs who has no job, and he thinks of other unfortunate men,retuming always to the refrain:

ish literature came from manyand its subjectswere influencedentplaces, peoples and cultures,aboutEnglish literature is still amore writers use the Englishiterature are subjects which arersonal sadness and happiness. ItlSteneswho firstwrotedown the

werethe only people who coulduries they guarded culture andremainof all the writing that thecultures, of Christianity and ofpersonalvoice coming through.are anonymous, but one or twovery first fragment is called

ld thatCaedmonwas a shepherdEngland, and the voice of Godfirst song of praise in English

earbyWhitby soon heard of this

Pres ofereode; pisses swa mreg

Of that there was an end; so there may be of this.

This is not only a poem about a man who is searching for work, butone of the first texts to talk of the passing of time, and of personalsuffering. Deor 's Lament is probably from the beginning of theeighth century, many years after Caedmon. Another important namefrom these centuries is Cynewulf, and he brings together the othertwo names. He mayaiso have come from Northumbria, and two ofthe texts he wrote are found in a book called the Exeter Book, whereDeor 'sLament is also written. The Exeter Book, and a similar bookwritten in England but now kept in Vercelli in Italy, the VercelliBook, are among the few examples which remain of the work ofmonks in preserving texts from the Dark Ages. Cynewulf's fourpoems are all religious in tone, and celebrate the lives of saints andother similar topics.

4 THE PENGUlN GUIDE TO LITERATURE IN ENGLISHTHE BEGlNNINGS OF ENG

Beowulf and Long PoemsSeveral poems are preserved in the Exeter Book. Two other personalbut anonymous poems are: The Wandererand The SeaJarer [sailor].These are elegiac poems - the speaker is always alone, and hismemory becomes very important. They are memories of old legends,old battles and old heroes. Although we know very little about theperiod, we do find ideas and themes whieh are common in allliterature, and memories are a major part of the writing.

Among the anonymous religious texts whieh remain, the bestknown is The Dream oj the Rood. The word rood means cross inOld English. This poem is found not only in the VercelliBook, butalso on a standing stone in Ruthwell in southem Scotland. Thepoem is also important for two reasons: it is the first of a kind ofpoem whieh became very popular in later literature, the dream-vision; and The Dream oj the Rood shows a great range of words todescribe the cross of Christ, and a range of images whieh laterpoems developed.

The main heroic text is called Beowulf, the name of the hero ofthe long anonymous poem. It describes events whieh are part of theperiod' s memory: invasions and battles, some historie, somelegendary. The poem is set around the sixth century, but wasprobably not written down until the eighth century. Beowulf is thefirst hero in English literature, the man who can win battles andgive safety to his people over a long period of time.

The Battle oj Maldon is another long poem about battles andheroes. But it is much more factual, describing a real battle ratherthan retelling a fietional story of war. Both The Battle oj Maldonand Beowulf are written in rich and powerfullanguage, full of newwords, new tones and new rhythms, and with many images of light,colour and action. Beowulf, whieh is about 3,000 lines, is a storyabout a brave young man from southem Sweden. Beowulf goes tohelp Hrothgar, King of the Danes, who cannot defend himself or

his people against a terrible monster called GrendeI. One nightBeowulf attacks GrendeI and pull s off the arm of the monster.GrendeI retums to the lake where he lives, but dies there. Beowulfis then attacked by the mother of GrendeI and Beowulf follows herto the bottom of the lake and kills her, too.

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~TURE IN ENGLISHTHE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH: OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH 5

eowulJ,the name of the hero ofbes events which are part of thebattles, some historie, some

I1dthe sixth century, but was~eighth century. Beowulf is the: man who can win battles and

:period of time.

:r long poem about battles andl, describing a real battle ratherrar. Both The Battle oj Maldonpowerfullanguage, fuUof newand with many images of light,is about 3,000 lines, is a story

them Sweden. Beowulf goes towho cannot defend himself or

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~xeter Book. Two other persona!~dererand The SeaJarer [sailor].eaker is always alone, and hisley are memoriesof old legends,h we know very little about thenes which are common in aU

part of the writing.IStexts which remain, the bestThe word rood means cross in

)t only in the VercelliBook, butv>eUin southem Scotland. Thelsons: it is the first of a kind of

. in later literature, the dream-shows a great range of words toa range of images which later

A page from the heroic poem Beowulf. This page was written in about theyear AD1000.

6 THE PENGUlN GUIDE TO LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

Fifty years later, Beowulf has to defend his own people againsta dragon whieh breathes fire. Although he kills the dragon,Beowulf himself is injured in the fight and dies. The poem has asad ending, but the poem is a statement of heroie values andBeowulf dies a hero. Here Wiglaf reminds Beowulf of his greatestdays:

THE BEGINNINGS OF EN(

Leofa Biowulf, lrest eall tela,

swa óu on geoguófeore geara gecwrede,pret óu ne alrete be óe lifigendumdom gedreosan

Beloved Beowulf, keep well the vow that you sworelong ago in the days of your youth, not to allow yourglory to diminish as long as you lived.

When Beowulf dies, Wiglaf has to continue the example for the nextgeneration.

The Beowulf story is part myth, part history, but the hero isremembered as the man who can win battles and give safety to hispeople over a long period of time. Questions of the passing of timethrough the generations, and of what it means to be a human being,are central. A new translation of Beowulf came out in 1999 and wasa great popular success. It was written by the lrish Nobel Prizewinner, Seamus Heaney, and the translation won the WhitbreadBook of the Year prize. This new BeowulJ shows that a text canspeak across centuries and can reach new readers more than athousand years after it was first written.

The Venerable Bede

PROSE

Many of the earliest books were histories, rather than imaginativewritings. They give us a lot of the information we have of thisperiod. Bede, known as the Venerable Bede, was a monk who lived

between 673 and 735. He wrote many books, mostly about the BibIe,but he is remembered also for his History oj the English Church and

People written in Latin and completed about 731.

One of the first booksChronicie [chronicIe =recon

period of time, and tells the Iof Christian times, aroundinvasions and battles. Som

important for our knowledgeEnglish. King Alfred the Gre:helped to put the Chroniciewas a time of great literartranslations of religiousand lWest Saxon dialect into a

literature and history.Aelfric.of England, was an importaworks incIude Catholic H,

(990-2), and Lives oj the ~English, and all the featureshis work. Aelfrie is the grea

HURE IN ENGLISH THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH: OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH 7

)defend his own people againstI.lthough he kills the dragon,fight and dies. The poem has atatement of heroie values and

'emindsBeowulf of his greatest

~steall tela,

~ore geara gecwrede,

e óe lifigendum

he vow that you swore'outh, not to allow yourou lived.

:ontinue the example for the next

h, part history, but the hero islin battles and give safety to his~uestions of the passing of timelitit means to be a human being,owulf came out in 1999 and wasntten by the lrish Nobel Prizetranslation won the Whitbread

Beowulf shows that a text eaneach new readers more than atten.

The Venerable Rede

istories, rather than imaginativele information we have of this

ble Bede, was a monk who lived

lYbooks, mostly about the BibIe,'istory oj the English Church anded about 731.

One of the first books of history was The Anglo-SaxonChronicle [chronicIe = record of events]. It was wntten over a long

period of time, and tens the history of England from the beginningof Christian times, around AD 600, to 1154, with details of

invasions and battles. Some of it is in poetry, and it is veryimportant for our knowledge of the history and the language of OldEnglish. King Alfred the Great was probably one of the people whohelped to put the Chronicle together. His reign, from 871 to 899,was a time of great literary produetion. Alfred ordered manytranslations of religious and historical texts, and helped to bring theWest Saxon dialeet into a strong position as the language ofliterature and history. Aelfric, a monk from Winchester in the southof England, was an important translator as wen as a writer. Hisworks incIude Catholic Homilies [homilie s = religious talk]

(990-2), and Lives oj the Saints (993-8). He uses real spokenEnglish, and an the features of Old English literature are found inhis work. Aelfric is the greatest figure in Old English prose. He

8 THE PENGUIN GUIDE TO LITERATURE IN ENGLISH THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGI

brought excellence of style into the language, and wide knowledgeto aUhis works.

The themes of Old English literature are security, both for theindividual and society, and in religious faith. This literature gavecomfort, or provided reflection. Usually the poems were sung inthe hall of a castle, and these songs and poems were passed onfrom generation to generation before they were written down. Inthis way, the spoken tradition led to the first tradition of writtenliterature. At the same time, Old English was beginning to developinto a different language, called Middle English, eloser to theEnglish we know today.

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In Middle English literaturelove poetry began to come inand women appear more. Apage Jrom the Luttrel Psalter,14th century.

as objects of desire and perlibeings with feelings of theparticularly France and Italy,bthere was a elear desire to

literature and in history. Hmplace. There was still to be th(and England (1337-1453), as 1

the royal houses of LancasterAnd in the mid-fourteenth cenbrought illness and death to

country. There were sodal proof 1381.

The first histories, by th(Nennius (ninth century) and (created a sense of national h

name of King Arthur becamepast of history, and he later belmany centuries. Layamon~oma writer of history, put togethehistory which took British histRoman sources. Brut broughlwhich returned in later litera1

Middle English 1150-1485

In Middle English literature the hero of earlier times now became theman of romance, as love poetry began to come in, first of aU from

the south of France. Women began to appear more in poetry, usuaUy

King Arthur and theKnights oj the RoundTable. Arthur became a

symbol oj English history.