1 Scientific writing M.Hosseinzadeh,[email protected] Master Degree of Medical Education Courses

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Scientific writingScientific writing

M.Hosseinzadeh,M.D.M.Hosseinzadeh,M.D.

[email protected]@yahoo.comm

Master Degree of Medical Education Courses

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Scientific MethodScientific Method

Scientific Method emphasizes:Scientific Method emphasizes:PrecisionPrecision

AccuracyAccuracy

ObjectivityObjectivity

ClarityClarity

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education

PrecisionPrecision

AccuracyAccuracy

ObjectivityObjectivity

Clear Presentation of data and Clear Presentation of data and informationinformation

Carefully drawn conclusionsCarefully drawn conclusions (based on (based on sufficient data). sufficient data).

Scientific writing Scientific writing specificationsspecifications

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Why a Scientific Format?Why a Scientific Format?

The scientific format may seem The scientific format may seem confusing for the beginning science confusing for the beginning science writer due to its rigid structure which writer due to its rigid structure which is so different from writing in other is so different from writing in other areasareas

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Why a Scientific Format?Why a Scientific Format?

One reason for using this format is One reason for using this format is that it is a means of efficiently that it is a means of efficiently communicating scientific findings to communicating scientific findings to the broad community of scientists in the broad community of scientists in a uniform manner.a uniform manner. Another reason, perhaps more Another reason, perhaps more important than the first, is that this important than the first, is that this format allows the paper to be read at format allows the paper to be read at several different levels. several different levels.

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For example, many people skim For example, many people skim titlestitles to to find out what information is available on a find out what information is available on a subject. Others may read only titles and subject. Others may read only titles and Abstracts.Abstracts. Those wanting to go deeper may look at Those wanting to go deeper may look at the the tables and figurestables and figures in the in the resultsresults, and , and so on. The take home point here is that so on. The take home point here is that the scientific format helps to insure that at the scientific format helps to insure that at whatever level a person reads your paper whatever level a person reads your paper (beyond title skimming), they will likely (beyond title skimming), they will likely get the key results and conclusionsget the key results and conclusions

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The take home point here is that the The take home point here is that the scientific format helps to insure that scientific format helps to insure that at whatever level a person reads at whatever level a person reads your paper (beyond title skimming), your paper (beyond title skimming), they will likely get the key results they will likely get the key results and conclusionsand conclusions

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education The Sections of the Paper The Sections of the Paper

Most journal-style scientific writing Most journal-style scientific writing are subdivided into the following are subdivided into the following sections: sections: Title, Authors and Title, Authors and Affiliation, Abstract, Introduction, Affiliation, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, Methods, Results, Discussion, Acknowledgments, and Literature Acknowledgments, and Literature CitedCited, which parallel the , which parallel the experimental process. experimental process.

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Experimental process

Section of Paper

What did I do in a nutshell?

Abstract

What is the problem?

Introduction

How did I solve the problem?

Materials and Methods

What did I find out? Results

What does it mean?Why is it valid?

Discussion

Who helped me out? Acknowledgments

(optional)

Whose work did I refer to?

Literature Cited

Extra Information Appendices (optional

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education TitleTitle

FunctionFunction: Your paper should begin with a : Your paper should begin with a TitleTitle that succinctly describes the that succinctly describes the contentscontents of the paper. Use descriptive of the paper. Use descriptive words that you would associate strongly words that you would associate strongly with the content of your paper: the with the content of your paper: the molecule studied, the organism used or molecule studied, the organism used or studied, the treatment, the location of a studied, the treatment, the location of a field site, the response measured, etc. field site, the response measured, etc. A A majority of readers will find your paper via majority of readers will find your paper via electronic database searches and those electronic database searches and those search engines key on words found in the search engines key on words found in the title. title.

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A general rule-of-thumb is that the A general rule-of-thumb is that the title should contain the title should contain the key words key words describing the workdescribing the work presented. presented.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Abstract Abstract

FunctionFunction: An abstract summarizes, : An abstract summarizes, in one paragraph (usually), the major in one paragraph (usually), the major aspects of the entire paper in the aspects of the entire paper in the following prescribed sequence following prescribed sequence

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the the questions you investigatedquestions you investigated (or purpose):(or purpose):((from Introductionfrom Introduction)) – state the purpose very clearly in the first or state the purpose very clearly in the first or

second sentence. second sentence.

the the experimental designexperimental design and and methodsmethods used, used, ((from Methodsfrom Methods)) – clearly express the basic design of the study.clearly express the basic design of the study.– Name or briefly describe the basic Name or briefly describe the basic

methodology used without going into excessive methodology used without going into excessive detail-be sure to indicate the key techniques detail-be sure to indicate the key techniques used used

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education FAQsFAQs

the the major findingsmajor findings includingincluding key key quantitative resultsquantitative results, or , or trendstrends ( (from from ResultsResults) ) – report those results which answer the report those results which answer the

questions you were asking questions you were asking – identify trends, relative change or differences, identify trends, relative change or differences,

etc. etc.

a brief summary of your a brief summary of your interpretationsinterpretations and and conclusionsconclusions. (from . (from DiscussionDiscussion) ) – clearly state the implications of the answers clearly state the implications of the answers

your results gave youyour results gave you

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education FAQsFAQs

How do you know when you have How do you know when you have enough information in your enough information in your Abstract?Abstract? – A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine

that you are another researcher doing that you are another researcher doing an study similar to the one you are an study similar to the one you are reporting. If your Abstract was the only reporting. If your Abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the would you be happy with the information presented there?information presented there?

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StyleStyle: The Abstract is ONLY text. Use : The Abstract is ONLY text. Use the active voice when possible, but the active voice when possible, but much of it may require passive much of it may require passive constructions. Write your Abstract constructions. Write your Abstract using concise, but complete, using concise, but complete, sentences, and get to the point sentences, and get to the point quickly. quickly. Use past tenseUse past tense. Maximum . Maximum length should be 200-300 words, length should be 200-300 words, usually in a single paragraphusually in a single paragraph

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education AvoidAvoid

lengthy background information, lengthy background information,

references to other literature, references to other literature,

elliptical or incomplete sentences, elliptical or incomplete sentences,

abbreviations or terms that may be abbreviations or terms that may be confusing to readers, confusing to readers,

any sort of illustration, figure, or any sort of illustration, figure, or table, or references to them table, or references to them

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INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

FunctionFunction: The function of the : The function of the Introduction is to: Establish the Introduction is to: Establish the context of the work being reported. context of the work being reported. This is accomplished by discussing This is accomplished by discussing the relevantthe relevant primary research primary research literature (with citations) and literature (with citations) and summarizing our current summarizing our current understanding of the problem you understanding of the problem you are investigating; are investigating;

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

State the purpose of the work in the State the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or form of the hypothesis, question, or problem you investigated; and, problem you investigated; and,

Briefly explain your rationale and Briefly explain your rationale and approach and, whenever possible, approach and, whenever possible, the possible outcomes your study the possible outcomes your study can revealcan reveal

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What was I studyingWhat was I studying??

Why was it an important question?Why was it an important question?

What did we know about it before I What did we know about it before I did this study? did this study?

How will this study advance our How will this study advance our knowledge?knowledge?" "

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education StructureStructure::

The structure of the Introduction can The structure of the Introduction can be thought of as an inverted triangle be thought of as an inverted triangle - the broadest part at the top - the broadest part at the top representing the most general representing the most general information and focusing down to the information and focusing down to the specific problem you studied. specific problem you studied.

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Organize the information to present Organize the information to present the more general aspects of the topic the more general aspects of the topic early in the Introduction, then narrow early in the Introduction, then narrow toward the more specific topical toward the more specific topical information that provides context, information that provides context, finally arriving at your statement of finally arriving at your statement of purpose and rationale purpose and rationale

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A good way to get on track is to sketch out A good way to get on track is to sketch out the Introduction the Introduction backwardsbackwards; start with the ; start with the specific purpose and then decide what is specific purpose and then decide what is the scientific context in which you are the scientific context in which you are asking the questions your study asking the questions your study addresses. Once the scientific context is addresses. Once the scientific context is decided, then you'll have a good sense of decided, then you'll have a good sense of what level and type of general information what level and type of general information with which the Introduction should begin. with which the Introduction should begin.

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Begin your Introduction by clearly Begin your Introduction by clearly identifying the subject area of identifying the subject area of interestinterest Establish the Establish the contextcontext by providing a by providing a brief and balanced review of the brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is pertinent published literature that is available on the subjectavailable on the subject What literature should you look for in What literature should you look for in your review of what we know about your review of what we know about the problem?the problem?

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Be sure to clearly state the Be sure to clearly state the purpose and /or hypothesis that purpose and /or hypothesis that you investigatedyou investigated

Provide a clear statement of the Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to rationale for your approach to the problem studiedthe problem studied

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS AND METHODS

FunctionFunction: In this section you explain : In this section you explain clearlyclearly how you carried out your how you carried out your study in the following study in the following generalgeneral structure and organization structure and organization

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the the subjects used subjects used (plant, animal, human, (plant, animal, human, etc.) and their pre-experiment handling etc.) and their pre-experiment handling and care, and when and where the study and care, and when and where the study was carried out (if location and time are was carried out (if location and time are important factors); important factors);

if a field study, a if a field study, a description of the description of the study sitestudy site, , including the physical and including the physical and biological features, and precise location; biological features, and precise location;

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the the experimental OR sampling designexperimental OR sampling design (i.e., how the experiment or study was (i.e., how the experiment or study was structured. For example, controls, structured. For example, controls, treatments, the variable(s) measured, how treatments, the variable(s) measured, how many samples were collected, replication, many samples were collected, replication, etc.); etc.); the the protocol for collecting dataprotocol for collecting data, i.e., , i.e., how the experimental procedures were how the experimental procedures were carried out, and, carried out, and, how the data were analyzed how the data were analyzed (statistical (statistical procedures used). procedures used).

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Describe the protocol for your Describe the protocol for your study in sufficient detail that study in sufficient detail that other scientists could repeat other scientists could repeat your work to verify your findingsyour work to verify your findings

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Describe how the data were Describe how the data were summarized and analyzedsummarized and analyzedThe information should include:The information should include:– how the data were summarized (Means, how the data were summarized (Means,

percent, etc) and how you are reporting percent, etc) and how you are reporting measures of variability (SD,SEM, etc) measures of variability (SD,SEM, etc)

this lets you avoid having to repeatedly this lets you avoid having to repeatedly indicate you are using mean ± SD. indicate you are using mean ± SD.

– data transformation (e.g., to normalize or data transformation (e.g., to normalize or equalize variances) equalize variances)

– statistical tests used with reference to statistical tests used with reference to the particular questions they address, e.the particular questions they address, e.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Too wordyToo wordy

The petri dish was placed on the The petri dish was placed on the turntable. The lid was then raised turntable. The lid was then raised slightly. An inoculating loop was used slightly. An inoculating loop was used to transfer culture to the agar to transfer culture to the agar surface. The turntable was rotated surface. The turntable was rotated 90 degrees by hand. The loop was 90 degrees by hand. The loop was moved lightly back and forth over moved lightly back and forth over the agar to spread the culture. The the agar to spread the culture. The bacteria were then incubated at 37 C bacteria were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."for 24 hr."

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Better paraphrased Better paraphrased

Each plate was placed on a turntable Each plate was placed on a turntable and streaked at opposing angles with and streaked at opposing angles with fresh overnight E. coli culture using fresh overnight E. coli culture using an inoculating loop. The bacteria an inoculating loop. The bacteria were then incubated at 37 C for 24 were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."hr."

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education BestBest

Each plate was streaked with fresh Each plate was streaked with fresh overnight E. coli culture and overnight E. coli culture and incubated at 37 C for 24 hr." incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."

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A Spec 20 was used to measure A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 of A600 of Tubes 1,2, Tubes 1,2, andand 3 3 immediately after chloroplasts were immediately after chloroplasts were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was thereafter until the DCIP was completely reduced. Tube 4's A600 completely reduced. Tube 4's A600 was measured only at Time 0 and at was measured only at Time 0 and at the end of the experiment."the end of the experiment."

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A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 of of the reaction mixtures exposed to light the reaction mixtures exposed to light intensities of 1500, 750, and 350 intensities of 1500, 750, and 350 uE/m2/sec immediatelyuE/m2/sec immediately after chloroplasts after chloroplasts were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was completely thereafter until the DCIP was completely reduced. The A600 of reduced. The A600 of the no light controlthe no light control was measured only at Time 0 and at the was measured only at Time 0 and at the end of the experiment end of the experiment

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education RESULTSRESULTS

FunctionFunction: The function of the Results : The function of the Results section is to objectively present your key section is to objectively present your key results, results, withoutwithout interpretation, in an interpretation, in an orderly and logical sequence using both orderly and logical sequence using both illustrative materials (Tables and Figures) illustrative materials (Tables and Figures) and text. Summaries of the statistical and text. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either in the text analyses may appear either in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant Tables or Figures (in the legend or as Tables or Figures (in the legend or as footnotes to the Table or Figure). footnotes to the Table or Figure).

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The Results section should be organized The Results section should be organized around a series of Tables and/or Figures around a series of Tables and/or Figures sequenced to present your key findings in sequenced to present your key findings in a logical order. The text of the Results a logical order. The text of the Results section follows this sequence and section follows this sequence and highlights the answers to the highlights the answers to the questions/hypotheses you investigated. questions/hypotheses you investigated. Important negative results should be Important negative results should be reported, too. Authors usually write the reported, too. Authors usually write the text of the results section based upon this text of the results section based upon this sequence of Tables and Figures. sequence of Tables and Figures.

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StyleStyle: Write the text of the Results : Write the text of the Results section concisely and objectively. section concisely and objectively. The passive voice will likely dominate The passive voice will likely dominate here, but use the active voice as here, but use the active voice as much as possible. Use the much as possible. Use the past past tensetense. Avoid repetitive paragraph . Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not interpret the data structures. Do not interpret the data here. The transition into interpretive here. The transition into interpretive language can be a slippery slope. language can be a slippery slope. Consider the following two examples: Consider the following two examples:

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education ExampleExample

The duration of exposure to running The duration of exposure to running water had a pronounced effect on water had a pronounced effect on cumulative seed germination cumulative seed germination percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds exposed percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds exposed to the 2-day treatment had the to the 2-day treatment had the highest cumulative germination highest cumulative germination (84%), 1.25 times that of the 12-h or (84%), 1.25 times that of the 12-h or 5-day groups and 4 times that of 5-day groups and 4 times that of controls controls

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education ExampleExample

The results of the germination The results of the germination experiment (Fig. 2) suggest that the experiment (Fig. 2) suggest that the optimal time for running-water optimal time for running-water treatment is 2 days. This group treatment is 2 days. This group showed the highest cumulative showed the highest cumulative germination (84%), with longer (5 d) germination (84%), with longer (5 d) or shorter (12 h) exposures or shorter (12 h) exposures producing smaller gains in producing smaller gains in germination when compared to the germination when compared to the control group control group

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Important notesImportant notes

Present the results of your Present the results of your experiment(s) in a sequence that experiment(s) in a sequence that will logically support (or provide will logically support (or provide evidence against) the evidence against) the hypothesis, or answer the hypothesis, or answer the question, stated in the question, stated in the IntroductionIntroduction

Report Report negativenegative results results

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Things to avoidThings to avoid

Do notDo not reiterate each value from a Figure reiterate each value from a Figure or Table - only the key result or trends that or Table - only the key result or trends that each conveys. each conveys. Do notDo not present the same data in both a present the same data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered Table and Figure - this is considered redundant and a waste of space and redundant and a waste of space and energy. Decide which format best shows energy. Decide which format best shows the result and go with it. the result and go with it. Do notDo not report raw data values when they report raw data values when they can be summarized as means, percents, can be summarized as means, percents, etc.etc.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education SignificanceSignificance

In scientific studies, the use of this In scientific studies, the use of this word implies that a statistical test word implies that a statistical test was employed to make a decision was employed to make a decision about the data; in this case the test about the data; in this case the test indicated a larger difference in mean indicated a larger difference in mean heights than you would expect to get heights than you would expect to get by chance alone. Limit the use of the by chance alone. Limit the use of the word "significant" to this purpose word "significant" to this purpose only. only.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education SignificanceSignificance

If your parenthetical statistical If your parenthetical statistical information includes a p-value that is information includes a p-value that is significant, it is unncecssary (and significant, it is unncecssary (and redundant) to use the word redundant) to use the word "significant" in the body of the "significant" in the body of the sentence (see example above sentence (see example above

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education DiscussionDiscussion

FunctionFunction: The function of the : The function of the Discussion is to interpret your results Discussion is to interpret your results in light of what was already known in light of what was already known about the subject of the about the subject of the investigation, and to explain our new investigation, and to explain our new understanding of the problem after understanding of the problem after taking your results into taking your results into consideration. Theconsideration. The

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education DiscussionDiscussion

Discussion will always connect to the Discussion will always connect to the Introduction by way of the Introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses you posed question(s) or hypotheses you posed and the literature you cited, but it and the literature you cited, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange does not simply repeat or rearrange the Introduction. Instead, it tells how the Introduction. Instead, it tells how your study has moved us forward your study has moved us forward from the place you left us at the end from the place you left us at the end of the Introduction of the Introduction

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Questions to be answeredQuestions to be answered

Do your results provide answers to Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses? If so, how your testable hypotheses? If so, how do you interpret your findings? do you interpret your findings?

Why Were the tools and methods Why Were the tools and methods and analysis appropriate?and analysis appropriate?

Any possible doubt that you will think Any possible doubt that you will think is reasonable from peer is reasonable from peer

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Questions to be answeredQuestions to be answered

Do your findings agree with what others Do your findings agree with what others have shown? If not, do they suggest an have shown? If not, do they suggest an alternative explanation or perhaps an alternative explanation or perhaps an unforeseen design flaw in your experiment unforeseen design flaw in your experiment (or theirs?) (or theirs?) Given your conclusions, what is our new Given your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the problem you understanding of the problem you investigated and outlined in the investigated and outlined in the Introduction? Introduction? If warranted, what would be the next step If warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g., what experiments in your study, e.g., what experiments should be done next? should be done next?

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education NotesNotes

Use the active voice whenever Use the active voice whenever possible in this section. Watch out for possible in this section. Watch out for wordy phrases; be concise and make wordy phrases; be concise and make your points clearly. Use of the first your points clearly. Use of the first person is okay, but too much use of person is okay, but too much use of the first person may actually distract the first person may actually distract the reader from the main points the reader from the main points

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Be wary of mistaking the reiteration Be wary of mistaking the reiteration of a result for an interpretation, and of a result for an interpretation, and make sure that make sure that no new resultsno new results are are presented here that rightly belong in presented here that rightly belong in the results. the results.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education Acknowledgments Acknowledgments

If, in your experiment, you received If, in your experiment, you received any significant help in thinking up, any significant help in thinking up, designing, or carrying out the work, designing, or carrying out the work, or received materials from someone or received materials from someone who did you a favor by supplying who did you a favor by supplying them, you must acknowledge their them, you must acknowledge their assistance and the service or assistance and the service or material provided. material provided.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education ReferencesReferences

Should be consistentShould be consistent

CompleteComplete

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education AppendixAppendix

Any relevant information that you Any relevant information that you wish to appear beside your finding wish to appear beside your finding but it is not essential for but it is not essential for understanding the research.understanding the research.

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Master DegreeOfMedical Education ReferencesReferences

(1) Council of Biology Editors, Scientific Style andFormat, 6th Ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United

Kingdom, 825 pp., 1994.http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_dangmhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_dangmod.htmlod.html

http://writing.colostate.edu/index.cfmhttp://writing.colostate.edu/index.cfm

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1 Scientific writing M.Hosseinzadeh,[email protected] Master Degree of Medical Education Courses