1 L’expansion de l’arabe hors de son territoire d’origine Djamel Kouloughli The « Migrations » Workshop ESF: OMLL Porquerolles – France 5 au 7 septembre

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L’expansion de l’arabeL’expansion de l’arabehors de son territoire d’originehors de son territoire d’origine

Djamel KouloughliDjamel Kouloughli

The « Migrations » WorkshopESF: OMLL

Porquerolles – France5 au 7 septembre 2007

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The expansion of ArabicThe expansion of Arabic

1. A preliminary view

2. The language situation before islam

1. The expansion of Arabic : The Maghreban case

1. Factors and mechanisms of arabicization

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1. Introduction1. Introduction

Afro-asiatic and semitic yesterday and Afro-asiatic and semitic yesterday and todaytoday

Arabic speaking world todayArabic speaking world today

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Afro-asiatic in the 5Afro-asiatic in the 5thth century BC century BC following D.Cohen 1988following D.Cohen 1988

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Afro-asiatic todayAfro-asiatic todayfollowing D.Cohen 1988following D.Cohen 1988

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The Arabic speaking world todayThe Arabic speaking world today

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The language situation The language situation before islambefore islam

The language situation around ArabiaThe language situation around Arabia

The language situation in ArabiaThe language situation in Arabia

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The language situation around The language situation around ArabiaArabia

following Holes 1995-2004following Holes 1995-2004

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The language situation in ArabiaThe language situation in Arabia following Blachère 1952following Blachère 1952

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The expansion of ArabicThe expansion of Arabic The Maghreban caseThe Maghreban case

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Maghreb Maghreb 1/121/12

Before the islamic conquests only a narrow coastal Before the islamic conquests only a narrow coastal zone in eastern Maghreb (the former Africa romana zone in eastern Maghreb (the former Africa romana province) was under byzantine authority.province) was under byzantine authority.

The Byzantine tried hard to contain the constant The Byzantine tried hard to contain the constant pressure of the nomadic Berbers from the south.pressure of the nomadic Berbers from the south.

The sedentary populations in the north were donatists The sedentary populations in the north were donatists (a christian schism repressed by the official church) (a christian schism repressed by the official church) and were submitted to heavy taxes by Byzantium.and were submitted to heavy taxes by Byzantium.

In the romanized towns : a variety of proto-romance In the romanized towns : a variety of proto-romance language was in use. Around Carthage, there were language was in use. Around Carthage, there were possible remains of the vandal language and perhaps possible remains of the vandal language and perhaps even phoenician. All the rest of the country spoke even phoenician. All the rest of the country spoke berber.berber.

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The Byzantine were rapidly defeated in 647 and The Byzantine were rapidly defeated in 647 and they abandoned North Africa. they abandoned North Africa.

On the contrary berber resistance to Arab On the contrary berber resistance to Arab invaders was long and fierce. It ended only invaders was long and fierce. It ended only towards 700.towards 700.

The Berbers converted (often nominally) to islam The Berbers converted (often nominally) to islam in part out of interest : it gave them the in part out of interest : it gave them the possibility to take part in the subsequent possibility to take part in the subsequent conquest of Spain.conquest of Spain.

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In a first phase of arabicization, which will take In a first phase of arabicization, which will take more than 3 centuries, only the towns and their more than 3 centuries, only the towns and their surroundings, together with a small number of surroundings, together with a small number of rural areas of sedentary colonization were rural areas of sedentary colonization were arabicized.arabicized.

The Arabic dialects resulting from this « first The Arabic dialects resulting from this « first arabicization» are of the « sedentary » type. arabicization» are of the « sedentary » type.

All the maghreban hinterland remained berber All the maghreban hinterland remained berber speaking.speaking.

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The second phase of arabicization began in the The second phase of arabicization began in the middle of the 11th century (1052) when beduin middle of the 11th century (1052) when beduin Arab tribes untill then "exiled" in Upper Egypt Arab tribes untill then "exiled" in Upper Egypt started a westbound emigration (in rather epic started a westbound emigration (in rather epic circumstances). circumstances).

These tribes of beduin Arabs deeply modified the These tribes of beduin Arabs deeply modified the delicate ecologic balance between sedentaries and delicate ecologic balance between sedentaries and nomads, and, through alliances and nomads, and, through alliances and intermarriages, restarted, but this time within the intermarriages, restarted, but this time within the maghreban hinterland, the process of maghreban hinterland, the process of arabicization. arabicization.

Arabicization will henceforth progressively stretch Arabicization will henceforth progressively stretch to vast berber speaking zones which had hitherto to vast berber speaking zones which had hitherto evaded it. evaded it.

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The migration of Arab beduins involved three great The migration of Arab beduins involved three great tribal groups: the tribal groups: the HilâlsHilâls, the , the SulaymsSulayms and the and the MaʕqîlsMaʕqîls..

The The HilâlsHilâls arrived first (in 1052) in eastern Maghreb arrived first (in 1052) in eastern Maghreb but were slowly « pushed » westwards by the but were slowly « pushed » westwards by the SulaymsSulayms. .

So They progressively occupied central Sahara and So They progressively occupied central Sahara and all the algerian steppe. The total arabicization of this all the algerian steppe. The total arabicization of this vast region will take 3 or 4 centuries.vast region will take 3 or 4 centuries.

Mountainous zones (Kabylia, Aures) became the Mountainous zones (Kabylia, Aures) became the refuge of sedentary speakers of berber. refuge of sedentary speakers of berber.

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We may still recognize today those « refugees » We may still recognize today those « refugees » by the fact that neither their housing techniques by the fact that neither their housing techniques nor their farming methods are adapted to a nor their farming methods are adapted to a Mountain environment.Mountain environment.

These refuge zones, overpopulated, will These refuge zones, overpopulated, will henceforth become reservoirs of migratory henceforth become reservoirs of migratory populations, first towards the towns of central populations, first towards the towns of central Maghreb (eg Algiers, as early as the 18Maghreb (eg Algiers, as early as the 18thth century) century) and then towards Europe (France, 20and then towards Europe (France, 20thth century). century).

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The The SulaymsSulayms settled in Lybia and in Tunisia. settled in Lybia and in Tunisia.

These regions will be almost totally arabicized, These regions will be almost totally arabicized, berber only surviving in a very small number of berber only surviving in a very small number of refuges (mountainous zones, islands).refuges (mountainous zones, islands).

A fraction of the A fraction of the SulaymsSulayms headed southwards. They headed southwards. They were the source of the arabicization of northern Tchad.were the source of the arabicization of northern Tchad.

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The The MaʕqîlsMaʕqîls arrived last (in the 12 arrived last (in the 12thth century) and century) and tried to « skirt » by the west the first two groups. tried to « skirt » by the west the first two groups.

They clashed (in 1152 near Sétif in eastern They clashed (in 1152 near Sétif in eastern Algeria) with the Almohad sovereign ʕAbd-Al-Algeria) with the Almohad sovereign ʕAbd-Al-Mûman who did not intend to drive them back but Mûman who did not intend to drive them back but on the contrary to oblige them to settle in on the contrary to oblige them to settle in Morocco to reinforce his military potential !Morocco to reinforce his military potential !

The The MaʕqîlMaʕqîls settled consequently in the moroccan s settled consequently in the moroccan meseta and the atlantic plains which thus got meseta and the atlantic plains which thus got progressively arabicized.progressively arabicized.

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A fraction of the A fraction of the MaʕqîlsMaʕqîls, The , The HassânsHassâns, allied , allied themselves with a tribe of great berber nomads, themselves with a tribe of great berber nomads, the the LamtûnaLamtûna, who thus got arabicized., who thus got arabicized.

The two groups, henceforth « parents », fought The two groups, henceforth « parents », fought during nearly 30 years against the Sanhâdja during nearly 30 years against the Sanhâdja berbers and finally imposed themselves in the berbers and finally imposed themselves in the territories of southern Morocco.territories of southern Morocco.

At this stage the arabicization of western Sahara At this stage the arabicization of western Sahara and Mauritania could begin (16and Mauritania could begin (16th ~th ~ 17 17thth century). century).

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Maghreb Maghreb 10/1210/12 « The hilâlian invasions »« The hilâlian invasions »

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By the 16By the 16thth century, the berber language domain century, the berber language domain is finally drastically reduced, in the Maghreb, to is finally drastically reduced, in the Maghreb, to discontinuous patches (mountainous zones, far discontinuous patches (mountainous zones, far south of the Sahara, heterodox oases). south of the Sahara, heterodox oases).

Everywhere else Arabic, under its « sedentary » Everywhere else Arabic, under its « sedentary » form (1form (1stst arabicization) or, much more largely , arabicization) or, much more largely , "beduin" (2"beduin" (2ndnd arabicization) has become the arabicization) has become the language of the natives in the Maghreb.language of the natives in the Maghreb.

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Maghreb Maghreb 12/1212/12 Distribution of linguistic varietiesDistribution of linguistic varieties

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Conditions and mechanisms of Conditions and mechanisms of arabicizationarabicization

factors specific to the « first circle » : Yemen, factors specific to the « first circle » : Yemen, Syria et IraqSyria et Iraq

General factors of arabicization General factors of arabicization

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The « first circle »:The « first circle »:Yemen, Syria and IraqYemen, Syria and Iraq

3 specific factors facilitated the arabicization of Yemen, 3 specific factors facilitated the arabicization of Yemen, Syria and Iraq : Syria and Iraq :

1. Ancient (preislamic) settlements of speakers of Arabic 1. Ancient (preislamic) settlements of speakers of Arabic in these territories, some of them permanent.in these territories, some of them permanent.

2. Numerous and long term contacts with speakers of 2. Numerous and long term contacts with speakers of Arabic in these territories.Arabic in these territories.

3. Linguistic and cultural proximity between speakers of 3. Linguistic and cultural proximity between speakers of Arabic and speakers of Aramaic or Southarabian.Arabic and speakers of Aramaic or Southarabian.

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General factors of arabicizationGeneral factors of arabicization

1. 1. IslamizationIslamization

It is the first factor one thinks of, but it certainly is It is the first factor one thinks of, but it certainly is THE LEAST important, as witnessed by the THE LEAST important, as witnessed by the existence of both non muslim speakers of Arabic existence of both non muslim speakers of Arabic (Arab Christians and Jews) and that of muslims (Arab Christians and Jews) and that of muslims not speaking Arabic. not speaking Arabic.

This factor has nevertheless been somehow a This factor has nevertheless been somehow a "catalyst of arabicization" by furthering the "catalyst of arabicization" by furthering the process of integration into the arab-muslim process of integration into the arab-muslim society particularly through the mechanism of society particularly through the mechanism of walâwalâ‘’ (presented below). ‘’ (presented below).

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2. 2. UrbanizationUrbanization

As administrative, religious and political centres, towns As administrative, religious and political centres, towns were places where Arabic was bound to be used. were places where Arabic was bound to be used.

As polyglot places and centres of exchange, towns As polyglot places and centres of exchange, towns furthered the diffusion of Arabic as a "lingua franca". furthered the diffusion of Arabic as a "lingua franca".

By contrast, mountainous places and small localities By contrast, mountainous places and small localities remote from communication routes will long resist to remote from communication routes will long resist to arabicization.arabicization.

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However urbanization is an essential factor only in the However urbanization is an essential factor only in the case of « first type » arabicization, that which starts from case of « first type » arabicization, that which starts from urban centres occupied or founded by Arab armies.urban centres occupied or founded by Arab armies.

« Second type » arabicization which the Maghreb went « Second type » arabicization which the Maghreb went through, rested on the contrary on a development of through, rested on the contrary on a development of beduinization to the detriment of sedentarization. beduinization to the detriment of sedentarization.

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3. 3. MigrationsMigrations

(Almost) everywhere, a necessary condition to a deep (Almost) everywhere, a necessary condition to a deep and lasting arabicization seems to have been a renewed and lasting arabicization seems to have been a renewed supply of Arabic speaking people either directly from supply of Arabic speaking people either directly from Arabia or from regions already profoundly arabicized.Arabia or from regions already profoundly arabicized.

Yet historians seem to admit that everywhere the Yet historians seem to admit that everywhere the proportion of the population originating from Arabia proportion of the population originating from Arabia remained modest compared to that of the natives. So remained modest compared to that of the natives. So number does not seem to have been the decisive factor number does not seem to have been the decisive factor which boosted arabicization.which boosted arabicization.

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4. 4. AssimilationAssimilation

This factor refers to the workings of traditional Arab This factor refers to the workings of traditional Arab society which tends to impose to all an integration in society which tends to impose to all an integration in its segmentary structure particularly through mixed its segmentary structure particularly through mixed marriages and through the institution of marriages and through the institution of walâ’walâ’..

Mixed marriages whose offspring are normally Mixed marriages whose offspring are normally Arabic speaking are one of the essential devices of Arabic speaking are one of the essential devices of this assimilation which is both cultural and linguistic.this assimilation which is both cultural and linguistic.

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Walâ’ (Walâ’ (الوالءالوالء )) Walâ’Walâ’ is a kind of adoption by a is a kind of adoption by a sayyidsayyid (master) of (master) of

his former freed slave after the latter’s his former freed slave after the latter’s conversion to islam. By the relationship of conversion to islam. By the relationship of walâ’walâ’, , the the sayyidsayyid becomes becomes wâlî wâlî (protector) and the (protector) and the former slave becomes his former slave becomes his mawlâmawlâ (protected). The (protected). The mawlâmawlâ may henceforth refer, for his social may henceforth refer, for his social identity, to the genealogy of his identity, to the genealogy of his wâlî,wâlî, and may and may marry within the adopting tribal group. The marry within the adopting tribal group. The offspring of such marriages grow within the offspring of such marriages grow within the (Arabic speaking) tribe who protects them as one (Arabic speaking) tribe who protects them as one of its own members.of its own members.

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Walâ’ (Walâ’ (الوالءالوالء )) Besides this individual Besides this individual walâwalâ’, practiced at family level ’, practiced at family level

there existed a kind of « collective there existed a kind of « collective walâwalâ’ » by which a ’ » by which a tribe adopted « wholesale » another tribe.tribe adopted « wholesale » another tribe.

This collective This collective walâwalâ’ explains the « absorption » of great ’ explains the « absorption » of great berber nomad tribes by « protecting » arab tribes and the berber nomad tribes by « protecting » arab tribes and the pure and simple « disappearence » of the « protected » pure and simple « disappearence » of the « protected » tribes as distinct entities.tribes as distinct entities.

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Merci de votre attentionMerci de votre attention

انتباهكم حسن على ا انتباهكم شكر6 حسن على ا شكر6

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QQCrédits cartographiquesCrédits cartographiques

L’afro-asiatique au 5e siècle AECL’afro-asiatique au 5e siècle AECCohen, D., (1988), « Langues chamito-Cohen, D., (1988), « Langues chamito-sémitiques », sémitiques », Les langues dans le monde ancien et Les langues dans le monde ancien et moderne, moderne, (dir. J.Perrot), Paris, Editions du CNRS.(dir. J.Perrot), Paris, Editions du CNRS.

L’afro-asiatique aujourd’huiL’afro-asiatique aujourd’huiCohen, D., (1988), « Langues chamito-Cohen, D., (1988), « Langues chamito-sémitiques », Les langues dans le sémitiques », Les langues dans le monde ancien et moderne, (dir. monde ancien et moderne, (dir. J.Perrot), Paris, Editions du CNRS.J.Perrot), Paris, Editions du CNRS.

L’arabophonie aujourd’huiL’arabophonie aujourd’huiOriginally made by Originally made by FoxFox MccloudMccloud from from english wikipedia (Modifié par l’auteur)english wikipedia (Modifié par l’auteur)

Le Monde avant l’IslamLe Monde avant l’Islamأطلس التأريخ االسالميأطلس التأريخ االسالمي

Situation linguistique avant l'islamSituation linguistique avant l'islamHoles, C. (1995-2004), Modern Arabic : Holes, C. (1995-2004), Modern Arabic : Stuctures, Functions, and Varieties, Stuctures, Functions, and Varieties, Georgetown, Georgetown University Georgetown, Georgetown University Press.Press.

Les tribus de l’Arabie ancienneLes tribus de l’Arabie ancienneBlachère, R. (1952), Histoire de la Blachère, R. (1952), Histoire de la littérature arabe des origines à la fin littérature arabe des origines à la fin du XVe siècle de J.C., du XVe siècle de J.C., Paris, Adrien-Maisonneuve.Paris, Adrien-Maisonneuve.

Les invasions hilâliennesLes invasions hilâliennesD.E. Kouloughli (2007)D.E. Kouloughli (2007)

Maghreb, répartition des variétés Maghreb, répartition des variétés linguistiques linguistiques Adapté de Kouloughli (1972)Adapté de Kouloughli (1972)

Documents

1 L’expansion de l’arabe hors de son territoire d’origine Djamel Kouloughli The « Migrations » Workshop ESF: OMLL Porquerolles – France 5 au 7 septembre