1 Hardware: CPU Williams, B.K, Stacy C. Sawyer (2007). Using Information Technology: A Practical Introduction to Computers & Communications. Seventh Edition,

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Hardware: CPU

Williams, B.K, Stacy C. Sawyer (2007). Using Information Technology: A Practical Introduction to Computers & Communications. Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-110768-6

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Learning Outcomes

Pada akhir pertemuan ini, diharapkan mahasiswa

akan mampu :

• menjelaskan apa yg dimaksud dg Central Processing Unit, komponen-komponennya, dan cara kerjanya

• menjelaskan berbagai jenis secondary storage yg ada pada masa kini, dan perkembangannya ke depan

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Outline Materi

• Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility

• The System Unit: The Basics

• More on the System Unit

• Secondary Storage

• Future Developments in Processing & Storage

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Microchips, Miniaturization & Mobility

• Vacuum Tubes vs. Transistors– Vacuum tubes were the original logic gates of

computers– They looked like light bulbs, were hot, and burned out

like them too– The original transistors were 1/100th the size of

vacuum tubes (less power, faster, more reliable too)

• Transistors vs. Integrated Circuits– Compare 1955’s 45 lb “portable” color TV to today’s 7

oz Casio 2.3 inch color TV– One integrated circuit contains thousands of

transistors

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• Semiconductor– A material whose electrical properties are

intermediate between a good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity

– Perfect substrate to overlay complex circuits on– Microchips are made from semiconductors– Contain millions of microminiature integrated

circuits


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• Microprocessor– The miniaturized circuitry of an entire

computer processor on a single chip– Contains the CPU, which processes data

• Microcontroller or Embedded Computer– A microprocessor that was modified for use in

a machine that isn’t a computer


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The System Unit: The Basics

• Binary System: the basic unit of computing– Uses just two numbers: 0 and 1– All data and program instructions in the computer are

represented as binary– Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit– Byte: a group of 8 bits– Kilobyte: ~1,000 (1,024) bytes– Megabyte: ~1 Million (1,048,576) bytes– Gigabyte: ~1 Billion (1,073,741,824) bytes– Terabyte: ~ 1 Trillion (1,009,511,627,576) bytes– Petabyte: ~ 1 quadrillion bytes– Exabyte: ~ 1 quintillion bytes

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The System Unit: The Basics• Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to

each letter– EBCDIC

• Requires 8 bits per character• Used for IBM mainframes

– ASCII• Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on

the version• 8 bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters• Used for PCs, Unix hosts, Macs

– Unicode• Requires 16 bits per character• Handles 65,536 characters

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• Error Checking: Parity Bits– Used in modems & communications to verify

correctness– One check bit is added to 7 bit byte– The check bit is defined as either odd or even– For odd parity, if the data sent is correct, the parity bit

plus the first 7 data bits is an odd number– For even parity, if the data sent is correct, the parity

bit plus the first 7 data bits is an even number Discussion Question: If the 7 data bits are 1101011, and the modem is sending odd parity, what should the parity bit be set to?

Answer: Since the data bits add up to 5, an odd number, the parity bit will be 0.

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• Machine Language– A binary-type programming language built into

the CPU that is run directly by the computer– Each CPU type has its own machine

language

• Language Translators– System programs convert the programming

instructions for you into machine language

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The System Unit: The Basics Computer Terms

• Names1. Bay

2. Power Supply3. Surge Protector

4. Voltage Regulator

5. UPS

6. Motherboard7. Microprocessor8. Chipset

• Definitions1. Shell or opening used for the installation of electrical

equipment.

2. This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

3. Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one.

4. Protects a computer against brownouts or low power conditions that happen a lot in summer.

5. Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for a time when there is a blackout.

6. The main system board of the computer.

7. The miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.

8. Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard.

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• The CPU– Older CPUs processing speeds are in MegaHertz

• 1 MHz = 1 Million ticks per second

– Current CPUs processing speeds are in GigaHertz• 1 GHz = 1 Billion ticks per second

– The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates

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The System Unit: The Basics• The CPU Continued

– Mainframe and minicomputer speed is measured in MIPS

• MIPS stands for millions of instructions per second• Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more• Mainframes perform at 200 – 1,200 MIPS

– Supercomputer processing speed is measured in flops

• Flops stands for floating point operations per second

• IBM’s Blue Gene/L cranks out 70.72 teraflops (tera = trillion) per second

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More on the System UnitParts of the CPU

Name1. Word size

2. Control unit

3. Arithmetic Logic Unit

4. Registers

5. Buses

Definition

1. The number of bits the processor can process at any one time

2. The part of the CPU that deciphers instructions and carries them out

3. The ALU performs mathematical and logical operations and controls the speed of them

4. High-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing

5. Electrical data roadways used to transmit bits within the CPU and between CPU and other motherboard components

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More on the System UnitHow Memory Works

Memory Chip

1. RAM

2. ROM

3. CMOS

4. Flash

Explanation

1. Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:

a. Software instructions

b. Data before & after the CPU processes it2. Read only memory

a. Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment

b. Are loaded at factory with fixed start-up instructions

3. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductora. Powered by a batteryb. Contains time, date, calendar, boot password

4. Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than oncea. Doesn’t require a batteryb. Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

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More on the System Unit Types of RAM

RAM Types

1. DRAM

2. SDRAM

3. SRAM

4. DDR-SDRAM5. SIMM

6. DIMM

Explanation

1. Dynamic RAM must be constantly refreshed by the CPU or it loses its contents

2. Synchronous Dynamic RAM is synchronized by the system clock and is much faster than DRAM

3. Static RAM is faster than DRAM and retains its contents without having to be refreshed by CPU

4. Double-data rate synchronous dynamic RAM5. Single Inline Memory Module has RAM chips on

only one side a. FPM is fast page mode typeb. EDO is extended data output; is faster than FPM

6. Dual Inline Memory Module has chips on both sides

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More on the System Unit Speeding up Processing

• The CPU works much faster than RAM– So it could sit there waiting for information– Cache temporarily stores instructions and

data that the processor uses frequently to speed up processing

• Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor– Holds 8 to 256 kb– Faster than Level 2 cache

• Level 2 cache is SRAM external cache– Holds 64 kb to 2 Mb

• Level 3 cache is on the motherboard– Comes on very high-end computers

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More on the System Unit Speeding up Processing

Method1. Interleaving

2. Bursting

3. Pipelining

4. Superscalar Architecture

5. Hyperthreading

Description

1. CPU alternates communications between two or more memory banks

2. CPU grabs a block of data from memory instead of retrieving one piece at a time

3. CPU doesn’t wait for one instruction to complete before fetching its next instruction

4. The computer can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle

5. A technique used in superscalar architecture in which the OS treats the microprocessor as though it is two microprocessors

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More on the System Unit Ports

Port Type1. Serial Port

2. Parallel Port

3. SCSI Port

4. USB Port

Description1. Used to transmit slow data over long distances

a. Sends data sequentially, one bit at a timeb. Used to connect keyboard, mouse,

monitors, dial-up modems2. For transmitting fast data over short distances

a. Transmits 8 bytes simultaneouslyb. Connects printers, external disks, backups

3. Small Computer System Interfacea. Connects up to 7 devices in a daisy chainb. Transmits data 32 bits at a time

4. Universal Serial Bus can theoretically connect up to 127 peripheral devices in a daisy chain

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More on the System Unit USB

• Goals– Be low-cost– Be able to connect lots of devices– Be hot swappable

• People hate rebooting because it takes time• Hot swapping means a device can be

connected/disconnected without rebooting

– Permit plug and play• Devices are automatically configured when they

are installed – no need to download new drivers

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More on the System UnitUSB Continued

• Standards– USB 1.1 – the original standard– USB 2.0 – the current standard for new PCs– USB On The Go (OTG) – currently under development

• Connectors– A – in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0– B – in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0– Mini B – in USB Type 2.0– Mini A – in USB OTG used for smaller peripherals like

cellphones

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More on the System UnitSpecialized Expansion Ports

Port Type1. FireWire

2. MIDI

3. IrDA

4. Bluetooth

5. Ethernet

Description1. Intended for devices working with lots of data

a. Used for camcorders, DVD players, TVsb. Handles up to 400 megabits per second

2. Musical Instrument Digital Interfacea. Connects musical instrumentsb. Used in creating, recording, editing, performing music

3. Infrared Data Association: Infrared ports used to make a cableless connection

4. Uses short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 fta. Connects computers to printers, keyboards, headsets,

even refrigeratorsb. Named after King Harald Bluetooth, son of Gorm, who

united the Norway and Denmark. Ruled 910-940 A.D.5. The standard for linking all devices in a Local Area

Network

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More on the System UnitExpansion Cards

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More on the System Unit Expansion Buses

Bus

1. PCI bus

2. AGP Bus

Description

1. Peripheral Component Interconnect

a. For high-speed connections

b. 32 or 64 bits wide

c. Typically used for sound cards, modems, high-speed network cards

2. Accelerated Graphics Port

1. Twice the speed of PCI bus

2. For Video and 3-D graphics cards

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Secondary Storage

Storage Types1. Floppy and Zip disks

2. Hard disks

3. Optical disks

4. Magnetic tape

5. Smart Cards

6. Flash memory

7. Online secondary storage

Descriptions1. Removable disks.

a. Floppies store 1.44 MB

b. Zip disks store 100, 250, or 750 MB

2. Made from thin rigid metal covered with magnetizable substrate. Most disks have 2 or more platters

3. Removable CDs and DVDs

4. Thin plastic tape coated with magnetizable substance

5. Like a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips

6. Nonvolatile memory – no moving parts

7. Lets you store data on an online vendor’s server

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Secondary StorageFloppies and Zip Disks

• Floppies– Flat piece of mylar plastic

inside a 3.5” plastic case– Store about 1.44 MB

– Have a write-protect notch

– Data is recorded in tracks: concentric recording bands

– Formatting breaks the tracks into small wedge-shaped sectors

– Read/Write head transfers data between the computer and disk

– Floppies DO wear out!

• Zip Disks– Disks with a high-quality

magnetic coating – Store 100, 250, or 750 MB– Require a Zip drive; won’t

work on floppy drives– Used to store larger files

than floppies can hold– Zip disks wear out too!

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Secondary StorageHard Disks

• Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots– The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity – Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters– Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to

clusters or inodes• Typical file systems are VFAT & NTFS for Windows, HFS and ext2

for Unix

– Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!

– Important data should always be backed up!

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Secondary StorageHard Disks

• Hard Disk Types:– External Hard Disks – a freestanding disk drive

– Removable Hard Disk – inserted into a cartridge drive on the PC

• Hard Disk Controllers– EIDE – Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics

• Supports up to 4 disks at 137 GB per disk• Marketed as SATA, Fast ATA, Ultra ATA, ATA-2, ATA/100

– SCSI – Faster than EIDE controllers

– Fibre Channel – used in large servers – faster and costlier than SCSI

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Secondary StorageOptical Disks

• CDs and DVDs are Optical disks• Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk

head– CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory

• CD-R is used for recording only once• CD-RW is an erasable optical disk that can both record and

erase data over and over again

– DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity• Stores 4.7 or more GB• DVD-R is used for recording only once• DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs

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Secondary StorageMagnetic Tape

• Thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be magnetized– Store 200 GB and higher– Used in the form of tape cartridges– Still popular for large backups because of

their large data capacity– But don’t get it near a magnet as that will

erase it!

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Secondary StorageSmart Cards

• Resembles a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips– Holds more information than standard magnetic-strip

credit cards; 8 – 40 MB of data– UltraCard

• Uses a magnetic shim that draws out of the card to be read, then retracts into the drive

• Provides 2 GB of storage

– Contact smart cards• Must be swiped through card readers • Can wear out from use

– Contactless smart cards• Read when held in front of a low-powered laser

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Secondary StorageFlash Memory

• Nonvolatile memory with no moving parts– But the electronics can wear out– Available as

• Flash memory cards – Insert these into a flash port of a camera, handheld PC,

smartphone

• Flash memory sticks – A form of flash memory that plugs into a memory stick port

• Flash memory drives– A finger-sized module of flash memory– Plugs into the USB port of most PCs and Macintoshes

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Online Secondary Storage

• Allows you to use the internet to back up your data– Sign up with a vendor and receive access to

software that allows you to upload your data to that company’s server

– Files should be encrypted to maintain security– Use only for vital files that require immediate

availability– Use tape, removable hard disk cartridges, zip

disks, optical storage or tape for normal backup

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Future Developments in Processing & Storage

• Moore’s Law

– Gordon Moore predicted the number of transistors on a silicon chip will double every 18 months

– It has held up since the 1960s!

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New Technology1. M-RAM

2. OUM

3. Nanotechnology

4. Optical Computing

5. DNA Computing

6. Quantum Computing

Description of Processing Technology1. Magnetic RAM uses miniscule magnets

rather than electrical charges2. Ovonic Multiplied Memory stores bits by

generating different levels of low and high resistance on a glossy material

3. Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits

4. Uses lasers and light, not electricity 5. Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data6. Based on quantum mechanics and stores

information using particle states

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New Technology

1. Higher-density disks

2. Molecular electronics

Description of Storage Technology1. Magnetic disk drives currently hold 100

GB of dataa. Blank CDs are replacing floppy disks

since they hold 650MB and cost < $1 each

b. DVD disks hold up to 4.7 GB of data currently

c. Perpendicular recording technology allows 25% - 100% more data to be stored on the same disk

2. Polymer memory creates chips that store data on plasticsa. Nonvolatile memoryb. Data is stored based on polymer’s

electrical resistance

Documents

1 Hardware: CPU Williams, B.K, Stacy C. Sawyer (2007). Using Information Technology: A Practical Introduction to Computers & Communications. Seventh Edition,