1 Chapter 3 The Investment Process Ayşe Yüce – Ryerson University Copyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson

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Chapter 3The Investment Process

Ayşe Yüce – Ryerson UniversityAyşe Yüce – Ryerson University Copyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill RyersonCopyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson

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The Investment ProcessThe Investment Process“Don’t Gamble! Take all your savings and buy some good stock and hold it till it goes up. If it don’t go up, don’t buy it.”

– Will Rogers


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Don’t sell yourself short. Instead, learn about these key investment subjects: 1. The importance of an investment policy statement.

2. The various types of securities brokers and brokerage accounts.

3. How to calculate initial and maintenance margin.

4. The workings of short sales.


Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

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Investing OverviewInvesting Overview


Fundamental Question: Why invest at all?We invest today to have more tomorrow.Investment is simply deferred consumption.We choose to wait because we want more to

spend later.

Investors have their own investment objectives and strategies

The Investment Policy Statement (IPS) Designed to reflect your objectives and strategiesTwo parts

ObjectivesConstraints

555Ayşe Yüce – Ryerson UniversityAyşe Yüce – Ryerson University Copyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill RyersonCopyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson

Objectives: Risk and ReturnObjectives: Risk and Return

In formulating investment objectives, the individual must balance return objectives with risk tolerance.Investors must think about risk and return.Investors must think about how much risk they

can handle.

Your risk tolerance is affected by Your ability to take risk Your willingness to take risk


Investor ConstraintsInvestor Constraints

Resources. What is the minimum sum needed? What are the associated costs? Trading commissions? Subsequent transactions?

Horizon. When do you need the money? Buying a home? Retirement?

Liquidity. How high is the possibility that you need to sell the asset quickly? Are funds for emergency purposes or long term goals?

Taxes. Which tax bracket are you in? After tax returns are essential

Special circumstances. Does your company provide any incentive? What are your regulatory and legal restrictions?


Investment Strategies and Investment Strategies and PoliciesPolicies Investment management. Should you manage your

investments yourself? Investment Advisor or Broker? Financial Planner?

Market timing. Should you try to buy and sell in anticipation of the future direction of the market?

Asset allocation. How should you distribute your investment funds across the different classes of assets? Dependent on your risk tolerance

Security selection. Within each class, which specific securities should you buy? Which stock and bonds to invest funds in & what percentage of funds to invest in each security?

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Asset Allocation or Security Asset Allocation or Security Selection?Selection?


Is asset allocation or security selection more important to the success of a portfolio?

Most people are inclined to think security selection is the more important element for successful investing.

Research shows, however, that asset allocation is the more important determinant of portfolio returns. Many experts suggest: About 90 percent of portfolio performance stems from asset

allocation. So, 10 percent of portfolio performance comes from security

selection.

How is this result possible? Well, consider the Crash of 2008. Bonds outperformed stocks in 2008 Even those elusive “skilled stock pickers” might underperform

bonds Stocks tend to move together Even a “skilled stock picker” would have trouble beating bonds if most stock prices are performing

poorly relative to bond prices


Choosing a Broker/AdvisorChoosing a Broker/Advisor

What do you do after carefully crafting your Investment Policy Statement (IPS)?

If so, you need to choose the type of brokerage account and your broker/advisor from:

1. full-service brokers2. discount brokers3. deep-discount brokers

These three groups can be distinguished by the level of service provided, as well as the level of commissions charged.


Choosing a Broker/AdvisorChoosing a Broker/Advisor As the brokerage industry becomes more competitive, the differences

among broker types continues to blur.

Another important change is the rapid growth of online brokers, also known as e-brokers or cyberbrokers.

Online investing has really changed the brokerage industry. slashing brokerage commissions providing investment information Customers place buy and sell orders over the Internet

Many full-service brokers offer an advisory-based relationship for clients. Rather than charging commissions on every transaction, the

investment advisor charges an annual fee, say 1-2%, based on the account balance.

This fee covers all services associated with advice and trading. An advisory-based relationship can align the interests of the client

and the advisor.


Advisor-Customer RelationsAdvisor-Customer Relations

There are several important things to remember when you deal with any broker/advisor:

Any advice you receive is not guaranteed.

Your broker works as your agent and has a legal duty to act in your best interest.

Brokerage firms, however, do make profits from brokerage commissions and/or annual fees.

Your account agreement will probably specify that any disputes will be settled by arbitration and that the arbitration is final and binding.


Canadian Investor Protection FundCanadian Investor Protection Fund

Canadian Investor Protection Fund (CIPF): Insurance fund covering investors’ brokerage accounts when member firms go bankrupt or experience financial difficulties.

Most brokerage firms belong to the CIPF, which insures each account for up to $1,000,000 in cash and securities

Important: The CIPF does not guarantee the value of any security

Rather, CIPF protects whatever amount of cash and securities that were in your account, in the event of fraud or other failure.


Opening Your Brokerage AccountOpening Your Brokerage Account

(c) Buy 100 Shares of Disney

at $33 per share

(c) Buy 100 Shares of Disney

at $33 per share

(e) $6,650 Cashin Account

$3,300 Stock In Account

(e) $6,650 Cashin Account

$3,300 Stock In Account

(d) Pay Commission,Say $50

(d) Pay Commission,Say $50

(b) Deposit $10,000into account

(b) Deposit $10,000into account

(a) Open a brokerageor trading account

(a) Open a brokerageor trading account


Two Types of Brokerage AccountsTwo Types of Brokerage Accounts

A Cash account is a brokerage account in which securities are paid for in full.

A Margin account is a brokerage account in which, subject to limits, securities can be bought and sold short on credit.

(more on selling short later)


Margin AccountsMargin Accounts

In a margin purchase, the portion of the value of an investment that is not borrowed is called the margin.

Of course, the portion that is borrowed incurs an interest charge.This interest is based on the broker’s call

money rate.

The call money rate is the rate brokers pay to borrow money to lend to customers in their margin accounts.


Example: Margin Accounts, The Balance Example: Margin Accounts, The Balance SheetSheet

• You buy 1,000 Pfizer (PFE) shares at $24 per share.

• You put up $18,000 and borrow the rest.

• Amount borrowed = $24,000 – $18,000 = $6,000

• Margin = $18,000 / $24,000 = 75%

Assets

Liabilities and Account Equity

1,000 Shares, PFE $ 24,000 Margin Loan $ 6,000

Account Equity $ 18,000

Total $ 24,000 Total $ 24,000


Margin AccountsMargin Accounts

In a margin purchase, the minimum margin that must be supplied is called the initial margin.

The maintenance margin is the margin amount that must be present at all times in a margin account.

When the margin drops below the maintenance margin, the broker can demand more funds. This is known as a margin call.


Example: The Workings of a Margin Example: The Workings of a Margin AccountAccount• Your margin account requires: • an initial margin of 50%, and

• a maintenance margin of 30%

• A Share in Miller Moore Equine Enterprises (WHOA) is selling for $50. • You have $20,000, and you want to buy as much WHOA as you can.

• You may buy up to $20,000 / 0.5 = $40,000 worth of WHOA.

Assets


800 Shares of WHOA @ $50/share

$ 40,000 Margin Loan $ 20,000


Total $ 40,000 Total $ 40,000


Example: The Workings of a Margin Example: The Workings of a Margin

AccountAccount • After your purchase, shares of WHOA fall to $35. (Woe!)

• New margin = $8,000 / $28,000 = 28.6% < 30%

• Therefore, you are subject to a margin call.

Assets


800 Shares of WHOA @ $35/share

$ 28,000 Margin Loan $ 20,000


Total $ 28,000 Total $ 28,000


Example: The Effects of MarginExample: The Effects of Margin

You have $30,000 in a margin account, 60% initial margin required.

You can buy $50,000 of stock with this account (why?). Your borrowing rate from your broker is 6.00%. Suppose you buy 1,000 shares of Coca-Cola (KO), for

$50/share. Assume no dividends, and that your borrowing rate is still

6.00%, what is your return if:

In one year, KO is selling for $60 per share?

In one year, KO stock is selling for $60 per share, but you did not borrow money from your broker?



KO is selling for $60 per share.

Your investment is worth $60,000.

You owe 6% on the $20,000 you borrowed: $1,200.

If you pay off the loan with interest, your account balance is: $60,000 – $21,200 = $38,800.

You started with $30,000.

Therefore, your return is $8,800 / $30,000 = 29.33%.

Suppose Coca-Cola stock was selling for $40 per share instead of $60 per share? What is your return?



Coca-Cola stock is selling for $60 per share, but you did not borrow from your broker.

You started with $30,000, which means you were able to buy $30,000 / $50 = 600 shares.

Your investment is now worth $36,000.

Therefore, your return is $6,000 / $30,000 = 20.00%.

Suppose Coca-Cola is selling for $40 per share instead of $60 per share. What is your return in this case?


Example: How Low Can it Example: How Low Can it Go?Go?

Suppose you want to buy 300 shares of Pepsico, Inc. (PEP) at $55 per share.Total cost: $16,500You have only $9,900—so you must borrow

$6,600.

Your initial margin is $9,900/$16,500 = 60%.

Suppose your maintenance margin is 40%. At what price will you receive a margin call?


Example: How Low Can it Go? Example: How Low Can it Go? (Answer)(Answer) This will happen when the price of Pepsico, Inc. drops to

$36.67. How so? Well,

$36.67.0.60

22

0.40 - 1 300

$6,600 P

here, So

Level Margin eMaintenanc - 1 Shares of Number

Borrowed Amount P

in results ,P price, stock critical the for Solving

P Shares of Number

Borrowed AmountPShares of Number Level Margin eMaintenanc

*

*

*

*

*


Example: Annualizing Returns on a Margin Example: Annualizing Returns on a Margin PurchasePurchase

You buy 1,000 shares of Costco (COST) at $60 per share.

Your initial margin is 50%.

You borrow at the 9 percent call money rate plus 2 percent.

You sell Costco (COST) 4 months later for $63.

There were no dividends paid (and suppose the prices above are net of commissions).

What is your holding period percentage return and your EAR?


Annualizing Returns on aAnnualizing Returns on a Margin Margin

PurchasePurchase Answer: First, you have to repay the 3-month loan, so t = (3/12 = .25)

Amount Repaid = Amount Borrowed × (1 + interest rate per year)t

Amount Repaid = $30,000 × (1 + .11).25

= $30,000 × 1.02643 = $30,792.90

Your Sale Proceeds = Cash from Sale – Amount Repaid = $63,000 – 30,792.90

= $32,207.10

Your Profit = Your Sale Proceeds – Your Investment = $32,207.10 - $30,000

= $2,207.10


Annualizing Returns on a Margin Annualizing Returns on a Margin PurchasePurchase

32.85%. about is EAR yourSo

1.3285

0.0736) (1

Return) Percentage Period Holding (1 EAR 1

0.0736$30,000

$2,207.10

$30,000

$30,000 - $32,207.10 Return Percentage Period Holding

4

m

Note that there are 12/3 = 4 three-month holding periods in a year. Therefore, m = 4.

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Hypothecation and Street Name Hypothecation and Street Name RecognitionRecognition


Hypothecation is the act of pledging securities as a collateral against a loan.

This pledge is needed so that the securities can be sold by the broker if the customer is unwilling or unable to meet a margin call.

Street name registration is an arrangement under which a broker is the registered owner of a security. (You, as the account holder are the “beneficial owner.”)

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Other Account IssuesOther Account Issues


Trading accounts can also be differentiated by the ways they are managed.

Advisory account - You pay someone else to make buy and sell decisions on your behalf.

Wrap account - All the expenses associated with your account are “wrapped” into a single fee.

Discretionary account - You authorize your broker to trade for you.

Asset management account - Provide for complete money management, including check-writing privileges, credit cards, and margin loans.

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Other Account IssuesOther Account Issues


To invest in financial securities, you do not need an account with a broker.

One alternative is to buy securities directly from the issuer.

Another alternative is to invest in mutual funds.

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Short SalesShort Sales


• Short Sale is a sale in which the seller does not actually own the security that is sold.

Borrowsharesfrom

someone

Borrowsharesfrom

someone

Sell theShares in the market

Sell theShares in the market

Buyshares

From themarket

Buyshares

From themarket

Returnthe

shares

Returnthe

shares

Today In the Future

Note that an investor who buys and owns shares of stock is said to be “long the stock” or to have a “long position.”

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Short SalesShort Sales


An investor with a long position benefits from price increases.Easy to understandYou buy today at $34, and sell later at $57,

you profit!Buy low, sell high

An investor with a short position benefits from price decreases.Also easy to understandYou sell today at $83, and buy later at $27,

you profit.Sell high, buy low

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Example: Short SalesExample: Short Sales


You short 100 shares of Verizon Communications (VZ) at $30 per share.

Your broker has a 50% initial margin and a 40% maintenance margin on short sales.

The value of stock borrowed that will be sold short is: $30 × $100 = $3,000

Assets


Sale Proceeds $ 3,000 Short Position $ 3,000

Initial Margin Deposit $ 1,500 Account Equity $ 1,500

Total $ 4,500 Total $ 4,500

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Verizon Communications stock price falls to $20 per share.

Sold at $30, value today is $20, so you are "ahead" by $10 per share, or $1,000.

Also, new margin: $2,500 / $2,000 = 125%

AssetsLiabilities and

Account Equity


Initial Margin Deposit

$ 1,500 Account Equity $ 2,500

Total $ 4,500 Total $ 4,500

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Verizon Communications stock price rises to $40 per share.

You sold short at $30, stock price is now $40, you are "behind" by $10 per share, or $1,000. ( “He who sells what isn’t his’n, must buy it back—or go to prison.”)

Also: new margin = $500 / $4,000 = 12.5% < 40% Therefore, you are subject to a margin call.Assets Liabilities and

Account Equity


Initial Margin Deposit $ 1,500 Account Equity $ 500

Total $ 4,500 Total $ 4,500

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More on Short SalesMore on Short Sales


Short interest is the amount of common stock held in short positions.

In practice, short selling is quite common and a substantial volume of stock sales are initiated by short sellers.

Note that with a short position, you may lose more than your total investment, as there is no theoretical limit to how high the stock price may rise.

Short Sellers face Constraints. From government intervention Also, there might not be enough shares available to borrow to

short sell. Constraints reduce liquidity, increase volatility, and lead to

inefficient pricing.

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Finding Actual Short Positions (from Finding Actual Short Positions (from finance.yahoo.comfinance.yahoo.com))


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Forming a Real Investment Forming a Real Investment PortfolioPortfolio


Take the Risk Tolerance Quiz in the textbook.

What score did you get?

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Forming a Real Investment Forming a Real Investment PortfolioPortfolioWhat does your score mean?


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Useful Internet SitesUseful Internet Sites


www.finra.org (a reference for dispute resolution) www.bearmarketcentral.com (a reference for short selling) www.nasdaq.com (a reference for short interest) www.moneycentral.msn.com (a reference for building a

portfolio—search the site for “Build your first stock portfolio”)

www.sharebuilder.com (a reference for opening a brokerage account)

www.buyandhold.com (another reference for opening a brokerage account)

www.individual.ml.com (a risk tolerance questionnaire from Merrill Lynch)

www.money-rates.com (a reference for current broker call money rate)

finance.yahoo.com (a reference for short sales on particular stocks)

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The importance of an investment policy statement (IPS). The investment policy statement (IPS)

identifies the objectives (risk and return) of an investor, as well as the constraints the investor faces in achieving these objectives.

The IPS provides an investing “roadmap” and will influence the strategies, type of account, and holdings an investor chooses.

The various types of securities brokers Choosing a Broker Online Brokers Security Investors Protection

Corporation Broker-Customer Relations


Chapter Review Chapter Review

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Brokerage Accounts Cash Accounts Margin Accounts and how to

calculate initial and maintenance margin

A Note on Annualizing Returns

Short Sales Basics of a Short Sale Some Details

Forming a Real Investment Portfolio


Chapter Review Chapter Review

Documents

1 Chapter 3 The Investment Process Ayşe Yüce – Ryerson University Copyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson