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AWRITINGHANDBOOKFORMIDDLEYEARSTEACHERS
USINGTHESELF-REGULATEDSTRATEGYDEVELOPMENTMODELBy
TracieMcDonald
APaperSubmittedforthe14thAnnualGraduateStudentSymposium
FacultyofEducation
UniversityofManitoba
Winnipeg,Manitoba
TracieJ.McDonald2013
2
Introduction
Inthetwenty-firstcenturypeopleneedtomanage,analyze,andsynthesize
multiplestreamsofinformationinordertofunctionintoday’ssociety.Thisputs
demandsontoday’sadolescentsforthefuturebecausetheywillneedtoreadand
writemore,thaninpreviousdecadesinordertoperformjobs,runtheirhouseholds,
andactascitizenswithinaninformationrichsociety(Biancarosa&Snow,2006;
Graham&Hebert,2010;NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment,
2007).Onespecific concern related to adolescent literacy is the quality of writing that
students in the United States and Canada are demonstrating once they graduate from high
school. Adolescents are not always seen as having adequate writing skills that are needed
for college and the work place. According to the National Commission on Writing
(2004), American businesses spend $3.1 billion yearly, to improve employees’ skills in
writing. Writing is important in the work force because it is needed to produce written
reports, presentations, and for E-mail communication (Graham & Perin, 2007a; Wosley
& Grisham, 2012).
Hyland, Howell, and Zhang (2010) have noticed with the increased
postsecondary population in Ontario “writing ability appears to be one skill that is most
variable among this population” (p. 6). The problem related to the quality of adolescent
writing has drawn attention to how schools are teaching writing and how adolescents are
being prepared to function as literate members within society. The information in this
handbook has significance for teachers that teach English Language Arts, Science, and
Social Studies. There is a clear need that writing strategies need to be taught in all subject
area so that students become well-rounded writers. According to Biancarosa and Snow
3
(2006), content area teachers should provide both instruction and practice “in writing
skills specific to their subject area” (p. 4). It is important to respect and understand that
each discipline is different and “requires particular kinds of literacy skills” (Knipper &
Duggan, 2006). According to Shanahan & Shanahan (2008) “ writing instruction should
become increasingly disciplinary” (p.57). This indicates that all teachers have a role to
play with the development of writing skills for adolescents in todays classrooms.
Everythreeyears,since2000,theProgrammeforInternationalStudent
Assessment(PISA)measurestheskilllevelsof15-year-oldstudentsfrom65
countriesintheareasofreading,mathematics,andscience.ThePISAassessments
measuretheknowledgeandskillsthataredeemedtobeessentialforparticipation
intoday’ssociety.Thedataobtainedfromthismethodofassessmentreveal
international,national,andprovincialresultsthatallowforliteracycomparisonson
agloballevel.Canadaplacedfifthglobally,whileManitobaexperiencedadropin
performancebetween2000and2009.Despitethisdropinperformance,Manitoba
stillhadanoverallperformancelevelthatwasequaltothatoftheOECDaverage.
(Knighton,Brochu,&Gluszynski,2010).Thedecreasewiththeprovincialresults
representsbothawarningandanopportunityforeducatorstoconsiderwhat
changesneedtobemadewithinstructionalpracticesinordertoimprove
adolescentliteracylevels.
ContemporaryResearchonWritingStrategies
Thissectionofthepaperprovidesinformationaboutresearchthatfocused
ontheeffectivenessofstrategyinstructiononwritingperformance.Thisreviewis
notexhaustive,butitismeanttoprovideanoverviewofspecificresearchstudies
4
thathavefurnishedinformationaboutwritingstrategies.Ihavechosentohighlight
thesestudiesbasedonthestrengthandconsistencyoftheireffectiveness.Thereare
twomainsectionstothispartofthepaper.Thefirstsectionwillreviewlarge-scale
studiesbyGraham(2006),GrahamandPerin(2007a),andRogersandGraham
(2008).Theresearchthatisbeingreviewedincludesmeta-analysisstudiesthat
usedexperimental,quasi-experimental,andsinglesubjectdesignresearch
methodologies.ThesecondsectionwillreviewresearchstudiesspecifictotheSelf-
RegulatedStrategyDevelopmentmodel(SRSD).Thisresearchhasbeenincluded
becausetheSRSDmodelmaybeusedtoteachseveralofthewritingstrategiesinthe
finalsectionofthepaper.
LargeScaleStudiesonWritingStrategies
Theselectedstudieshadtomeetthreecriteriatobeincludedinthemeta-
analysis.First,studentshadtobeshownhowtousethestrategywithmodeling.
Second,therehadtobeatleastthreeormoredaysofstrategyinstruction.Third,
instructionhadtoprogresstowardsthestudentbeingabletousethestrategy
independently.Studentsinthestudiesrangedfromgradetwotogradetwelve.The
studiesincludedstudentswithlearningdisabilities,aswellaspoor,average,and
goodwriters.Studentsweretaughtoneormorestrategiesforplanning,revising,or
editingoftext.
Thefindingsfromthegroupcomparisonstudiesandthesingle-subject
designstudiesrevealedthatstrategyinstructiondidimprovestudents’writing
performanceandwritingquality.Graham(2006)foundwiththegroupcomparison
studiesthattheeffectsizeforstrategyinstructionwas1.15;whilegroup
5
comparisonstudiesthatspecificallyexaminedSRSDinstructionwerefoundtohave
aneffectsize“thatwasalmostdoubletheaverageeffectsize”(p.204).
WritingNext(GrahamandPerin,2007a)isameta-analysisthatcategorized
andanalyzedexperimentalandquasi-experimentaldatatodeterminewhich
instructionalmethodswouldbestsupportgrowthinadolescentwritingquality.For
thisstudythetermadolescentreferredtostudentsin4ththroughto12thgrade.
GrahamandPerin(2007a)identified11elementstobeeffectiveforadolescent
writinginstruction.(SeeTable1)
Table1:RecommendationsfromWritingnext:EffectivestrategiestoimprovewritingofadolescentsinmiddleandhighschoolsStrategyEffectSize
1.WritingStrategies0.82
2.Summarization0.82
3.CollaborativeWriting0.75
4.SpecificProductGoals0.70
5.WordProcessing0.55
6.SentenceCombining0.50
7.Prewriting0.32
8.InquiryActivities0.32
9.ProcessWritingApproach0.32
10.StudyofModels0.25
11.WritingforContentLearning0.23
AdaptedfromWritingNext:EffectiveStrategiestoImproveWritingofAdolescentsinMiddle
andHighSchools(p.11)byS.GrahamandD.Perin,2007a,Washington,DC:AllianceforExcellentEducation
6
Writingqualitywastheprimaryoutcomeoftheresearchbeingstudied.
Writingqualitywasdefined“intermsofcoherentlyorganizedessays,containing
well-developedandpertinentideas,supportingexamplesandappropriatedetail”
(Graham,&Perin,2007a,p.14).ThefindingsfromWritingNext(Graham&Perin,
2007a)indicatedthatteachingstudentswritingstrategies(effectsize=0.82)and
skillsforsummarizationoftext(effectsize=0.82)werebothequallyeffectivefor
bringingaboutimprovementstothequalityofadolescentswriting.
RogersandGraham(2008)extendedtheworkfoundinWritingNext(2007a)
byconductingameta-analysisofsinglesubjectdesignwritingintervention
research.Eighty-eightsinglesubjectdesignstudieswerereviewed.Studieswere
includedfromresearchthatwasconductedatregular,private,andalternative
schools.Studiesfromsummerprograms,clinics,andresidentialcenterswerealso
includedbecausetheresearcherswereinterestedinfindingoutwhichwriting
practiceswouldbeeffectivewithstrugglingwritersandstudentswithlearning
disabilities.
RogersandGraham(2008)alsoexaminedtheeffectofstrategyinstruction
withdifferentwritinggenres.Analysiswasdonewithstorywritingandexpository
writing.Expositorywritingincludedpersuasiveandexpositoryessays.Strategy
instructionhadalargeeffectwithelementsofwritingandproductivityforboth
formsofwriting.ThemedianandmeanPNDscoresforelementsofwritingand
productivitywas91%orgreater.Itwasfoundthatmaintenanceforelementsof
writingwithexpositorywritinghadameanPNDscoreof89%whilemaintenanceof
productivityforstorieshadameanPNDof79%.Scoresthatrangebetween50%
7
and70%reflectquestionableeffectiveness,whilescoresbetween70%and90%are
moderatelyeffective.Highlyeffectivetreatmentsarereflectedbyscoresthatare
90%andabove.Bothresultsindicatethatwritingimproveswithstrategy
instructionembeddedininstructionalpractices.
RogersandGraham(2008)examinedfivestudiestoseehoweffective
strategyinstructionwasforediting.Thesestudiesusederrorscorrectedasthe
outcomemeasure.Therewere32studentsingrades4to12fromthefiveediting
interventionstudies.Eachstudyhadstrugglingwriterswithlearningdisabilities
andonestudyhadstudentsthatrepresentedthefullrangeofwritingabilitiesthata
teacherwouldhaveintheregularclassroom.Theresultsindicatethatteachingan
editingstrategywouldhavealargetomoderateeffectoncorrectingerrors(Rogers
&Graham,2008).
ResearchonSelf-RegulatedStrategyDevelopment
NextIwillreviewstudiesthatinvestigatetheSelfRegulatedStrategy
Development(SRSD)procedures.DeLaPazandGraham(2002)examinedthe
effectivenessofinstructionalstrategiesandtheimpactthattheyhaveonthewriting
performanceofstudentsintheregularclassroom.Thestudentpopulationbeing
studiedbyDeLaPazandGraham(2002)wasveryspecific,andthefocuswason
middleschoolstudents.Theparticipantsinthisstudyincluded58seventhand
eighthgradestudents.Studentsweretaughtstrategiesforplanning,drafting,and
revisinganexpositoryessayforpersuasionusingtheself-regulatedstrategymodel.
Afterreceivinginstruction,97%ofthestudentsintheexperimentalgroupwere
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“morecomplete,elaborate,andhierarchical”(p.696)withtheirpre-writingplans.
Effectsizesforthewritingmeasureswerequitestrong(effectsize=1.0)onthepost
treatment.OverallDeLaPazandGraham(2002)foundthatstudentsinthe
treatmentconditionproducedessaysthatwerelonger,usedmaturevocabulary,and
werequalitativelybetter.
Strategyinstructionhasbeenfoundtobeeffectiveforalargepercentageof
studentswhohavealearningdisability(DeLaPaz&Graham,1997a).Accordingto
Baker,Chard,Ketterlin-Geller,Apichatabutra,andDoabler(2009),writingprovides
studentswithanopportunitytoexpresstheirfeelings,knowledge,andopinionona
particulartopic.However,“studentswithwritingdifficultiesoftenstrugglewiththe
planning,composting,andrevisingskillsrequiredforeffectivewriting”(Mason,
Harris,&Graham,2011,p20).Studentswithalearningdisabilitymayalsohave
difficultywiththeplanning,writing,andrevisingofanessay.Self-regulatedstrategy
developmentwilloffersupporttothesestudentsbecauseit“targetswritingskills
thatinvolvebrainstorming,semanticmapping,generatingwritingcontent,setting
goals,andrevision”(Chalk,Hagan-Burke,&Burke,2005,p77).
AstudyconductedbyChalk,Hagan-Burke,&Burke(2005)assessedboththe
qualityandquantityofwriting,offifteenhighschoolstudents.Studentsinthis
studywereidentifiedashavingalearningdisabilityandstudentsIQscoresranged
between80and115.Thestudentswerealsoidentifiedasbeingtwoyearsbelow
gradelevelinoneormoreacademicclasses.Chalk,Hagan-Burke,&Burke,(2005)
evaluatedthestudentswritingbasedonthenumberofwordswrittenandonthe
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qualityofthewriting.Studentsreceivedfivewritinglessonsthatwere20-25
minuteslongduringeach50-minuteclass.
Theresultsfromthestudyrevealedthatwordproductionandthequality
andquantityofwritingdidimproveafterreceivinginstructionusingtheself-
regulatedstrategydevelopmentapproach.Itwasfoundthatmostofthe
improvementsoccurredinwordproductionwhilethequalitymeasurehadsome
improvementitwasnotassignificant.Chalk,Hagan-Burke,&Burke(2005)
suggestedamoresensitivemeasureofprogresscouldhavebeenusedtoscorethe
qualityofwriting.Scoringthenumberofnumberofthoughtunitsmighthave
broughtdifferentresults.
GrahamandHarris(2008)didnotethatforstudentsthatusedtheSRSD
strategytheaverageeffectsizeforimprovementinthequalityofwritingfor
studentswithlearningdisabilitieswas1.14.Previousresearchstudieshave
documentedthatusingSelfRegulatedStrategyDevelopmenthasledtoincreasesin
writingquality,andself-regulationskillsforstudentsofdifferentabilitylevels,but
especiallystudentswithlearningdisabilities(Harris&Graham,2007;Graham&
Perin2007a)
The Self- Regulated Strategy Development Model
Astrategyisaconscioussetofactionsthatoneusesinordertoachievea
goal.(Alexander,Graham,&Harris,1998).Strategiesalsoinvolvetheprocedural
knowledgeorthestepsneededtoachievethewritinggoal.Aspecificpurposeand
procedureorplanneedstobefollowedinordertoachievethegoal(Graham&
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Harris,2008).AccordingtoChalk,Hagen-Burke&Burke(2005),strategy
instruction“engagesstudentswithtasksrequiringactiveunderstanding”(p.77).
Theteachingofwritingstrategieshelpswritersinseveralways.First,the
strategyprovidesdirectionforaspecificcourseofactionneededinorderto
completethewritingassignment.Theconcretenessofthestrategyallowsstudents
tofollowanorganizedpattern.Second,theteachingofwritingstrategiesmakesthe
mentalprocessinvolvedinwritingtransparent.Whenteachersmodelthestrategy,
theymakethementalactionsassociatedwithwritingobservablebydemonstrating
verballyandvisuallyhowtousetheparticularstrategy.Athirdbenefitforstudents
isthattheylearnnewwaystogenerateandorganizeideas,andtoplanandrevise
materialthathasalreadybeenwritten.Theabilitytohelpadolescentsachieveand
improvetheirwritingperformancewillhopefullyenhancetheirself-efficacyand
motivationforwriting(Graham&Harris,2008).
Self-RegulatedStrategyDevelopment(SRSD)isascientificallyvalidated
modelthatcanhelpstudentswiththewritingprocess(Graham&Harris2008;
Graham&Perin2007a;Harris&Graham,2007;Rogers&Graham,2008).Self-
Regulationreferstothoughts,feelings,andactionsthatpeopleusetoobtaingoals
(Schunk&Zimmerman,1994).Self-regulationskillsincludegoalsetting,self-
monitoring,self-recording,self-assessmentandself-reinforcementtomanagetheir
useofwritingstrategiesforthewritingtask(Chalk,Hagen-Burke&Burke,2005;
Graham&Harris,2008).Thesestrategieshelpstudentsmanagetheirwriting
behavior,duringplanning,draftingandrevising(Graham2006,Graham&Harris,
2008;Graham&Perin,2007a,Graham&Perin,2007b).
11
Theinstructionalstagesoftheself-regulatedstrategymodelareflexibleand
maybecombined,reordered,ormodifiedtomeetinstructionalneeds.Accordingto
GrahamandHarris(2008)andHarrisandGraham(2007),thesixstepsoutlined
belowaremeanttobeaguidelineforteachingastrategy:
Step1:Developbackgroundknowledge:Studentsaretaughttheinformationand
skillsneededtounderstandtheself-regulatedproceduresandthewritingstrategy.
Step2:DiscussIt:Currentwritingperformanceandthetargetwritingstrategyare
discussed.Howandwhentousethestrategyarediscussed.
Step3:ModelIt:Theteachermodelshowtousethestrategywithathinkaloud
approachandgoalsettingapproachesmayalsobedoneatthisstep.
Step4:MemorizeIt:Amnemonicforrememberingthestrategymaybeusedto
supportmemorization.
Step5:SupportIt:Studentspracticeusingthewritingstrategyandself-regulation
processes.Studentsmayreceivehelpfromtheteacher,strategyremindersheets,or
otherstudents.Helpmayincludedirectassistanceandcorrectivefeedback.
Step6:IndependentPerformance:Studentsusethewritingstrategyindependently.
EvidenceBasedWritingStrategies
Thewritingstrategiesthatarebeingsuggestedinthissectionmaybeusedin
LanguageArts,oranyofthecontentareasubjects.Thestrategiesmaybeappliedin
abroadoraspecificamannerdependingonclassorstudentneed.Theremaybe
crossoverintodifferentgenresofwritingdependingonwhichstrategyisbeingused
tofacilitatethewritingprocess;thestrategiesareflexibleandmaybeusedwiththe
12
writingofnarrativeandexpositorytext.Withtheimplementationofthese
strategies,writingdevelopmentissupportedinthefollowingareas:paragraph
writing,organizationalskills,goalsetting,summarizationandrevisingskills.Each
strategyisdesignedtoencompassthepre-writing,draftingandrevisingprocesses.I
willbeoutliningthreestrategiesforimprovingwritingquality:thePLEASEStrategy,
theSUMMARY-WRITINGStrategy,andtheCDOREVISINGStrategy.
ParagraphWriting:ThePLEASEStrategy
ThePLEASEstrategyisastructuredformulaforwritingaparagraph/
paragraphsthathaveamainideaandsupportivedetails.ThePLEASEmnemonic
standsforPick,List,Evaluate,Activate,SupplyandEnd.Researchonthisstrategy
suggeststhatithasapositiveeffectonparagraphwritingskills(Welch,1992).
Welch(1992)examinedparagraphwritingwiththePLEASESTRATEGYforstudents
whohadmildlearningdisabilities.Thestudentswereidentifiedashashavinga
learningdisabilitybuthadaverageintelligencescoresthatrangedfrom74to109.
Thestudyinvestigatedsixthgradestudents’knowledgeabout:prewriting,
composition,revisionandpartsofaparagraph.Sevenstudentsparticipatedinthis
studyandweretaughtthePLEASEstrategythreetimesaweekinaresourceroom
setting.Eachteachingsessionlastedthirtyminutesandthestudywasconductedfor
approximately20weeks(Welch,1992).
Resultsfromthestudyrevealedthattheexperimentaltreatmentwas
effectiveforimprovingprewriting,composition,revisionandpartsofaparagraph.
Welch(1992)alsonotedthatstudents“attitudestowardswritingandwriting
13
instructionimprovedsignificantlyfollowingtheexperimentaltreatment”(p.119).
GrahamandHarris(2008)notedthatstudentsthatweretaughtthePLEASE
strategyexperiencedpositiveeffectsonparagraphknowledge(reportedeffectsize=
0.98),writingqualityandthewritingofmorecompleteparagraphsexperienceda
moderateeffect(reportedeffectsize=0.51).Moderateeffects(reportedeffectsize=
0.47)wereexperiencedwithstudentsfeeling“morepositiveabouttheirparagraph-
writingability”(Graham&Harris,2008,p.45).
TeachingthePLEASEStrategy
PLEASEisamnemonicthatremindsstudentstocarryoutthefollowingsteps:
1- Pick:Studentsneedtopickatopic,anaudience,awritinggoalandtypeof
paragraphorparagraphstheyplantowrite.Theymaywritefor
informational,compare/contrast,andorcauseandeffectpurposes.Students
needtoselectonetothreevocabularywordsforeachparagraph.
2- List:Studentsgeneratealistofideasthattheymightuseintheparagraph.
3- Evaluate:Studentsevaluatetheirlisttoseeifitiscompleteandcontains
relevantideas.Newideasorvocabularywordsmaybeadded.
4- Activate:Studentsactivatetheparagraphbycreatingatopicsentencethat
introducesthereadertothetopic.
5- Supply:Usingtheirlistofideas,studentsdesignsentencesthatsupporttheir
topicsentence.
6- End:Studentsendwithaconcludingsentence.Editingoftheparagraph
occurs.Studentscorrectanyerrorsinwordorder,capitalization,
punctuation,spelling,andoverallappearances.Studentsrecordwhetherthey
14
havemettheirwritinggoal.Abriefexplanationaboutwhattheydidto
achieve,orwhytheydidnotachievethewritinggoalmayberecordedonthe
backofthestrategysheet.
PLEASEStrategy
Pickatopic:
Audience:
KeyVocabularyWords:
WritingGoal:
TypeofParagraph:Informational/CompareandContrast/CauseandEffect/Other
ListIdeas:(thenumberofideaswillvarydependingontheassignment)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Evaluateideas:(decideandnumberwhichorderyouwanttheideastoappearinthepaper)
Activate:Byprovidingatopicsentence
Supply:Ideasthatsupportthetopicsentence,underlinethekeyvocabularywords.
End/ConcludingSentence:
Editing:Mechanics:WordOrder,Spelling,capitalization,andpunctuation.
AdaptedfromGraham,S.,&Harris,K.R.(2008).Writingbetter:Effectivestrategiesforteachingstudentswithlearningdisabilities.Baltimore,Maryland:PaulH.BrookesPublishingCo.
15
SummaryWriting:TheSUMMARY–WRITINGStrategy
TheSUMMARY-WRITINGstrategyismeanttoteachstudentshowtowritea
conciseandaccuratesummary(Nelson,Smith,&Dodd,1992).GrahamandHebert
(2010)foundthatcomprehensionofscience,socialstudies,andlanguageartstexts
isimprovedwhenstudentswritesummariesofthetext(Graham&Hebert,2010).
GrahamandPerin(2007a)reportedthatteachingstudentsstrategiesfor
summarizationdidprovideapositiveeffect(reportedeffectsize=0.82)ontheir
abilitytowritegoodsummaries.Writingastrongsummaryrequiresthatstudents
learnwhattokeep,whattoeliminate,andhowtowriteashortsynopsisofthe
importantinformation(Graham&Perin,2007a).Writingsummarieswillhelp
studentslearnhowtowritemoreprecisely.TheSUMMARY-WRITINGstrategywill
alsohelpstudentsorganizetheirthinkinginareflectivemannerandsupport
planninginathoughtfulmanner(Graham&Harris,2008).
Nelson,Smith,andDodd(1992)conductedastudythatexaminedtheeffects
oflearningasummarystrategyonthecomprehensionofsciencetext.Thestudywas
conductedwithfiveelementary-agespecialeducationstudentsthatwereattending
asummerremedialprogram.Twoareasofperformancewereassessed,
completenessofthewrittensummariesandreadingcomprehension.Thesummary
skillswereintroducedwithbothgroupandindividualreadingsettings.Theresults
fromthestudyrevealedthatthepercentageofimportantinformationincludedin
thewrittensummariesrosefrom45%to98%afterstudentslearnedhowtouse
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thisstrategy.Readingcomprehensionscoresimprovedby100%(Nelsonetal,
1992).
TeachingtheSummary-WritingStrategy
1. Itisimportantthatstudentshavetheopportunitytoapplythisstrategy
broadlywithavarietyoftextsinallsubjectareas.Theteacherneedsto
explicitlyteachwhatismeantbythetermsummarization.
2. TheteacherreadsaloudtotheclassfromaScience,SocialStudies,or
LanguageArtstext.Studentslistenforkeywordsorinformationthatthey
believetobeimportant.
3. Afterthereadingasaclasstheydiscussandrecordthevocabularyand
conceptsthatareimportanttothepassagethatwasjustread.
4. Havethestudentsreadthetextwithapartner.
5. Thestudentsidentifyandrecordthemainideaandimportantvocabulary
words.Studentswritedowntheimportantpointsdirectlyunderneaththe
mainidea.Next,studentsscanthetextagaintoseeifanyimportant
informationorvocabularywordsweremissedduringthefirstreading.The
mainideaandimportantpointsarerevisedifneeded.
6. Aplanforwritingthesummaryisdeveloped.Thismaybedonewholeclass
andlateronasasmallgrouporpartneractivity.Thestudentswritetogether
toformatopicsentencethatrepresentsthemainidea.Nexttheynumber
whichinformationwillgofirst,second,third,andsoon.Thestudentslook
throughanddecideifanyoftherecordedideasaremissingorifany
17
unimportantinformationshouldbetakenoutofthesummary.Important
vocabularywordsareunderlined.
7. Studentsusetheplantowritethesummary.
SUMMARY–WRITINGStrategy
Step1.Whatisthemainidea?
Step2.Whataretheimportantpointsthatprovideinformationaboutthemainidea?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Whataretheimportantvocabularywordsthatshouldbeincludeinthesummarytosupportthemainidea?
Step3.Re-readthetexttomakesurealltheimportantinformationhasbeenincluded.Recordanyimportantinformationthatisneeded.Step4.Writeatopicsentenceforthesummary.Writesupportingdetailswithkeyvocabularywordsthatsupportthemaintopic.
Step5.ReviseandSelf-Editorpeereditforclarityofideas,andconventions.Re-writethesummary,ifthereisanythingthatisunclearorneedstobeadded.AdaptedfromGraham,S.,&Harris,K.R.(2008).Writingbetter:Effectivestrategiesforteachingstudentswithlearningdisabilities.Baltimore,Maryland:PaulH.BrookesPublishingCo.
18
TheCDOREVISINGStrategy
Revisingisanimportantpartofwriting,butitisnotaneasytaskto
accomplish.AccordingtoSchneider(2003)manyteachersfindthatrevisionisa
challengeforalargenumberofstudents.Yet,revisionmaybeviewedas“themost
importantpartofthecomposingprocess”(Pritchard&Honeycutt,2006,p.282).
Revisingmaybeusedtohelpwritersdiscoveramismatchbetweenwhathas
actuallybeenwrittencomparedtowhattheirintentionswere,oritmaybeusedto
simplifyapartofthetextthatthewritermightseeasbeingtoocomplicatedforthe
intendedaudience(Graham&Harris,2008).
Therevisionprocessallowsthewritertoadaptthetexttoenhancetheclarity
oftheirmessage(Calkins,1986;Graves,1983).Thewritermaydecidetorevisefor
differentpurposes;theymayadd,rewrite,delete,ormovetextaroundinorderto
createmeaning(Graham&Harris,2008).TheCDOrevisingstrategywillprovidea
frameworktoassiststudentswiththerevisingprocess.TheacronymCDO
represents:Compare,Diagnose,andOperate.Comparereferstoidentifyingwherea
revisionisneeded.Diagnosedeterminestheproblem,andthestudentneedsto
considerthesubstanceofwhathasbeenwrittennotjusttheformofthetext.
Operatereferstothespecificstepstakentorevisethetext.
Graham(1997)conductedastudythatexaminedtheroleofexecutive
controlandrevisingdifficultiesthatstudentsexperiencedwithwriting.Twelve
studentsfromthefifthandsixthgradeparticipatedinthisstudy.Resultsfromthis
study(Graham,1997)revealedthat83%ofthestudentsindicatedthattheCDO
strategymaderevisingeasierbyprovidinghelpwithoneormoreoftherevising
19
processes.Tenoutofthetwelve(83%)studentsthoughtthatthestrategymade
theirpapersbetterbecausethestrategyhelpedthemtomakeneededrevisions.
GrahamandHarris(2008)notedthattheCDOstrategy,whichwasresearchedby
Graham(1997),generatedthefollowingeffectsizesforrevisionsinvolving
substance(effectsize=0.38)mechanics(effectsize=0.42)andsubstantive
revisions(effectssize=0.83).Itwasalsonotedthatstudentsrevisedmore
frequently(Graham&Harris2008).
InstructionalSuggestions
TheCDOstrategyiscomposedoffoursteps.First,studentsneedtoreadand
evaluateeachsentenceinthepieceofwriting.Second,studentsneedtodiagnose
eachsentencebasedonsixpossibleoptions,asoutlinedontheCDOREVISING
strategysheet.Third,oneoffouroptionsisselectedasaplanofactionforthe
revision.Last,thestudentrevisestheoriginalpieceofwriting.
TeachingtheCDOREVISINGStrategy
1. Whenfirstintroducingstudentstothisstrategytheteacherdiscussesthe
importanceofrevising.Theessentialquestionwouldbe:Whywouldwe
wanttoreviseapieceofwriting?
2. Nexttheteacherexplainsandmodelsthefourstepsofthestrategywith
piecesofwritingfromdifferentsubjectareas.
3. Asawholeclasstheteacherasksstudentstohelpwiththeselectionof
appropriatediagnosisevaluationsoneachsentenceforapieceofwriting.
Nextstudentsselectwhichplanofactionwouldworkbestfortherevision
process.
20
4. Workinginsmallgroupsoftwoorthree,studentsaregivenashortpieceof
contentareawriting.AsagrouptheyworkthroughtheCDOstrategyto
demonstratethattheyunderstandtheprocess.Theteacherprovideshelpas
needed.
5. Nexttheteacherhasstudentsworkindividuallywiththisstrategytoseeifall
stepshavebeenlearnedatanindependentlevel.Studentsmayrefertothe
CDOREVISINGstrategysheetastheyworkthrougheachstep.
CDOREVISINGStrategy
Step1.Compose:Readeachsentenceinthepaper.
Step2.DiagnoseWritethecorrespondingletterbesideeachsentencetosignifyanychangesthatareneeded.
a) Thisdoesn’tsoundright.
b) ThisisnotwhatImeanttosay.
c) Thisisnotusefulinformationforthispaper.
d) Thisisusefulinformationforthispaper.
e) Thereadermaynotunderstandthispart.
f) Thereadermaynotunderstandthisvocabularyword.Thereadermaynotbelievethispart.
Step3.Operate:Selectaplanofaction.
h)Rewrite
i)Addmore
j)Includeanexample
k)Leavethispartout
l)Changethewording
m)AddKeyVocabularyWords
Step4.Operate:Makeyourrevisions
AdaptedfromGraham,S.,&Harris,K.R.(2008).Writingbetter:Effectivestrategiesforteachingstudentswithlearningdisabilities.Baltimore,Maryland:PaulH.BrookesPublishingCo.
21
ConcludingRemarks
Duringthepastdecadetheliteracyskillsofadolescentshavecometo
theforefrontasbeinglessthanadequatetomeetthedemandsoftoday’sworkforce
(Biancarosa&Snow,2006;Graham,&Hebert,2010;Graham,&Perin,2007a).The
importanceofliteracyhasbeennotedglobally,andthusexploredatanationaland
internationallevel(Knighton,Brochu&Gluszynski,2010).Theresultsfromlarge-
scalestudiessuchasReadingNext(Biancarosa&Snow,2006)andWritingNext
(Graham&Perin,2007a)indicatethatmoreneedstobedoneintheareaofstrategy
instructionformiddleandseniorhighstudents.Writinghasoftenbeenoverlooked
asanimportanttoolforimprovingliteracy.(Graham&Hebert,2010).Current
researchsupportstheimportanceofwritingonmanylevels(Biancarosa&Snow,
2006;Graham&Hebert,2010;Graham&Perin,2007a).Writinghasbeenconnected
withimprovingstudentsreadingability,enhancingcomprehension,andsupporting
cognitiveprocessesforlearning.Thispaperhasaddressedadolescentwriting
concerns;providedinformationrelatedtowritingandtheself-regulatedstrategy
developmentmodel.ThePLEASE,SUMMARYWRITING,andCDOstrategiesare
supportedbycurrentresearchasbeingeffectiveinstructionalstrategiesforthe
diversityofstudentsthatareintodaysclassrooms.
22
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