1© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood

Chapter 8

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Did You Know…

Young children find it hard to understand that they can have conflicting emotions?

Gender preferences in toys and playmates appear as early as 12 to 24 months, but boys and girls on average are more alike than different?

Imaginary friends are most common amongst first born and only children?

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The Developing Self

“Who in the world am I? Ah, that’s a great puzzle,” said Alice in Wonderland after her size had abruptly changed-again. Solving Alice’s puzzle is a lifelong process of getting to know one’s self.

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Self-Concept

Our total image of ourselves A cognitive construction Self-definition

Characteristics by which children describe themselvesTypically changes between age 5 and 7

It is not until age 7 that children begin to describe themselves in terms of generalized traits such as popular,

smart, or dumb.

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Self-Image Representations

Single Representations are commonly present at age 4. These are:

– Isolated, one-dimensional terms without logical connections (i.e. I like pizza and I am strong)

– ‘You can’t be happy and scared!’– Real self v. ideal self

Cant acknowledge that who he is and wants to be is different

Representational Mappings develops at age 5 or 6– Logical connections between parts of self-image– Expressed in positive all-or-nothing terms– ‘I can run fast and climb high!’

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Cultural Differences in Self-Description

Parents transmit cultural ideas and beliefs about how to define the self

Chinese parents encourage:– Compliance with authority – Sense of community

European-American parents encourage:– Individuality and self-expression– Self-esteem

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Self-Esteem

The evaluative part of self-concept Child’s judgment of his or her overall

worth In early childhood tends to be either

� ‘I am good’ or

� ‘I am bad’

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The ‘Helpless’ Pattern

When self-esteem is contingent on success

Failure may make the child feel helpless to do better

Improved self-esteem depends on whether children believe their traits are fixed or changeable

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Self-Evaluative Emotions

Ability to recognize – Guilt– Shame– Pride

Develops around age 3 Becomes more complex with age

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Simultaneous Emotions

Young children have difficulty in recognizing that they can experience more than one emotion at the same time.

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Erikson: Initiative versus Guilt

Conflict arises from the growing sense of purpose and the desire to plan activities

Children reconcile the desire to ‘do’ with their desire for approval.

Virtue of ‘Purpose’ – the courage to envision and pursue goals without fear of punishment

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Gender Identity

Awareness that one is male or female

Develops in the context of society Behavioral differences - choices of

– Toys– Play activities– Playmates

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Gender Differences

Measurable differences are few. 78% of differences are small and often change

with age. Boys—superior motor performance and more

active physical activity Girls—better attention and inhibition of

inappropriate behavior Cognitive differences are few.

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Nurturing Gender

Gender Roles Behaviors and attitudes that a culture considers

appropriate for males or females

Gender-typing The process by which children acquire a gender

role

Gender Stereotypes Preconceived generalizations about male or

female behavior© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

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Biological Approach to Gender

Many cultures have similar gender roles

Genetic, hormonal, and neurological evidence

Gender reassignment often fails – indicating identity may be rooted in chromosomal structure

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Evolutionary Developmental Approach

Biologically based, with a purpose—theory of sexual selection

Men seek many partners, whereas women invest more heavily in childcare and reproductive support.

Theory suggests that gender roles are universal and resistant to change.

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Psychoanalytic Approach to Gender Roles

Freud suggested a process of ‘identification’– Children adopt characteristics and

attitudes of the same-sex parent– Occurs when a boy gives up desire to

possess his mother; a girl her father

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Social Learning Approach

Observation enables children to learn about gender-typed behaviors.

Children select or create their own environments through choice of playmates and activities.

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Cognitive Approach to Gender Roles

Children classify themselves as male or female.

Then, they organize their behavior.– Adopt behaviors they perceive as

consistent with their gender

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Gender-Schema Theory: Bem

Schema Mentally organized information that influences

a category of behavior (gender) Children take on gender roles that are

consistent with their sex and culture Gender schemas promote gender

stereotypes

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Socialization-Based Approach to Gender Roles

Family influencesPeer influencesCultural influences

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Types of Play

Functional Repetitive muscle movements (rolling a

ball) Constructive

Using objects to build something Dramatic

Fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginative play

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Imaginary Companions

Girls more likely to have them; boys more likely to impersonate imaginary characters

Children with imaginary companions:– More imaginative – More cooperative with others– More fluent with language – Watch less TV– Show more curiosity and excitement during play

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Influences on Play

Gender• Boys lean toward active play• Girls choose more structured

activitiesCulture

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Discipline: Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcements– External

Tangible – candy, money, stickersIntangible – praise, hug, extra attention

– Internal – sense of accomplishment Punishment

– Isolation or denial of privileges– Corporal punishment – use of physical

force© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

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Categories of Discipline

Power Assertion– Psychological aggression– Demands, threats, spankings

Withdrawal of Love– Ignoring and isolation

Inductive Techniques– Reasoning and setting limits

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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

Authoritarian� Control and unquestioning obedience

Permissive� Parents value self-expression and self-regulation

Authoritative� Value child’s individuality, as well as restraint

Neglectful or Uninvolved (Maccoby & Martin)�Parental needs are most important

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Support and Criticisms of Baumrind’s Model

Authoritative style has research support Controversy over one “right” way to raise

children Cultural differences (e.g., Asian styles)

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Parental Concerns

Promoting Altruism Prosocial behavior that often

entails cost, self-sacrifice, or risk

Reducing Aggression

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Types of Aggression

Instrumental aggressiono Most common in early childhoodo Achieves a goal

Overt aggression (boys)o Direct physical force or overt threats

Relational aggression (girls)o Covert, indirect or psychological aggressiono Manipulation and threats

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Questions About Aggression

What are the sources of aggression?What are the triggers of aggression?How does culture influence

aggression?Gender differences in aggression?

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Childhood Fears

Age Fears7-12

months Strangers, heights, unexpected objects

1 year Separation from parent, injury, strangers

3 yrs Masks, dark, animals, separation from parent

5 yrs Animals, ‘bad’ people, dark, separation

7-8 yrs Dark, scary news stories, staying alone

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Brothers and Sisters

Sibling Rivalry Earliest disputes are over property rights

Also affection, interest and companionship Older siblings tend to initiate more interactions Younger siblings tend to imitate older ones Siblings cooperate more when mother is not

present Squabbling can be a bid for attention

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The Only Child

Research does not support stereotypes of only children being:– Selfish– Lonely– Spoiled – Maladjusted

‘Onlies’ tend to be more mature and motivated to achieve

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Playmates and Friends

About age 3, children begin to have friends Friends tend to be same age and sex Traits children (4-7 yrs) look for

in a friend:– Doing things together– Liking and caring for each other– Sharing and helping each other

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Benefits of Friendships

Children begin to learn:– How to get along with others– How to solve relationship problems– Empathy

Children with friends:– Enjoy school more– Are a source of help and self-validation

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