03625 Shpory Po Stilistike Angliyskogo Yazyka

8/9/2019 03625 Shpory Po Stilistike Angliyskogo Yazyka

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5. The notion of aterm.Its

characteristics and

st. f-s.Scientific

prose.T. are w-ds denotingvarious scientifical &techn. Objects,

phenomena & processes. They arefound in techn. Textswhere they areindespensible meansof expressing ideas.They directly refer tothe o-t they mean.They are emotionallyneutral. They are: 1-monosemantic; 2-m-

ng doesnt depend onthe context;3-itremains constant untilsome new inventionchanges it(wirelessset=radio); 4- noemotionalcolouring,but it canobtain it when takenout from techn.Sphere.St-c f-s: 1- to create arealistic backgroundfor the novel;2- ### ahumorous effect if t.are used in lexicalsurrounding abs-lyforeign to them. T.gradually lose theirquality of terms &

pass into common

literary or neutralvocabulary.T. are mainly used inscient. Prose. Thisstyle includes differentarticles, monographs,conference

proceedings & otherkinds of academic

publications.the mainch-cs are

precision,logicalcohesion, repeated useof clichs.

6 newspaper st. var-

s & pecul-s,

distinction from

pub-c st.

includes informativematerials: news in

brief, headlines, ads,additional articles.

But not everything published in thepaper can be includedin N.S. we mean

publicist essays,feature articles,scient. Reviews arenot N.S. to attract thereaders attentionspecial means areused by british & am.

Papers ex: specificheadlines, spaceordering. We findhere a large

proportion of dates, personal names ofcountries,institutions,individuals. Toachieve an effect ofobjectivity inrendering some factor event most of infois publishedanonymously,without the name ofnewsman whosupplied it, with littleor no subjectivemodality. But the

position of the paper

becomes clear fromthe choice not onlyof subj. matter butalso of wordsdenoting internationalor domestic issues.

7 the style of official

documents

it is the mostconservative. It

preserves cast-ironforms of structuring&uses syntactical constr-s words known as

archaic & not observedany more else.Addressing documentsand official letters,signing them,expressing the reasonsand considerationsleading to the subjectof the doc-t all this isstrictly regulated bothlexically & syntact. All

emotiveness and subj.modality arecompletely banned outof this style.( contracts, treaties,agreements etc.)

8. publicist style.

(oratory, speeches,essays, articles) thestyle is a perfect ex. Ofhistorical changeabilityof stylisticdifferentiation ofdiscourses. In Greece it

was practiced in oralform which was namedP. in accordance withthe name of itscorresponding genre.PS is famouse for itsexplicit pragmaticfunction of persuasiondirected at influencingthe reader & shapinghis views in accordance

with the argumentationof the author. We findin PS a blend of therigorous logicalreasoning, reflectingthe objective state ofthings & a strongsubjectivity reflectingthe authors personalfeelings and emotionstowards the discussedsubject.


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9. Peculiarities of

belles-lettres style, its

varieties & genres.

Belle-letters style (thestyle of fiction)embraces:1)poetry;2)drama; 3)emotive

prose. B-l style or the

style of imaginativeliterature may becalled the richestregister of communication:

besides its own lan-gemeans which are notused in any other sphere of communication, b-l st.makes ample use of

other styles too, for innumerous works ofliterary art we findelements of scientific,official and otherfunctional types ofspeech. Besidesinformative and

persuasive functions,also found in otherfunctional styles, the

b-l style has a uniquetask to impress thereader aesthetically.The form becomesmeaningful and carriesadditional info.Boundless possibilitiesof expressing one'sthoughts and feelingsmake the b-l style a

highly attractive fieldof research for alinguist.

The belles-lettresstyle, in each of itsconcreterepresentations, fulfilsthe aesthetic function,which fact singles thisstyle out of others andgives grounds to

recognize itssystematic uniqueness,i.e. charges it with thestatus if anautonomous functionalstyle.

10. Archaisms &

their stylistic

functions.

Archaisms:a)obsolete() words;

b) historical words;c)archaisms proper.

a) obsolete arewords which hadfallen out of usecompletely as theyhave been replaced

by syn-ms. Ex. dress(ModE) - habit(obsolete word), Ithink (ModE) methinks (ob.w). b) historical

novelists make use ofhistorical w. They areapplied to conceptsreflecting the paststages of the dev-ntof humankind. Ex.vassal . Suchw-s are numerous inhistirical novels asnames of socialrelations, institutions& objects of materialculture of the past.Ex. gonflat . Thelimited usage of hist.words isnt caused bylinguistic factors butsocial ones. Stylisticfunction of h.w-s: tocreate a true to life

background in thehist-al novels.c) archaic words

proper haventdropped out of usagecompletely as theyare used in poetry &some official doc-ts.Ex. hither (here) /thither (there)

11. Peculiarities of

poetic & highly

literary words. Poeticwords form a ratherinsignificant layer ofthe special literaryvocabulary. They aremostly archaic or very

rarely used highlyliterary words whichaim at producing anelevated effect. Theyhave a markedtendency to detachthemselves from thecommon literary word-stock and graduallyassume the quality ofterms denoting certain

definite notions andcalling forth poeticdiction. Poetic wordsand expressions arecalled upon to sustainthe special elevatedatmosphere of poetry.This may be said to bethe main function of

poetic words. Poeticaltradition has kept alivesuch archaic words andforms as quoth (tospeak); eftsoons(eftsona, again, soonafter), which are usedeven by modern ballad-mongers. The use of

poetic words does notas a rule create theatmosphere of poetry in

the true sense; it is asubstitute for real art.Poetic words are notfreely built in contrastto neutral, colloquialand common literarywords, or terms. Thecommonest means is bycompounding, e. g.'young-eyed', 'rosy-

fingered'.

12. Difference b/w

foreign words &

barbarisms, their

stylistic functions. Inthe voc-ry of the E lan-e there is a considerablelayer of words called

bar-ms. These are

words of foreign origin,which have not entirely

been assimilated intothe E lan-ge. They bearthe appearance of a

borrowing & are felt assmth alien to the nativetongue. The roleforeign borrowings

played in the dev-nt ofthe E literary lan-ge is

well known, & thegreat majority of these

borrowed w-ds nowform part of the rank &file of the E voc-ry. It isthe science of ling-cs,in particular its branchetymology, that revealsthe foreign nature ofthis or that word. Butmost of what wereformerly foreign

borrowings are now,from a purely stylistic

position, not regardedas foreign. But stillthere are some words,which retain theirforeign appearance to agreater, or lesserdegree. These words,

which are called bar-ms, are, like archaisms,also considered to beon the outskirts of theliterary lan-ge. Most ofthem havecorresponding Esynonyms; e. g. chic(=stylish); en passant(= in passing); andmany other w-s and

phrases. It is very imp-nt for purely stylistic

purposes to distinguishb/n bar-ms & foreignw-s proper. Bar-ms arew-s, which have


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13.Main

characteristics of

slang.

Slang-veryambiguous(.) & obscure(.).S.seems to meaneverything that is

below the standartusage of present dayEnglish.Its the lowestlayer of E-sh voc-ry,the usage of whichis regarded theviolation of standart E-sh.S. is used indialects(to reflectinformal & emotionalcharacter of a

conversation).S. servesto charac-ze the personwho is using it.(E.g.:go mad=gonuts,shut up=beltup,boaster=bighead.).Slang words aremore emotive,inpoeticif compared to theirneutralsynonyms:nonsence=rot,money=bucks.S.can be used for thosewords,which are eithermispronounced

phonetically,morph-ly,lexically:leggo=letgo. S. broad &embracing.It isregarded as the quint-essence()

of colloquial speech &therefore it standsabove all laws of grammar.Some S.words loose theirfeature of novelty &

become commonliterary words.(E.g.:(Br.)go to the

pictures=go to themovies(Am).S. needs

to translation. S.differs from ordinarylang-ge in its voc-ry.But the structure ofthe sentence and the

14.Proffesional &

social jargonisms &

their stylistic

functions.

Jargon-a term for agroup of words thatexist in almost everylanguage and their

aim is to preservesecrecy within 1 oranother socialgroup.Jargonism-oldwords with entirelynew meaningsimposed onthem(E.g.:greese=money,loaf=head).In Br.and USA almostevery social group

has its jargon.TheJargon of jazz,ofarmy,ofsportsment,of theyouth. Groups ofJ.:1)social j-n;2)professional j-n.1)-is used by part.social classes &groups to conceal thesubject of their conversation.2)-by

prof. groups of people to givenew,more expressivenames totools,machines,processes connected withthe givenoccupation.Prof-smay be regarded as

colloquial synonymsof terms but terms aresupposed to beknown to a wideraudience and theydevoid of emotionalcolouring.(E.g.:bulls=peoplewho buy theshares,bears=p. whosell the

shares,piper=whoplays pipes & p. whodecorate cakes).Suchkind of words should

be explained to

15.Place & role of

dialectal words in the

national lang-ge & in

a literary text.

Dialectal words havecome from dialects &still retain their dialectal

character.Many D.words have become sofamiliar in goodcolloquial lang-ge,thatthey becameuniversally accepted(E.g.:lass=girl,lad=ayoung man).Many ofthem are of Scottishorigin.Of quite a dif.nature-D. words which

are easily recognized ascorruptions of standardEnglish words,althoughetimologically theymay have sprung the

pecularities of certaindialects.(E.g.:hinny=honey,titty=sister).D. words createa realistic background(loc. colouring) whenused in a novel.Theyshow from which placethe personcame,characterizehim(his personality)through the speech &are mostly used inemotive prose.Otherdialects used for stylistic

purposes:1)Southern D.ofBritain(Sommersitshcher);2)initial [s],[th] arevoiced & are written inliterary speech of ch-sas z & v(e.g.folk=volk,see=zee).Some D. words areintroduced by writerwhich are

understandable to theintelligent reader(e.g.maister=master,weel=wheel,enengh=enough).

12

Bar-ms, on thecontrary, are not madeconspicuous in the textunless they bear aspecial load of stylisticinfo. There are foreignw-s in the E voc-ry,

which fulfill aterminologicalfunction. It is evidentthat bar-ms are ahistorical category.Many foreign w-s &

phrases which wereonce just foreign w-sused in literary E toexpress a concept non-existent in E reality,

have little by littleentered the class ofwords named bar-msand many of these bar-ms have gradually losttheir foreign

peculiarities, becomemore or less naturalizedand have merged withthe native E stock of w-s. Another function of

bar-ms and foreign w-sis, to build up thestylistic device of non-

personal direct speechor represented speech.The use of a w-d, or a

phrase, or a sentence inthe reported speech of alocal inhabitant helps toreproduce his actual w-

s, manner of speech &the-environment aswell.


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morph-gy remainspracticallyunchangeable

foreign people-whodont belong to this

prof./social gr.J.differs from ordinarylang-ge in its voc-ry.But the structure ofthe sentence and themorph-gy remains

practicallyunchangeable. Waysof creating j-sms:1)foreign

borrowings;2)phonetic deformations.(E.g.:manany=tosailor who puts off

job till some othertime;spain-manjana=tomorrow).

Many non-lit-rywords becomeassimilated and enterthe lit-ry lang-ge.They becomedejargonized(kid,fun,

bluff).

16.Literary coinages

& neologisms, ways

of their formation &

distinction.There are words whichappear as names odnew

phenomena,presentingone of the ways ofenriching the voc-ry.There exist dif-ntnames e.g.-terminalogical

coinages.A greatnumber of words stillremain individualcreations & donappear at the pages ofthe book in which theyhave originated.Suchwords are called-individual(stylistic)coinages orneologisms.Their

maim f-n-1)to help thewriter to achievelaconism of style &expressivness;2)to

17.Lexical meanings

of a word & their

components.

Lexical m-gs arelogical nominal &emotional m-gs.Logical m-g is anexpression of thegeneral features orconcepts of a giventhing or phenomenonthrough 1 of itsqualities. Concept

refers to a logicalsphere.Corresponding ling.category is m-g.In the process of itsdevelopment theword may acquireadditional meanings& becomes

polysemantic. Alogical m-g may be

subdivided intodependent &independent. Ind. log.m-g exists in a word

19.Graphical stylistic

means, kinds of

graphons.In modern advertising,mass media & creative

prose sound isforegrounded throughthe change of itsaccepted graphicalrepresentation. Theintentional violation ofthe graphical shape ofword or word comb-n

used to reflect itsauthentic pronunciationis called a graphon.Introduced into E.novels & journalisms inthe 18 century graphon

proved to be anextremely effectivemeans of supplyinginfo about speakersorigin, social & educ.

Background, physical& emot. condition, etc.(sellybrated,illygitmet). Graphons

20. The notion of a

metaphor, its

peculiarities &

varieties.M. is a stylistic device

based on interaction b/w the logical &contextual m-gs of theword which is based onlikeness b/w objects &implies analogy &comparison b/w them.Money burns a hole in

my pocket( wants tosend).The genuinemetaphor is theexpression of a writer'sindividual vision. It isthrough the metaphorthat the writer revealshis emotional attitudetowards the described.It implies analogy &likeness to concrete

things, makes abstractideas more complex,complex ideas moresimple. E.g. there was


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create a humorouseffect;Most of newwords of the 16-17th

cent.-mostlyborrowings(Latin,Greek,French).They areeasily understood bythe community,they

follow theexistengword building

patterns instructure.Most ofliterary bookishcoinages-by means ofaffixation or word-compounding.Newwords built in thismanner will beimmediatlyperdeved

because of theirunexpectedness.Unexpectedness in theuse of words-thenatural device forthose writers who sickto achieve thesensationaleffect.Conversation,derivation & change ofmeaning-the most

productive in creatingneologisms(e.g.-to buschildren to school,catsmothertigers).Affixationremains the most

popular &common(e.g.-Everyman in the aura ofsuccess tests the

goodhood).Affixes:-anty=antyhero,-ize=villagize,moisturize,dom=wisdomgangdom,-ship=showmanship,misessship,-ese=Johnsonese &Dickensian style,-un=to undo,-thon=marathon,talkath

on,dancethone(suffixsoid as it is part of aword). 16

Nonce-words-coined

irrespectively of theword combinationwhere it is used(togrow-).Dependent log. m-gcan be brought outonly in context.(togrow older -

).

Nominal m-g namesa thing or a being &marks it with aspecific label. Itconveys no thoughts,

but simply givesname to an object tosingle it out. There rwords where a

nominal m-g prevails.These are propernames. Generally

proper names havedeveloped fromcommon nouns.Emotive m-gexpresses the feeling& emotionsconnected with theobject r phenomenondenoted by a word. E.m-g generally coexistwith the log m-g or

prevails. So it is fixedin the dictionaries.There are wordswhich have onlyemotive m-g -interjections &exclamatory words.

Certain adj. & adv.tend to loose theirlog. m-g & have astrong emotivecoloring. She isterribly sweet ( anintensifier) These 3lexical m-gs form thesemantic str-re of theword. There exists 17

1 more lexical m-gwhich appears onlywithin thegiven context. this iscalled the contextual

are also good atconveying atmosphereof authentic lifecommunication. Wehave such clichs as inconversation as gotta,wonna, gimme, lemme,

wille, nowaru.It

becomes popular withadvertisers. E.g.: Pik-wik(pick quick). Therealso exist dif. Forms offoregrounding:1)capitalization,2)italics, 3)spacing ofgraphemes: -hyphenation(/ , );multiplication(1 &the

same letter writtenseveral times). Aspecial trend- graphicalimagism: e.g. the whole

poem is written in formof a bird.

no May morning in hiscowardly heart. thestylistic functions of theM. r: 1) by evokingimages & suggestinganalogies it makes theauthor's thought moreconcrete definite &

clear.2) it reveals theauthor's emotionalattitude towards thedescribed. It can beexpressed with the helpf n, adj, adv,v. Theleaves fell sorrowfully.(adv) Metaphorsexpressed by adj advare called metaphoricalepithets. Sometimes M.

is not confined to 1word & the author usesa sustained or

prolonged M. toprolong his image. Thisis done by adding anumber of other imagesclosely connected withthe main central one.Varieties of metaphors:1)personification - aspecial kind of metaphor in whichabstract ideas or inanimate objects ridentified with person.They r ascribed humancharacteristics. (Mothernature always blushes

beforedisrobing)2)animalifica

tion - a special kind ofM. in which abstractideas or inanimateobjects r identified withthe bists. 20

They are ascribedanimal characteristicsor actions.They are generally

based on verbs & adj-s.

( Words & words &words how theygallop+)


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to suit 1 particularoccasion(e.g.importunity-opportunity,positutly-absolutely

positive).Vogueish-blending(),they are

called telescopingwords(e.g.motel=motorcar+hotel,

botel=boat+hotel,brunch=breakfast+lunch).Also there are wordscoined bycontractions() & abbreviations(e.g.LOX=liquid oxygenexplosive).

m-g. The majority ofstylistic devices are

based on theinteraction of different lexical m-gsof the word.

21.Oxymoron acombination of 2words mostly an adj+a noun or adv+adjexpressing 2contrasting ideasopposite in sense (Aliving copse, a lowsky scarper, horribly

beautiful)Ox-n m.b. expressed

by verb+adv-s (tosmear-

pleasantly)//=//=// by

adj+preposit.phrase(ugly in a pleasant way).In ox-n a logic m-g issurpressed by emotivem-g.In such a way this

trope the complexityof things,contedectories of thewor(l)d. (She criedsilently) Ox-n is oftenmet within asimile(. .)(He was gentle ashell).Ox-n is

practically neverrepeated in

diff.context anddoesnt becometraid(you are awfullynice, pretty bad) The

22.Antonomasia-stylistic device basedon interaction b/wlogical and nominalm-g of a word. Typesof an-a:1)when a

proper noun is usedfor a commonnoun.Proper name isthis type of a-aexpresses somequality which was aloading passion wchar-r whose name isused. It describes a

persons features andqualities throughthose commonlyasso-ed with thename of some

histor.figure or somemythological,religious,literary ch-r.Itsstylistic f-n:to giveconcrete expressionto abstractthings.Ex:Somemodern Samsonswere walking by.(areally strong person)

2)when a common

noun is used for a proper noun. Oftenthey are used tocreate a humorous

23.Methonomyadevice in which thename of a thing isreplaced by the nameof an associatedthing.Unlike methaphorwhere the interaction

b/w the m-gs ofdiff.words is based onresemblance,meth-myreflects the actuallyexisting relations.Nightwas a friend(m-r)Noeye to see no ear tolisten(m-y)Those wordshave aquiredcontextual, logical m-gs that of people. Theinteraction b/w cont/logm-g is based on close

relations objectivelyexisting b/w the part ofthe body itself.

24.Zeugma asimultaneousrealization of 2 m-gs of1 polysem. wordwithin the samecontext. The boys tooktheir places and their

books . Jane wasntnarrow woman inmend and body. Herewe feelthe blending of2/more semanticallyincompatible w-groupshaving an identicallexical item make asingle construction inwhich this item is usedonly once.The resultingeffect-stronglyhumorous/ ironical.The

same effect is achievedwhen a word uponwhich this trope is

based is repeatedPun() a

play of words . Thediff. b/w is very slight.For a pun the contextm.b. of a moreexpanding ch-r.Sometimes the whole

novel.(The importanceof being honest(o.w-d))The same happenswith ambiguous usage


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words have lost the primary logical m-gand are used onlywith emotive m-g asintensifiers, they havelost their stylisticvalue.

effect.In the 18-19c itwas customary to

provide literary char-rs with speakingnames/telltalenames.They styl.f-n:to char-ze a personthrough his

nameMr.Scruge,Oliver Twist. Interestingare cases whencontextual, nominalm-g is aquired by aword-comb-n or awhole phrase.Names

phrases are usuallyspelled withhypons:b/w theircomponents to stress

their close syntacticaland symenticrelations.Mr.Facing-

both-ways( )

of prepositions whichleads to mixing up ofattribute with

prepositional object.To hint

the woman with a childTwo homonyms havemuch less in common

than 2 m-gs of apolysem words.Thustheir realization withinthe same context bringsforce a pun. Puns areoften used in riddlesand joke.What is thediff. b/w aschoolmaster enginedriver (one trains themind and the other

minds the train) We canobserve a violation of

phrasal units humorous effect

25.Epithets & their

varieties.

()

E.-a styl. device basedon the interplay ofemotive & logicalmeanings in anattributive word,phraseor even a sentenceused to charact-ze anobject and disclose theindivid.emot-lycoloured attitude ofthe writer to theobject.(E.g:green

meadows,whitesnow,round table-theydescribe real naturalqualities).E. may beexpressed

by:1)adjective;2)adver b(He watched hersadly,eagerly);3)Participle I,II(Thefreightenedmovements of the

wind);4)nouns(A briefseason of happiness).Phrase orsent-ce E. can describe

25. Epithets and

their varieties.

()

E.-a styl. devicebased on the interplayof emotive & logicalmeanings in anattributiveword,phrase or even asentence used tocharact-ze an objectand disclose theindivid.emot-lycoloured attitude ofthe writer to the

object.(E.g:greenmeadows,whitesnow,round table-they describe realnatural qualities).E.expresses char-cs ofan object, bothexisting andimaginary.E. basicfeature-itsemotiveness and

subjectivity. E. candescribe

behaviour,manners,facial expression.E.may

26.Simile,its

difference from a

traditional

comparison.

()

Simile-expresseslikeness between dif.objects.It shouldnt beconfused between anordinary comparison,asin ordinary comparisonno imagination isinvolved since objectsof the same class arecompared.S. is based

on the comparison ofobject of dif. spheresinvolves the elementof imagination andexclude all the

properties of 2 objectsexcept 1 which is morecommon to them(asclever as his mother -ordinary comparison;asstrong as an ox-S.).The

properties of an objectsmay be viewed fromdif. angles-itsstates,actions,manners.

26.Simile,its

difference from a

traditional

comparison.()

Simile -a structure ofthree components; is animaginative comparisonof two unlike objects

belonging to twodifferent classes. Linkwords "like", "as", "asthough", "as like","such as", "as...as",etc.S. should not beconfused with simple

(logical, ordinary)comparison.Structurally identicalthey are semanticallydifferent: objects

belonging to the sameclass are likened in asimple comparison,while in a S. we dealwith the likening ofobjects belonging to

two different classes.So, "She is like hermother" is a simplecomparison, used to


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behaviour,manners,facial expression.Theyare charac-c of modernEnglish prose.Thereexist a type of the E.

based on illogicalsyntactical relationship

between the modifier

and the modified.Itscalledthe reversed E.composed of 2 nounslinked in an off-

phrase.The evaluatingemotional element isemboarded not in thenoun attribute but inthe noun structurallydescribed.E. can beregarded as:1)those

stressing the existingqualities of theobject(She washopefully,sadly,lonelyfor smth.Better);2)thosetransferring thequalities of 1 object toits closestneighbour(Tobaccostained(=teeth)smile).Transferred E.-are ordinally logicalattribute generallydescribing the state ofa human being madeto refer toinanimate(.)object(Sleepless

pillow.Ananbreakfasted

mornings).Methaphorical E.-a new feature isrevealed()(The moon lookedlovingly).E.may

become -traditional(Sweetsmile.Deepfeelings.Sweetwords).It shouldnt bemixed up with logic.

become -traditional(Sweetsmile.Deepfeelings.Sweetwords).E.Throughlong and repeated useepithets becomefixed. Many fixed

epithets are closelyconnected withfolklore and can betraced back to folk

ballads (e.g. "truelove", "merryChristmas", etc.). Thestructure andsemantics of E. areextremely variable.Semantically, there

are 2 main groups1)affective (oremotive proper)- E.serve to convey theemotional evaluationof the object by thespeaker(most of thequalifying wordsfound in thedictionary,e.g."gorgeous", "nasty","magnificent","atrocious".);2)figurative, or

transferred, E. - isformed of metaphors,metonymies andsimiles expressed byadjectives(E.g. "thesmiling sun", "thefrowning cloud", "the

sleepless pillow", ''thetobacco-stainedsmile", "a ghost-likeface", "a dreamlikeexperience".).E. areexpressed by:1)adjectives or2)qualitative adverbs(e.g. "his triumphantlook" = he lookedtriumphantly),3)noun

s;4) participle I,II.

S. may be based on adj.attributed,adverb.Modifier,verb

predicates.S. have aformal element in theirstructure,calledconnective word-like,such as,as,as

if,seem,mostly.The S.must not be confusedwith methaphor:Myverses flow instreams(methaphor),My verses flow likestreams(S.).The ling.nature of these 2devices is different.Thestyl. func-n of a S. isthe same as of

methaphor:1)toeteiplete the object bycomparing it with someother object of anentirely dif. nature, tomake the descriptionclear and more

picturesqere.HacknateS.:as strong as a lion.

state an evident fact."She is like a rose" is aS. used for purposes ofexpressive evaluation,emotive explanation,highly individualdescription.The case ofsustained expression of

likeness is known asepic, or Homericsimile. In a S. twoobjects are comparedon the grounds of similarity of somequality. This feature iscalled foundation of aS, may be explicitlymentioned as in: "Hestood immovable like a

rock in a torrent", or"His muscles are hardas rock".You see thatthe "rock in twodifferent S. offers twodifferent qualities astheir foundation -"immovable" in the 1stcase, and "hard" in the2nd. When thefoundation is notexplicitly named, the S.is considered to bericher in possibleassociations.So "therose" of the previouscase allows tosimultaneouslyforeground suchfeatures as "fresh,

beautiful, fragrant,

attractive", etc.Sometimes thefoundation of the S. isnot quite clear from thecontext, and the authorsupplies it with a key,where he explainswhich similarities ledhim to liken twodifferent entities, andwhich in fact is an

extended and detailedfoundation.


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25

()

Attribute,with thesame syntact. func-n

but not convey thesubjective attribute ofauthor towards theobject but show only

objectively existingfeatures of theobject(He unlockedthe iron gateeasily).Logic.attributed carried inchains of attributesundergo a certainchanger,beinginfluenced by theiremotionally coloured

neighbours & alsoequire an emotivecolouring(The moneyshe had accepted wastosoft,green,handsome10-$ bills.(=a newthing).

25

()

They are used asexclamatorysentences ("You,ostrich!") or as

postpositive attributes("Richard of the Lion

Heart").E. are usedsingly, in pairs, inchains, in two-stepstructures, and ininvertedconstructions, also as

phrase-attributes. Allprevious examplesare single E..Pairsare-two E. joined bya conjunction or

asyndetically as in"wonderful andincomparable beauty"or "a tired old town".Chains(strings)of E.

present a group ofhomogeneousattributes varying innumber from 3 up tosmtimes 20 andmore(E.g. "You're ascolding, unjust,abusive, aggravating,

bad old creature.").Two-step E.-the

process of qualifyingseemingly passes twostages: thequalification of theobject and thequalification of the

qualification itself, asin "an unnaturallymild day", or "a

pompously majesticfemale".Two-step E.have a fixed structureof Adv + Adjmodel.Phrase-epithets always

produce an originalimpression: "the

sunshine-in-the-breakfast-roomsmell", or "a move-if-you-dare expression".One more structural

28.Periphrasis and its

kinds. Euphemistic

periphrasis.

()

P.-word-combinationthat is used instead of aword,designating anobject.Every P.

contains a purelyindivid. Perseptionof agiven phenomen.As aresult of frequentrepetition P. may

become well-established in languageas a synonymousexpression for theword,generally used tosignify the object.Such

popular word-combinations-pariphrasic synonyms and can

be easily understoodwithout any context.(An internalcity(Rome),Agentleman of a longrobe(lawyer).P. may

be:1)logical-is basedon log. notions;acertain feature of anobject is taken todenote the whole objector a wider notion issubstituted for theconcrete notion(Theinstruments of distrucktion(pistol)).2)figurative- may be

based on the

methaphor(back foolishtears;back to yournativespring(=eyes)).May be

based on metonomy(hemarried a good deal ofmoney(=richlady)).3)ephimistic-aword/phrase used toreplace a rude word orexpression by a

mild,delecate andconventionally moreacceptable one.(to die-

pass away,expire,to beno more,join the

26

()

S., often repeated,becomestrite()andadds to the stock oflanguage phraseology.Most of trite S. have

the foundationmentioned andconjunctions "as","as...as" used asconnectives: "as briskas a bee", "as strong asa horse", "as live as a

bird".S. in which thelink is expressed bynotional verbs such as"to resemble", "to

seem", "to recollect","to remember", "to looklike", "to appear", etc.are called disguised,

because the realizationof the comparison issomewhat suspended,as the likeness betweenthe objects seems lessevident:"The ballappeared to the batterto be a slow spinning

planet looming towardthe earth." .


10/26

type of E.-invertedE.- based on thecontradiction

between the logicaland the syntactical:logically defining

becomes syntacticallydefined and vice

versa. E.g. instead of"this devilishwoman", where"devilish" &"woman"are both logically andsyntacticallydefining.W.Thackeray says "thisdevil of a woman".

majority).These E.P.- part of a l-ge as asystem.They havent

been freshly inventedand are expressivemeans of a l-ge and areto be found in all gooddictionaries.Thus they

cant be regarded as astyl-c devie.E.P. may

be divided intogroups:according to thespheres of application:1)religious(God-Lord,OurFather);2)moral(to die);3)medical(have acold(greekterms);4)parliamentary(

political);

27.Overstatement

and

understatement(hype

rbole).

Hyperbole - a styl-cdevice in whichemphasis is achievedthrough deliberateexaggeration,relies onthe foregrounding ofthe emotivemeaning.H.-one of themost commonexpressive means ofour everyday speech.When we describe ouradmiration or angerand say "a hundredtimes" - we use trite

language hyperboleswhich, through longand repeated use, havelost their originalityand remained signalsof the speaker's rousedemotions.H. may be the finaleffect of another SD -metaphor, simile,irony, as we have in

the cases "The manwas like the Rock ofGibraltar".H. can beexpressed by all

25(2)

()

Here "of a woman" issyntactically anattribute, i.e. thedefining, and "devil"the defined, while thelogical relations

between the tworemain the same as inthe previous example- "a woman" isdefined by "thedevil".All inverted E.are easilytransformed into E. ofa more habitualstructure where thereis no logico-

syntacticalcontradiction.: "thegiant of a man" (agigantic man); "the

prude of a woman" (a prudish woman),etc.Do not mix up aninverted E. with anordinary off-

phrase.The secondnoun will help you in

doubtful cases: "thetoy of the girl" (thetoy belonging to thegirl); "the toy of a

28.Periphrasis and its

kinds. Euphemistic

periphrasis.()

Periphrasis is a verypeculiar stylistic devicewhich basicallyconsists of using aroundabout form ofexpression instead of asimpler one, i.e. ofusing a more or lesscomplicated syntacticalstructure instead of aword. Depending onthe mechanism of thissubstitution,P.areclassified into1)figurative(metonymic and

metaphoric),2)logical.1)is made of phrase-metonymies and

phrase-metaphors:"Thehospital was crowdedwith the surgicallyinteresting products ofthe fighting in Africa"where the extendedmetonymy stands for"the wounded".Logical

P. are phrasessynonymic with thewords which weresubstituted by P.:"Mr.

33. Stylistic usage of

proverbs,

sayings, allusions,

citations.

A proverb is a briefwitty phrase of generalizing naturecharacterized by acompleteness of thought & generallyexpressing the wisdomof people. Many ofthem have a verse-likeshape(Early to bedearly to rise makes aman healthy&wise).Brevity in

proverbs manifestsitself in the omission of

connectives (First comefirst served).A saying is a common

phrase dif. from a proverb in that thethought is notcompletely expressed.Proverbs & sayingsused in fiction make itclearer & moreemotional (which side

his bread was buttoned not to be foolish,know how to behave)Allusion is a reference


11/26

notional parts of speech.Words thoughwhich styl. device areused more often "all",''every","everybody"."Calpurnia was all angles and

bones"; also numerical

nouns ("a million", "athousand"), as wasshown above; andadverbs of time("ever", "never").Wasstressed theimportance of bothcommunicants clearly

perceiving that theexaggeration, used byone of them is

intended as such andserves not to denoteactual quality or quantity but signalsthe emotional

background of theutterance. If thisreciprocalunderstanding of theintentional nature ofthe overstatement isabsent, hyperboleturns into a mere lie.H.is aimed atexaggerating quantityor quality. When it isdirected the oppositeway, when the size,shape, dimensions,characteristic featuresof the object are hot

overrated, butintentionallyunderrated, we dealwith understatement.The mechanism of itscreation andfunctioning is identicalwith that of H.,

girl" (a small, toylikegirl).

Du Pont was dressed inthe conventionaldisguise with whichBrooks Brothers coverthe shame of Americanmillionaires." "Theconventional disguise"stands here for "the

suit" and "the shame ofAmerican millionaires"

for "the paunch (the belly)". Because thedirect nomination ofthe not too elegantfeature of appearancewas substituted by aroundabout descriptionthis P. may be alsoconsidered

3)euphemistic, as itoffers a more politequalification instead ofa coarser one.The mainfunc-n of P. is toconvey a purelyindividual perceptionof the described object.To achieve it thegenerally acceptednomination of theobject is replaced bythe description of oneof its features or qualities, which seemsto the author mostimportant for thecharacteristic of theobject, and which thus

becomes foregrounded.

to a well-knownhistorical, literary ormythological object.The use of allusions

presupposes theknowledge of the fact,thing or person alludedto n the part of the

reader or listener. As arule no indication ofthought is given.(Imgoing to clean Againstables means that uhave a disorder. Thelast of the Mohican)Allusions like citationsoften show that thecharacter is eager todisplay his education o

wit.Citation is a repetitionof a phrase or statementfrom a book, speech orthe like used by theway of authority,illustration, proof. Theyr usually marked in thetext by invertedcommas, dashes, italics& other graphicalmeans. This is a naturalutterance made by acertain author.


12/26

27

and it does not signifythe actual state' ofaffairs in reality, but

presents the latterthrough theemotionally coloured

perception and

rendering of thespeaker. It is not theactual diminishing orgrowing of the objectthat is conveyed by aH. or Underst-t.Theydiffer only in thedirection of the flow ofroused emotions.English is well knownfor its preference for

understatement ineveryday speech - "Iam rather annoyed"instead of "I'minfuriated.Some H.and U. (both usedindividually and as thefinal effect of someother styl. device)have become fixed, aswe have in "SnowWhite", or "Liliput",or "Gargantua".

34. Stylistic

peculiarities of oral

speech, syntactical

stylistic devices

characteristic for it.

Syntax deals with thearrangement of wordsinto combinations.

Stylistic study beginswith the study oflength & structure ofa sent-ce.The human canreceive & transmitinfo only if it is slit

by pauses.Theoretically a sent-ce can be of anylength, but

psychologically noreader can receiveinfo where a stopcomes after 128words.(JamesUlysses-a stop after45 pages).The lowest limit is 1word.1-wod sent-shave a very strongemphatic impact.This word obtains

both the word & sent-ce stress.(On.Off.)Word order,structure of a sent-ce,

punctuation,intonation are an imp.

part for perception ofa text.Intonation m.create,

add & reverse bothlogical & emotionalinfo of an utterance.Punctuation is much

poorer than int-n. Itisnt used alone, butemphasizing &substantiating thelex/syntect m-g of thecomponents of a sent-ce.( its marks- oints

of exclamation(!),interogatin(?),dots(),dashes(-),commas,semicolon(;),full

28()

The often repeated P.becometrite() andserve as universallyaccepted periphrasticsynonyms: "the gentle /

soft / weak sex"(women); "my betterhalf (my spouse);"minions of Law"(police), etc.

35.stylistic use of the

interrogative &

negative constructions

a)rhetorical ?-s(it isnot supposed to be

answered, since theonly answer is impliedwithin the boundariesof the ?-n. They areoften used in the form. Have I notsuffered things to beforgiven? Thediscrepancy b/w theform(-) & theessence(the statement is

positive) makes the rh?very emphatic &widely used inoratorical style(style of

public speaking)It iswidely used in modernfiction in informaldialogues, when indistress or anger withthe phrases like: what

have I dne to deserveit? what shall I dowhen? Such forms rfurther stressed byexclamation alongsidewith interrogationmarks.The stylistic force ofrh? is in thesimultaneousrealization of 2

syntactical m-ngs: them-g of a ?, statement.b)Litotes(a statementin the form of a doublenegation, where 2 are

joined to give a +evaluation. E.g. notunkindly means kindly,thus the + effect isweakened.the str-re ofL. is rigid.Besides the

not there is a 2-ndelement negative inform or in m-g.Sometimes L. is used


13/26

stop.Groups of syntacticaldevices:1)devicesused within a s-

ce;2)devices used

within an ut-ce;

3)devices based on

special use of

connection b/w s-ces& phrases.

D-ces used within as-ce:1)based on

juxtaposition

a)inversion(theviolationof traditionalwod order whichdoesnt alter the m-gof the s-ce,but gives

it an addit./emotionalcolouring. I-n is usedto single out some

parts f the s-ce &heighten theemotional tension.

to create the effect ofirony, but the main itsfunction is to make thestatement lesscategoric.

3. The notion of an

idiolect, an individual

style, registers of

speech.Stylistics is a sciencewhich deals with theresult of the act ofcommunication. Whenwe speak aboutindividual style itmeans the individualmanner of writing. Thespeach of an individ.which is ch-ed by

peculiarities typical ofthat particularindividual is called anidiolect. For a writerits marked by itsuniques. We shall callan individual style aunique combination oflanguage. Expressivemeans peculiar to agiven writer, which

makes his works easilyrecognized

34

b)isolated members

of a s-

ce(detachment)

( based on singlingout a secondarymember of the s-cewith the help of inton-n & punct-n.The word order isntviolated,but secondmembers obtain thereown stress & inton-nas they are detached

from the rest of the s-ce by: commas,dashes,full stops. Ihave to beg u formoney. Daily.Detachment is usedto give prominence tosome words to helpthe author laconicallydraw the readersattention to a certain

detail.2)styl. use f the

peculiarities of oral

speech:

34(3)

Stylistic devices used

within an ut-ce:

1)d. based on

repetition(therecurrence of the sameword, w.-comb-n,

phrase for 2 or moretimes(anaphora(a..,a),epiphora(a,a),framing(a,a),catchrep-n(a,a),chain r-n(a,ab,bc),

ordinary r-n(has nocetain place a,a,a),successive r-n(a steamof closely fol-ing eachother repeated units Onher fathers beinggroundlessly suspectiveshe feltsure,sure,sure).Stylisticf-n of r-n is toemphasize the most

imp part of the ut-cerendering emotions ofthe speaker.There rsome d-s based on r-n

36. Stylistic devices

based on special

arrangement of the

arts f an utterance.

1)climax(gradation)a structure in whichevery successive s-ce isemotionally stronger rlog-ly more imp. thanthe preceding one.E.g.

For that one instantthere was none else inthe room, in the housein the world besidesthemselves. 3 types ofclimax: quantative,qualative(emotive),logical(every newconcept is stronger,more imp. & valued)Ascounterpart to C. stands

anti-C.(emotion orlogical imp-ce isaccumulated only to beunexpectedly broken &


14/26

ellipses

a)ellipses(Omissionof some part of a s-ce. It may occur dueto a careless informal,careless char-r ofspeech.(Serve himright)El-s not only

makes the s-ceslaconic, but alsocreates the effect ofimplication.b)aposiopesis(-)A sudden break inspeech,caused bystrong emotion or bysome reluctance tofinish the s-ce. break

is a result of seakersuncertainty as to whatexactly he is toromise or threaten.Isgraphically marked

by a series of dots ora dash. Goodimpatience, but -c)represented

speech(representationof the actual ut-ce bya second personusually the author asif it had been spoken,whereas it has notreally been spoken,

but is onlyrepresented in theauthors words).

of someidea(synonymicalr-n:1)pleonasm(the useof more words in the s-ce then necessary toexpress the m-g),2)tautology-the r-n(the r-n of the same

word/phrase or thesame idea or statementin other words often indif. gram.forms).2)Devices based on

parallelism. Parallelconstructions areformed by the samesyntactical patternclosely following oneanother. Par. c-s effect

the rhythmical org-n ofthe paragraph.It iswidely used inoratorical speech. 2types of parallelism:a) complete(the str-reof the whole sent-ce isrepeated),b)partial(some parts of thesuccessive s-ces/clauses arerepeated)- the reversed parallelconstr-n(chiasmus)(Iknow the world theworld knows me)The 2nd part of ch-s the inversion of the 1st

construction.

brught t a suddencadence) This wasappalling & soonforgot.2)suspense() a deliberateslowing down of athought postponing its

completion till the endof the ut-ce. To holdthe reader in suspensemeans to keep the finalsolution just out of thesight.Detective/adventurestories examples ofsuspense fiction.3)antithesis a styl.device presenting 2

contrasting ideas inclose neighborhood.Synt-ly it is anothercase of parallelism butunlike p-sm which isindifferent to thesemantics, the 2 partsof antithesis must besemantically oppositeto each other. Its styl .f-n is to create the effectof contrast.

34(2)

3)stylistic use of theinterrogative &

negative

constructions

a)rhetorical ?-s(it isnot supposed to beanswered, since theonly answer isimplied within the

boundaries of the ?-n.They are often used

in the form.Have I not sufferedthings to be forgiven?The discrepancy b/w

34(4)

3)stylistic use of the

interrogative &

negative constructions

a)rhetorical ?-s(it isnot supposed to beanswered, since the

only answer is impliedwithin the boundariesof the ?-n. They areoften used in the form. Have I not


15/26

the form(-) & theessence(the statementis positive) makes therh? very emphatic &widely used inoratorical style(styleof public speaking)Itis widely used in

modern fiction ininformal dialogues,when in distress oranger with the

phrases like: whathave I dne to deserveit? what shall I dowhen? Such forms rfurther stressed byexclamationalongside with

interrogation marks.The stylistic force ofrh? is in thesimultaneousrealization of 2syntactical m-ngs: them-g of a ?, statement.b)Litotes(a statementin the form of adouble negation,where 2 are joined togive a + evaluation.E.g. not unkindlymeans kindly, thusthe + effect isweakened.the str-reof L. is rigid.Besidesthe not there is a 2-ndelement negative inform or in m-g.Sometimes L. is

used to create theeffect of irony, butthe main its functionis to make thestatement lesscategoric.

suffered things to beforgiven? Thediscrepancy b/w theform(-) & theessence(the statementis positive) makes therh? very emphatic &widely used in

oratorical style(style of public speaking)It iswidely used in modernfiction in informaldialogues, when indistress or anger withthe phrases like: whathave I dne to deserveit? what shall I dowhen? Such forms rfurther stressed by

exclamation alongsidewith interrogationmarks.The stylistic force ofrh? is in thesimultaneousrealization of 2syntactical m-ngs: them-g of a ?, statement.b)Litotes(a statementin the form of a doublenegation, where 2 are

joined to give a +evaluation. E.g. notunkindly means kindly,thus the + effect isweakened.the str-re ofL. is rigid.Besides thenot there is a 2-ndelement negative inform or in m-

g.Sometimes L. is usedto create the effect ofirony, but the main itsfunction is to make thestatement lesscategoric.


16/26

31. SD based on

parallelism.Parallel constructions

are formed by thesame syntactical

pattern closelyfollowing one another.Par. c-s effect the

rhythmical org-n ofthe paragraph.It iswidely used inoratorical speech. 2types of parallelism:a) complete(the str-reof the whole sent-ce isrepeated),b)partial(some parts of thesuccessive s-ces/clauses are

repeated)- the reversed parallelconstr-n(chiasmus)(Iknow the world theworld knows me)The 2nd part of ch-s the inversion of the 1st

construction.

32. SD based on

juxtaposition

a)inversion(theviolationof traditionalwod order whichdoesnt alter the m-gof the s-ce,but givesit an addit./emotional

colouring. I-n is usedto single out some

parts f the s-ce &heighten theemotional tension.b)isolated members

of a s-

ce(detachment)

( based on singlingout a secondarymember of the s-ce

with the help of inton-n & punct-n.The word order isntviolated,but secondmembers obtain thereown stress & inton-nas they are detachedfrom the rest of the s-ce by: commas,dashes,full stops. Ihave to beg u formoney. Daily.Detachment is usedto give prominence tosome words to helpthe author laconicallydraw the readersattention to a certaindetail.

30. Types of syntactic

repetition.repetition-therecurrence of the sameword, w.-comb-n,

phrase for 2 or moretimes:1)anaphora(a..,a)-when the beginning

of some successivesent-ce(clauses) isrepeated;styl. f-n:tocreate the bachgroundfor the non repeatedunit,which through itsnovelty becomesforegrounded;2)epiphora(a,a)-the lastelement is repeated,itadds stress to a final

words in a sent-ce;3)framing(a,a)(ringing repet-n)-the1st or the last element isrepeat;it makes thewhole ut-ce compactand complete,its mosteffective in singling out

paragraphs & instancesin a text; 4)catch rep-n(a,a)-rep-tionofthe same word/phraseat the end of 1 clause&at the beginning of thefollowing one;5)chainr-n(a,ab,bc)-represents a series ofanidiplosice;the effectis smoothly developinglogicalreasoning(Living is the

art of loving.Loving isthe art of carrying.Carying is theart of sharing.).6)ordinary r-n-has no certain placein the sent-ce,itemphesisis log. &emot. mean-gs of therepeated word or

phrase, 7)successive r-

n(a,a,a)-1 & thesame element isrepeated one afteranother;a steam ofclosely fol-ing each

29.Types of lexical

repetitions.

There are some devices based on r-n of someidea:synonymical r-n-the rep-on of the sameidea by usingsynonymous words and

phrases which byadding a slightly dif.shapes of m-g intensifythe ut-ce;2 terms toshow attitude to allkinds of synonymous r-n:1)pleonasm-the useof more words in the s-ce then necessary toexpress the m-g),2)tautology-the r-n

of the sameword/phrase or thesame idea or statementin other words often indif. gram.forms).


17/26

other repeatedunits;show the peak ofemotions.(e.g. On herfathers beinggroundlessly suspectiveshe feltsure,sure,sure).Stylisticf-n of r-n is to

emphasize the mostimp part of the ut-cerendering emotions ofthe speaker.

4. Stylistic

Differentiation of the

vocab.

The word-stock of anygiven lang can bedivided into 3 groups,differing each other bythe sphere of use (1-neutral, possessing nostyl connotation &suitable for anycommunicativesituation, 2-literary &3- colloquial words)

Lit-ry & col-al containa number of subgroupshaving some common

property. Lit-ry wordsare more or less stable.Col-l has a livelyspoken character, isunstable and fleeting.The neutral has auniversal ch-r.Itsunrestricted in use. It

can be employed in allspheresof humanactivity.it can be metat any style of speech.They have no localcvh-r, no emotivecolouring.Lit-ry & col-l can be general &special.

Special lit-ry:1 terms,

words denotingobjects, humanities,techniques,2 archaism-denoting historical

2. The notion of the

functional

style.Classification.

Fun style(by Galperin)is a system of coordinated,interrelated &interconditionedlanguage meansintended to fulfil aspecific function ofcom-n & aiming at adefinite effect.Classification:

1 official style,represented in allkinds of of documents.2 scientific, found inarticles, brochures,monographs & otheracademic publications3 publicist, coveringsuch genres as essay,

public speeches.4 newspaper style,

observed in themajority of materials

printed in newspapers5 belles-lettres style,embracing numerousgenres of creativewriting. it fulfils theaesthetic function ,which fact singles thisstyle out of others &gives grounds to

recognize itssystematic uniqueness.Each of the style has 2forms: written & oral.

37. Stylistics of the

author & of the

reader. The notions of

encoding & decoding.

Decoding stylistics(DS) the most recenttrend in stylistics thatemploys the knowledgeof such sciences asinformation theory,

psychology, linguistics,literary theory, historyof art, etc.DS tries to regard the

esthetic value of a textbased on the interactionof specific textualelements, stylisticdevices &compositional structurein delivering theauthors message. Thismethod does notconsider the styl.function of any styl.

feature separately butas a part of a wholetext. DS helps thereader in understandingof a lit. work byexplaining (decoding)the info that may behidden from immediateview. The term DScame from theapplication of the

theory of informationto ling-cs (Jackobson,Arnold, Lotman).The process is

38. Main concepts of

DS analisys and types

of foregrounding.

DS investigates thesame levels aslinguasty-cs phonetic,graphical, lexical,grammatical. The basicdifference: it studiesexpressive means ofeach level not asisolated devices but asa part of the whole texton lengthy segments of

text (from paragraph tothe level of the wholework).Ideas, events,characters, authorsattitudes are encoded inthe text through the lan-ge. The reader is to

perceive & encodethese things by readingthe text. DS is the

reader's sty-cs that isengaged in recreatingthe author's vision ofthe world with the helpof concrete textelements & their interaction through thetext.One of the fundamentalconcepts of DS isforegrounding (F-g).

The notion of it wassuggested by scholarsof the Prague linguisticcircle at the beg. of the


18/26

phenomena ,which areno more inuse(vassal)=historicalwords:poeticwords(17-19cen=steed =horse) &archaic words(nay=no)Special subgroups of

col-l words:Slang-used by mostspeakers in informalcom-n,are highlyemotive & expressive(

pretty girl)Jargonisms-are closeto slang, alsoexpressive & emotive,

but used by limitedgroups of ppl

Vulgarism-words witha strong emotivemeaning, normallyavoided in polite con-nDialectal words arenormative & of anystylistic meaning inregional dialects, butused outside of them,carry a strong flavourof the locality wherethey belong

Only recently, moststyle class included:Poetic style- dealswith verbal formsspecific for poetry.Oratoric style- inancient Greece wasinstrumental in the

creation of Rhetoric.All the mentionedstyles are specifiedwithin the literarytype of the language.Their functioning ischaracterized by theinternationalapproach of thespeaker towards thechoice of lang-e

means suitable for aparticular com-vesituation & theofficial, formal natureof the latter.

presented in thefollowing way: thewriter receives dif. Infofrom the outside world.He processes this info& recreates it in hisown images. The

process of internalizing

of the outside info &translating it into hisown imagery encoding.Encoder(writer) sendsthe info to recipient(addressee, reader) &the reader is supposedto decode the info. This

process is not easy. Alit. work on its way to

the reader encountersmany obstacles social, historical,temporal, culturalReaders & authors may

be separ-ed byhist.epoch, soc.conventions, religious& pol.views, cult. &national traditions. Theauthor & the readermay be dif. inemotional, intellectual

plan. Many lit.worksare roo sophisticated,they require of thereader a wideeducational

background,knowledge of history,mythology, philosophy.

20th c-ry. Among itsmembers wereTrubetskoy, Jacobson,Skalichka, etc. F-gmeans a specific rolethat some lang-ge items

play in a cert.contextwhen the reader's

attention cannot but bedrawn to them. In alit.text such items

become styl-ly markedfeatures that build upits stylistic func-n.There are cert.modes oflang-ge use &arrangement to achievethe effect of F-g.it may

be based on dif types of

deviation, redundancy,unexpected comb-n oflang-ge units.Arnold: the effect of F-g can be achieved in a

peculiar way by theabsence of anyexpressive or descriptive featureswhen they are expectedin cert.types of texts(e.g. the absence ofrhythmical arrangementin verse)

39. The notions of

convergence &

defeated expectancy

Convergence denotesa comb-n of stylisticdevices promoting thesame idea, emotion ormotive. Any type ofexpr. means will makesense styl-ly when

treated as a part of abigger unit, thecontext, or the wholetext. It means that

39

An example from O.Wilde's play TheImportance of BeingEarnest illustrateshow predictability ofthe structure plays a

joke on the speaker:Miss Fairfax, ever

since I met you I have

admired you morethan any girl... I have

met... since I met you.(Wilde)

37

All these factorspreclude easy decoding& show how dif. it is tothe message to reachthe reader. Themessage encoded &sent may differ fromthe mes-ge receivedafter decoding.

So the result may be afailure on both sides.The reader maycomplain that he could

38(1)

DS laid down a few principle methods thatensure the effect of F-g.They are: convergenceof expressive means,irradiation, defeatedexpectancy, coupling,semantic fields, semi-marked structures.

Convergence denotesa combin-n of styl.devices promotingthe same idea, emotion


19/26

there is no immediatedependence between acert. styl. device and adefinite stylistic fun-n.A stylistic device isnot attached to this orthat stylistic effect.Therefore a hyperbole,

for ex., may provideany number of effects:tragic, comical,

pathetic or grotesque.Inversion may give thenarration a highlyelevated tone or anironic ring of parody.This chameleonquality of a stylisticdevice enables the

author to apply dif.devices for the same

purpose. The use ofmore than one type ofexpr. means in closesuccession is a

powerful technique tosupport the idea thatcarries paramountimportance in theauthor's view. Suchredundancy ensuresthe delivery of themessage to the reader.Defeated exp-cy (DE)

is a principleconsidered by somelinguists (Jacobson) asthe basic principle of astyl. func-n. The linearorg-n of the text

mentally prepares thereader for the logicaldevel-t of ideas. Thenormal arrangement ofthe text both in formand content is basedon its predict-y whichmeans that theappearance of anyelement in the text is

prepared by the

preceding arrangementand choice ofelements, e.g. thesubject of the sentencewill normally be foll.

The speaker iscompelled to unravelthe structure almostagainst his will, andthe pauses show he iscaught in the trap ofthe structure unableeither to stop or say

anything new.Without predict-ythere would be nocoherence and nodecoding. At thesame timestylisticallydistinctive featuresare often based on thedeviation from thenorm and predict-y.

An appearance of anunpred-le elementmay upset the processof decoding. Eventhough notcompletely unpred-lea styl. device is still alow expectancyelement and it is sureto catch the reader'seye. The decoding

process meets anobstacle, which isgiven the full force ofthe reader's attentionDF may come up onany level of the lang-ge. It may be anauthor's coinage withan unusual suffix; itmay be a case of

semantic incongruityor gram.transposition.Devices that are

based on DE : pun,zeugma, paradox,oxymoron, irony,anti-climax, etc. DEis partic-ly effectivewhen the precedingnarration has a highdegree of orderly

organized elementsthat create amaximum degree of

predictability andlogical arrangement

not understand what theauthor wanted to say,while the author mayresent beingmisinterpreted. So, theDS deals with thenotions of stylistics ofthe author & stylistics

of the reader.

or motive; any type ofexp.means will makesense styl-ly whentreated as a part of thewhole unit (the context,the whole text). The useof more than 1 type ofexp.means in close

succession a powerfultechnique to support theidea that is of particularimp-ce to the author.Defeated E-y. Thelinear org-n of the textmentally prepares thereader for theconsequential & log-ldevel-nt of ideas. Thenormal arrangement of

the text is based on its predictability (theappearance of anyelement in the text is

prepared by the producing arrangement& choice of elements).DE may be found onany ling.level. It may

be expressed byunusual suffix, zeugma,oxymoron, paradox.Coupling is based onthe affinity of elementsthat occupy similar

position thoughtout thetext. C. providescohesion, consistency& unity of the text form& content. It may befound on any ling.level.

The affinity may be phonetic (alliteration,assonance, rhyme,rhythm..) &semantic(use of synonyms, antonyms,root repetition,

paraphrase..) &structural(all kinds of

parallelism, syntacticalrepetition- anadiplosis,

framing ).


20/26

by the predicate, youcan supply parts ofcertain set phrases orcollocation after yousee the first element,etc.

of the contextuallinguistic material.

38(2)

Semantic field. Itidentifies lex. elementsin text segments andthe whole work that

provide its thematic andcompositionalcohesion. Lex. tiesrelevant to this kind ofanalysis will includesynonymous andantonymous relations,morphologicalderivation, relations ofinclusion (various typesof hyponymy and

entailment), commonsemes in the denotativeor connotativemeanings of differentwords.Semi-marked

structures is associatedwith the deviation fromthe grammatical andlexical norm. It's anextreme case ofdefeated expectancymuch stronger than lowexpectancy encounteredin a paradox or anti-climax, theunpredictable elementis used contrary to thenorm so it produces avery strong emphaticimpact.


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40. The notions of

coupling, sem.field,

semi-marked

structures

While convergenceand defeatedexpectancy both focusthe reader's attention

on the particularlysignif. parts of the textcoupling (C) dealswith the arrangementof textual elementsthat provide the unity& cohesion of thewhole structure. C. ismore than many otherdevices connectedwith the level of the

text. This method oftext analysis helps todecode ideas, theirinteraction, innersemantic & structurallinks of the text.C. is based on theaffinity of elementsthat occupy similar po-sitions throughout thetext. C. providescohesion & unity ofthe text form andcontent.C. can befound on any level ofthe language, so theaffinity may bedifferent in nature: itmay be phonetic(alliteration,assonance,

paronomasia, rhyme,rhythm, meter),structural (all kinds of

parallelism and syntac-tical repetition-anadiplosis, anaphora,framing, chiasmus,epiphora,etc.) &semantic (the use ofsynonyms andantonyms, both direct

and contextual, rootrepetition, paraphrase,sustained metaphor,semantic fields,recurrence of images,

40(1)

SF shows howcohesion is achievedon a less explicitlevel sometimescalled the verticalcontext. Lex.lelements of this sort

are charged withimplications andadherent meaningsthat establishinvisible linksthroughout the textand create a kind ofsemantic backgroundso that the work islaced with certainkind of imagery.

Lex. ties relevant toSF will includesynonymous andantonymous relations,morphologicalderivation, relationsof inclusion (varioustypes of hyponymyand entailment), com-mon semes in thedenotative orconnotative meaningsof different words.Semi-marked

structures (SS) are avariety of defeatedexpectancy associ-ated with thedeviation from thegram.l and lex. norm.It's an extreme case

of defeatedexpectancy muchstronger than low ex-

pectancy encounteredin a paradox or anti-climax, theunpredictableelement is usedcontrary to the normso it produces a verystrong emphatic

impact. For ex.,The stupid heart that

will not learnThe everywhere of

grief.

40(2)

Lex. deviation from thenorm usually means

breaking the laws ofsem. compatibility andlex. valency. Arnoldconsiders SS as a partof tropes based on the

unexpected orunpredictable relationsestablished betweenobjects & phenomena

by the authorIf you had to predictwhat elements wouldcombine well with suchwords and expressionsas to try one's best to...,to like ... you would

hardly come up withsuch incompatiblecombinations:She... tried her best to

spoilthe party.(Erdrich)

I likedthe ugly littlecollege... (Wnugh)Such combination oflex. units in oureveryday speech israre. However in spiteof their apparentincongrtiily SS of bothtypes arc widely usedin lit-ry texts that arcfull of sophisticatedcorrelations which helpto read sense into mostunpredictablecombinations of lex.

units.


22/26

connotations orsymbols).Semantic field (SF) isa method of decodingstylistics closelyconnected withcoupling. It identifieslex.l elements in text

segments and thewhole work that

provide its thematicand compositionalcohesion. To revealthis sort of cohesiondecoding mustcarefully observe notonly lex. andsynonymous repet-n

but sem. affinity which

finds expression incases of lexico-semantic variants,connotations andassociations aroused

by a specific use ordistribution of lexicalunits, thematic

pertinence ofseemingly unrelatedwords.

The word everywhereis not a noun, but anadverb and cannot beused with an articleand a preposition,

besidesgriefis anabstract noun thatcannot be used as an

object with a noundenoting location.However the linesmake sense for the

poet & readers whointerpret them as the

poetic equivalent ofthe author'soverwhelming feelingof sadness anddejection.

.

1. St-s is aThesubject of

stylistics. Its

connection

with other

disciplines.

branch of generallinguistics. It hasmainly with two tasks:

St-s is regarded as alang-ge science whichdeals with the resultsof the act ofcommunication. Thereare 2 basic objects ofst-s: - stylistic devicesand figures of speech;- functional styles.Branches of st-s:- Lexical st-s studies

functions of direct andfigurative meanings,also the waycontextual meaning of

1(1)

- Individual stylestudy studies thestyle of the author. Itlooks for correlations

between the creativeconcepts of theauthor and thelanguage of his work.

- st-s of encoding -The shape of the info(message) is codedand the addressee

plays the part ofdecoder of theinformation which iscontained in message.The problems whichare connected with

adequate reception ofthe message withoutany loses(deformation) are the

1(2)

General (non-stylistic)morphology treatsmorphemes and gram-lmeanings expressed bythem in lan-ge ingeneral, without regardto their stylistic value.Stylistic mor-gy is

interested in gram-lforms and gram-lmeanings that are

peculiar to particularsublanguages, explicityor implicity comparingthem with the neutralones common to all thesublanguages.Lexicology deals withstylistic classification

(differentiation) of thevocabulary that form a

part of st-s (stylisticslexicology). In stylistic


23/26

a word is realized inthe text. L.S. dealswith various types ofconnotations expressive, evaluative,emotive; neologisms,dialectal words andtheir behavior in the

text.- Grammatical st-s issubdivided intomorphological andsyntactical. Morph-l s.views stylistic

potential of gram-lcategories of dif-t

parts of speech.Potential of thenumber, pronouns

- Syntactical s. studiessyntactic, expressivemeans, word order andword combinations,dif-t types of sentencesand types of syntacticconnections. Alsodeals with origin of thetext, its division on the

paragraphs, dialogs,direct and indirectspeech, the connectionof the sentences, typesof sentences.- Phonostylistics

phoneticalorganization of proseand poetic texts. Hereare included rhythm,rhythmical structure,rhyme, alliteration,

assonance andcorrelation of thesound form andmeaning. Also studiesdeviation in normative

pronunciation.- Functional S (s. ofdecoding) deals withall subdivisions of thelanguage and its

possible use

(newspaper, colloquialstyle). Its object -correlation of themessage andcommunicative

problems of st-s ofencoding.St-s is not equal tolinguistics science,such as phonetics,linguistics disciplines

lexicology,morphology, syntax

because they are leveldisciplines as theytreat only onelinguistic level andst-s investigates thequestions on all thelevels and dif-taspects of the texts ingeneral. The smallestunit of lang-ge is the

phoneme. Several

phonemes combinedmake a unit of ahigher level morpheme(morphemic level).One or moremorphemes makes aword, a lexeme(lexical level). One ormore than one wordsmake an utterance, asentence (sentencelevel). St-s must besubdivided intoseparate, independent

branches stylisticphonetics, Stylisticmorphology, Stylisticlexicology, StylisticsyntaxWhatever level we

take, st-s is describesnot what is incommon use, butwhat is specific inthis or that respect,what differentiatesone sublanguagefrom others. General(non-stylistic)

phonetics investigatesthe whole articulatory

- audial system oflanguage. Stylistic

ph-cs describesvariants of

pronunciation

lexicology each unitsare studied separately,instead of as a wholetext (group of words,word classification).General syntax treatsword combinations andsentences, analyzing

their str-res and statingwhat is permissible andwhat is inadmissible inconstructing correctutterances in the givenlan-ge. Stylistic syntaxshows what particularconstructions are metwith in various types ofspeech, whatsyntactical str-res are

style forming (specific)in the sublanguages inquestion. Semanticlevel connected withmeaning


24/26

situation. occuring in dif-ttypes of speech.Special attention isalso paid to prosodicfeatures of prose and

poetry.

18. Phonetic

expressive means andstylistic devices.

The notion of harmony, euphony,rhythm and some othersound phenomenacontribute to somegeneral acousticsound.Onomatopoeia( ) -

is a combination ofspeech sounds whichaims at imitatingsounds produced innature. E.g.: hiss,grumble, sizzle,murmur, bump.wind,sea, thunder,by thingslike machines tools,by

people (laughter,cough),by animal.There exist: 1) Directonomatopoeia: inwords that imitatenatural sound (ding-dong, buzz, hiss, roar,

ping-pong, mew, cock-a-doodle-doo)2)Indirect: acombination of sounds, the aim of

which is to make thesound of the utterancean echo of its sense(And the silken satuncertain, rusting ofeach purple curtain).Poetry abounds insome specif. devicesof sound instrument.The most frequent ofthem are: Alliteration

the repetition of thesame construction atthe beginning of words.Its often used

18(1)

prove),masculinerhymes(monosyllabicwords): e.g. down-town and arestanding on the lastline or , or bisyllabicwords accented onthe last syllables:domain-remain;mouth-south.

,feminine rhyme(words are accentedon the last but onesyllable: error-terror)1.The rhyming

patterns are shownwith the help of letters, e.g. couplets.When the last wordof the 2 successivelines are rhymea: a a

b b2.Triple (dactylic)rhymes: a a a, basedon 3-syllable words.1 syllable stressed, 2unstressed3.There exist cross(quatrain) rhymes: a

b a b4.framing (rheme)

rhymes: abba frame5.internal rhyme: therhyming word is

placed not at the endof the line, but withinrhymes.Functions of rhyme:1) to signalizethe end of line andmark the arrangementof lines into stanzas

(4) 2)rhythm becomesevident because ofrhyme3) the ends

18(2)

guilt in )The repetition ofthe units of the meter or feetmakes verse. The number offeet in a line is different indifferent poetic words. Thelength of line is usuallyindicated in the Greek terms:a 2-foot line

dimeter a 3 foot line trimester, 4 -tetrameter, 5 - pentameter, 6

-nexameter,7- hectometer.8 -octometerSonnets were all written in14 lines (first by Ptrarka)iambic

pentameter,ababcdcdefef 99Ballads are usually writtenin iambic tetrameter (4. )In the modern advertising,mass media and creative

prose sound is foregroudedthrough the change itsaccepted graphicalrepresentation. Theinternational violation of thegraphical shape of word orword combination used toreflect its authentic

pronunciation is called a

graphon.Introduced into E. novelsand journalism in the 18 c.means of supplying infoabout speakers orogin ,social and educational

background, physical andemotional conduction,etc.sellybrated,,illygitmentGraphons are also good atconveing atmosphere of

authentic lifecommunication. We havesuch clichs incommunication as: gotta,


25/26

in newspaper headlines, proverbs,set expressions. (As

blind as bat; Pride and prejudice. Sense andsensibility. The schoolof scandal. Silken setuncertain, rustling of

each purplecurtain.)TheAssonance therepetition of similarvowels usually instressed syllables.(Nor soul flesh nowmore than flesh helpssoul).They both

produce the effect ofeuphony () a

sense of ease andcomfort, a pleasingeffect of pronouncingand hearing.The opposite processis cacophony a senseof strain anddiscomfort in

pronouncing andhearing.Rhyme oneof the properties of

poetry, which is therepetition of the samesound,identical/similar,usually at the endof 2 or more lines. Wenormally distinguish

b/n:full rhyme (I-sky,night-right),incomplete

rhyme (fresh-press),compoundrhymes (spirit- ?),eye-rhymes (visible, butnot pronounced):(love-

receive greater prominentPoetic rhythm r. iscreated by the regularrecurrence of (un)stressed syllablesof equal poetic lines.The regular

alterations of (un)stressed syllablesfrom a unit which is afoot.There are 5 basicmetricalfeet:1)iambus ():the 2nd syllable isstressed (The flower /that smiles / today /tomorrow /

dies.),2)Trochee(): every firstsyllable of the two isstressed. (Who shallthat fortune 3)dactyl(): the 1st ofthe 3 is stressed.4)amphibrach(): themiddle of the 3 isstressed.5)anapaest(): the last ofthe 3 is stressed(There is guilt in thesound, theres

wonna, gimme, lemme,willi.It becomes popular withadvertisers (Pik-wik Pickquick; Rite Aid)There also exist, differentforms of foreground:capitalization,italics,spacing

of graphemes:hyphenation ( , ) ,multiplication( 1 and the same letter iswritten sev. times)A specialtrend graphical imagism(help.hepl.help)


26/26

Stylistics

1.The subject of stylistics,other disciplines.2. The notion of a functional style.Classification of functional style.3. The notion of an idiolect, an individualstyle, registers of speech.

4. Stylistic differentiation of the English voc.5.The notion of a term , its characteristicsand stylistic functions.cientific prose.6.The newspaper style, its varieties,

its distinction from the publicist style.7.The style of official documents.8.Main peculiarities of the publicist style.9.Peculiarities of belle-lettres style, .10.Archaisms and their stylistic functions.11 .Peculiarities of poetic and highly literary words.12.Differences between foreign words and barb.

13.Main characteristics of slang.14.Professional and social jargonisms .15.Place and role of dialectal words.16.Literary coinages and neologisms.17.Lexical meanings of a word.18.Phonetic expressive means and SD.19.Graphical stylistic means, graphons.20.The notion of a metaphor, .21.Oxymoron and its types.22.Antonomasia and its kinds.23.Metonymy and varieties.24. Stylistic usage of polysemy.pun and zeugma.25.Epithets and their varieties.26.Simile, its difference from a traditional comparison.27.Overstatement and understatement28.Periphrasis and its kinds. Euphemistic periphrasis29.Types of lexical repetitions30.Types of syntactic repetitions31.Syntactic stylistic devices based on parallelism.32.Stylistic devices based on juxtaposition.33.Stylistic usage of proverbs, sayings, allusions, citations.

34.Stylistic peculiarities of oral speech, syntactical SD.35.Stylistic use of interrogative and negative constructions.

36. SD based on special arrangement of the parts of an utterance.37.Stylistics of the author and of the reader.encoding and decoding.

38.Main concepts of decoding stylistic analysis and types of foregrounding.39.The notions of convergence, and defeated expectancy.

40.The notions of coupling, semantic field , semi-marked structures.

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03625 Shpory Po Stilistike Angliyskogo Yazyka