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1

Explorers and

Conquistadors

The Genovese Mariner

The year 1492 was a turning point for Spain. In January of that year, Isabel (Isabella I)

and Fernando (Ferdinand II), los Reyes Católicos ( the “Catholic Monarchs”)of Castile and Aragon, concluded a 700-year war by conquering the Moorishkingdom of Granada, the last stronghold of the Muslims in Spain. This 700-year

war, or rather series of wars, had been a crusade for Spain,a holy war to retake lands lost to the Muslims in the eighthcentury. Yet, with the close of this war, the Spanish monarchsfound themselves faced with a new and perhaps more arduoustask — the conquest of a hitherto unknown world.

Even the strange sea captain, who for seven long years hadbeen belaboring the Spanish monarchs to allow him to pursuethis quest, did not understand the nature of it. This tall, long-faced mariner with the gray, dreaming eyes — this Cristóbal

Colón from the Italian seafaring city of Genoa — had labored,until his red hair had turned white, to convince the monarchsthat by sailing west one could reach the East — the fabled landsof China, Cipangu (Japan), and India.

Colón, better known to us as Christopher Columbus, wasthe son of a wool weaver. Born in 1451 in the seafaring cityGenoa, he went to sea in his youth. In his early twenties, he joined an expedition against the Barbary corsairs and another to the Greek island of Chios(then under Genoese control) to defend Genoa’s interests there against the Turks. In 1476,he sailed with a fleet of Genoese trading ships that was bound for Portugal, England, andFlanders. Off the southern coast of Portugal, enemy ships attacked the fleet, and Columbuswas wounded. When his ship went down, he jumped into the sea, and grabbing hold of asweep, swam the six or so miles to shore. In the Portuguese city of Lagos he found help forhis wounds. When he recovered, he made his way to Lisbon, a port city and the capital ofPortugal.

For a seaman of Columbus’ time, Portugal was the place to be. Since 1415, the infante,Dom Henrique (Prince Henry the Navigator), had been promoting Portuguese navigation,and he had built a seaman’s town at Cape St. Vincent. Under Dom Henrique’s impetus,Portuguese navigators had by 1459 discovered the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands in theAtlantic. Hoping to forge an alliance against the Muslims with the legendary Christianmonarch, Prester John, Dom Henrique had sent ships southward along the coast of Africato see what lay around the continent’s great western cape.

Lisbon in the firstdecade of the 16thcentury

infante: the heir tothe Portuguese orSpanish throne

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2 LANDS OF HOPE AND PROMISE: A History of North America

After Dom Henrique’s death in 1460, Portugal’s quest to sail farther down the Africancoast was inspired by a more mercantile concern — to reach India and establish a directspice trade with East Asia. For centuries, the only way European merchants could obtainspices from the “Indies” was by trade with Muslim middlemen. To cut out the middleman,the Portuguese king Alfonso V sought a direct trade route with the East. In the 1470s,Portuguese mariners discovered the Gold and Ivory Coasts of Africa, and kept pushing

south. The discovery of these regions of Africa proved immensely profitable. By the 1470sand 1480s, when Columbus arrived in Lisbon, Portugal was flourishing with a trade ofpepper, ivory, and Africans slaves. Chests of gold dust from Africa filled the coffers of thePortuguese king.

The port of Lisbon, in the late 1400s, was thus an exciting place for a sailor. There,Columbus joined his brother Bartolomé, who worked as a cartographer in the city. Therehe married Dona Filipa Perestrello e Moniz, and there his son, Diego, was born in 1480. Inthose years, Columbus sailed to the Gold Coast and, for a time, lived on Madeira Island inthe Atlantic.

The Visionary

No one knows when Columbus first formulated what he called the “Enterprise of the

Indies” — his conviction that one could reach the Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic.This rather bold conviction arose from a miscalculation — Columbus had underestimatedthe circumference of the earth. Not only did he reckon the earth’s circumference to be 25

percent smaller than it actually is. he exaggerated the eastwardstretch of Asia. These errors led him to conclude that the distancefrom the Canary Islands to Cipangu would be some 2,400 nauticalmiles. It is actually 10,600 nautical miles.

It was not mathematics however that inspired the Enterpriseof the Indies. Columbus was a visionary, certain he was called toa special task. He saw himself as a true Christopher —Christum- ferens, the Christ-bearer — destined to carry the Catholic faith tothe heathen oversea. His interests, of course, were not wholly spiri-tual, for he longed to find gold in the Indies both to enrich himselfand the monarch he served. Yet, even Columbus’ cupidity evincedreligious goals, for he hoped his monarch, flush with the wealthof the Indies would finance a new crusade against the Muslims torecover the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem for Christendom.

In 1484 or 1485, Columbus presented his Enterprise to DomJoão, king of Portugal. The king rejected the plan, though he con-tinued to show an interest in it. In 1485, Columbus left Portugal forCastile, where in 1486 he presented the Enterprise to Queen Isabelof Castile and León. The queen referred Columbus’ Enterprise to ateam of scholars and put Columbus on the royal payroll. In 1488 hereturned to Portugal at Dom João’s invitation to discuss theEnterprise. The Portuguese king, however, soon lost all interest in

a westward route to the Indies, for in 1488 the Portuguese mariner, Bartolomeu Días,returned to Portugal after rounding the southern tip of Africa. Días called Africa’s southerntip the “Cape of Good Hope,” for it gave him and Portugal a very great hope — it opened asouthern route to the wealth of the Indies, completely bypassing Muslim lands. Ten yearslater, in 1498, another Portuguese captain, Vasco da Gama, followed this route to the port ofCalicut in India.

Though spurned by Dom João, Columbus did not despair. There was still Isabel. Yet,Columbus received scant attention from the queen when he returned to Spain; she was,after all, involved in the war with Granada. It was not until 1488, when at last Isabel paid

Christopher Columbus

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Chapter 1 Explorers and Conquistadors 3

some attention to him — by cutting him off from the royal payroll.This was no good omen; Columbus decided to look elsewhere and senthis brother Bartolomé to gauge the interest of the courts of Englandand France in the Enterprise. Then, in 1491, Columbus learned thatIsabel’s commission of scholars had rejected his Enterprise. Thisdecided matters for him; he would leave Castile for France. And to

France he would have gone had not an old friend, the Franciscan priestFray Juan Pérez, persuaded him to remain in Castile. Moreover, FrayJuan obtained an audience for him with the queen.

Columbus met with Isabel before the walls of besieged Granada inthe summer of 1491. The meeting, however, did not lead to the resultColumbus wanted, for again the queen referred his Enterprise to acommission, and from the commission to the Audiencia Real— whichrejected it. A few days after the fall of Granada on January 2, 1492,Isabel and Fernando told Columbus that they would have nothingfurther to do with his Enterprise.

To be turned down after six years of waiting was too much to bear.No wonder a disgruntled Columbus packed his bags for France! But,

the mariner had a powerful friend at court, Luis de Santangel, Keeperof the Privy Purse to King Fernando — and he persuaded QueenIsabel to reconsider Columbus’ case. Why she changed her mindabout Columbus and his Enterprise is unclear. It was the mystic inColumbus, perhaps, that appealed to the devout and mystically-inclined queen. But what-ever the reason for the change, Columbus had at last achieved his desire. On April 17, 1492,the Catholic Monarchs agreed to confirm and finance Columbus’ Enterprise to the Indies.

Admiral of the Ocean SeaWith a crew of 90 men and boys and a fleet of three small ships, or caravels, Columbus setsail from Palos harbor on August 3, 1492. The largest of his ships, the Santa María, servedas the flagship. The other two caravels, the Pinta and the Niña, were piloted by the brothersPinzón — Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez.

Columbus set off for the Indiesladen with proud titles and widepowers. In confirming his expedi-tion, the Catholic Monarchs agreedto Columbus’ demands, naming himAdmiral of the Ocean Sea, viceroyand governor general over all theislands and parts of the mainland heshould discover. These titles meantthat Columbus was, under the mon-

archs, sole ruler of these lands. Isabeland Fernando also granted Columbusthe privilege of keeping a tenth of allthe wealth found in the lands hediscovered.

The sea crossing, though not dif-ficult on the outward voyage, wasyet a novelty to the sailors. In thosedays, most sailing ships hugged the

AudienciaReal: the “RoyalAudience” — the high-est court of Spain

Columbus’ voyages tothe “Indies”

AMERICA

SOUTH

AMERICA

AFRICA

PORTUGAL

LisbonAzores Islands

Canary

Islands

Cabo

Verde

Florida

Bahamas

Colón

Galápagos

Islands

Panama

Maracaibo

CoroCaracas

Cumana

Martinica

GuadalupeJamaica

CUBA

Yucatán

CENTRAL

AMERICA

Havana

Santo

Domingo

PalosS. Lu

Cá

SPA

1st voyage

2nd voyage

3rd voyage

4th voyage

Madeira

Caribbean Sea

Pacific Ocean

Gulf of

Mexico

A t l a n t i c

O c e a n

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15°N

0°

15°W30°W

500 kilometers0

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Vasco da Gama

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coasts, rarely venturing out onto the open sea. The sailors did not fear sailing off the endof the world, for they knew that the earth is a sphere; but they did not know how far westland actually lay and, they were worried that, so far out at sea, they would find no windto blow them back again to Spain. To assuage their fear that they were sailing too farfrom Spain, Columbus kept two log books. In one (for himself) he marked down what hethought was the actual distance they had sailed each day; in another (for the sailors), he

jotted a shorter distance.The voyage revealed new wonders. In late September, the ships entered the Sargasso Seain the mid-Atlantic, where the prows plowed through miles of thickly matted seaweed. FromSeptember 23–25, the three caravels hit calms where no wind blew and the sea was smoothas glass. The sailors bathed in the sti ll, salt waters.

Finally on September 25, after about two months of sailing, the sea-weary sailors heardthe long hoped-for cry, “Tierra! Tierra! Señor, albricias! ” (“Land! Land! Sir, the good news!”)The cry lifted the hearts of the mariners, but their spirits deflated when they discovered itwas a false landfall — probably the watch had seen a bank of clouds on the horizon. It was notlong before disappointment changed to resentment, and resentment to growing insubordi-nation. For the next five days the fleet made little headway, and the crew began to grumbleand contemplate mutiny. Columbus used all his powers of persuasion on his men, who only

wanted to return to Spain, coaxing them with soft words and hopes of fame and riches. OnOctober 7, the disappointed Columbus turned the fleet to follow the course of migratorybirds he had seen, thinking they would surely head toward land.

By October 10, the crews had had enough. Open mutiny broke out. Columbus, hidinghis own uneasiness that they had not yet reached land, again tried to encourage his men.But matters had gone too far. In the end he was forced to agree that, if after two or threedays no one sighted land, the fleet would return home. As the day passed from morning, toafternoon, to night, how long the hours must have seemed to Columbus!

But, then, it came, and the history of the world changedforever. It was 2 a.m. on the second day, October 12, 1492.A moon just past full rode in the western sky. The look-out on the Pinta spied a dark line on the horizon. It wasflanked by what looked to be white sand cliffs. Then cap-tain and crew heard the cry — “Tierra! Tierra! ”

This time it was no false landfall.

The Indies

On October 12, 1492, Columbus and his men went ashoreon a small island called by the natives Guanahani (Bahamas), but which Columbus renamed San Salvador(Holy Savior). Taking the flag of Castile and León in hisleft hand and grasping his sword in his right, the admiralplaced one knee on the sand. He then ordered the plantingof the cross. San Salvador now belonged to los ReyesCatólicos and to Christendom.

On San Salvador, Columbus and his men met a newand strange people. They were the Taino, who had cometo the Caribbean islands originally from South America,pushing back and enslaving the indigenous Siboney peo-ple of Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. In Spanish eyes,the Taino did not have an advanced culture. They grewcorn, yams, and other root crops, and they made cassavabread from the yucca plant. They excelled in pottery andused shells to make ornaments and utensils. Their shelters

Christopher Columbuslands on Hispaniola,1492. An engravingfrom Historia General

de los Hechos de los

Castellanos , by Herrera,1601

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were simple, of wooden frame and palm leaf thatch. Their clothing was even simpler, for,much to the Spaniards’ surprise, men and women both went about with no other coveringthan a loincloth.

Columbus noted that the Taino were a peaceful people; and they were very hospitableto the white-skinned strangers, who, they thought, were men come from heaven. TheSpaniards soon learned that other natives were not so peaceful. The Taino lived in mortal

terror of the Caribs, who occasionally raided them in search of slaves. The Taino relatedanother unpleasant fact about the Caribs — that they ate human flesh.Columbus had reached land — but was it the Indies? If it was the Indies, he was certain

he would find abundant gold there. On October 14, Columbus set sail in search of fabledCipangu (Japan), where the medieval Italian explorer Marco Polo had said were housesroofed with gold. From Cipangu, Columbus thought to visit the Great Khan in China, topresent that potent monarch with letters of introduction from the monarchs of Spain.

In the course of his search for Cipangu and China, Columbus sailed along the southerncoast of a long island, which he named Juana, for the daughter of Fernando and Isabel. Thisisland (now called Cuba), he thought, must be part of Cipangu. On December 5, Columbus’ship caught sight of another island (Hispaniola) of which Columbus took possession onDecember 12. To his joy, Columbus saw that the Taino natives on Hispaniola wore orna-

ments made of gold — the first real sign that he had indeed reached Asia.But on Christmas day, 1492, tragedy struck. Columbus’ ship, the Santa María, struck areef in a bay off the north coast of Hispaniola. Since he now had only two ships, Columbushad to leave some men on the island. Assisted by the Taino chief, Guacanagarí, Columbusand his men built a fortress from Santa María’s salvaged planking. Since it was Christmasseason, Columbus christened the fortress Navidad (Nativity) — the first Spanish settlementin the New World.

Guacanagarí told Columbus that gold could be found on Hispaniola — in a region thenatives called Cibao. Encouraged by this news, Columbus prepared to return to Spain.Leaving most of the Santa María’s crew to man Navidad, Columbus boarded the Pinta onJanuary 16, 1493 and, along with the Niña, set sail for Spain, where they arrived after astormy crossing, on March 15, 1493.

The Queen’s Pleasure and the Pope’s PrecautionThe instructions Columbus received from Isabel and Fernandoafter his return to Spain were very clear — they wanted him to plananother voyage to the “Indies.” But preparations would take sev-eral months and, in the interlude, the monarchs and all of Spainhonored Columbus. News of his discovery soon spread through-out the Mediterranean basin, exciting interest and speculation.Everyone thought Columbus had reached the Indies; no one sus-pected that he had landed on a hitherto unknown land.

Portugal’s king, Dom João, of course, heard the news, and hewas not pleased. Because of Columbus, Spain had reached theIndies before the Portuguese had — and what did this mean for

Portugal’s interests in Asia?The new pope, Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia), who also took

an interest in Columbus’ discoveries, understood Dom João’sdispleasure. A Spaniard, Alexander had received many favorsfrom Fernando and Isabel, including their influence in securingthe throne of Peter for him in 1492. He now came to their aid toforestall a challenge to Spain’s claims in the Indies.

To appease Dom João, Pope Alexander issued, in 1493, the bullInter Caetera, setting a demarcation line in the Atlantic. All lands

Pope Alexander VI coatof arms

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west of the demarcation line, decreed the pope, would fall to Spain; those east of the line, toPortugal. This, Alexander thought, would forestall disputes between Spain and Portugal.

While the armada (an armed fleet) for the new voyage was making preparations, Isabeland Fernando issued instructions to Columbus. The sovereigns insisted that the expedi-tion’s first objective was the conversion of the natives to the Catholic faith. The second wasthe establishment of a trading colony. Columbus, the sovereigns decreed, must see that the“Indians” were treated “well and lovingly” so that friendly relations would prevail betweenthem and the Spaniards. Columbus, the sovereigns commanded, should punish anyone whomistreated the Indians.

As events proved, Columbus would fail to carry out his sovereigns’ commands.

Return to the IndiesColumbus set sail on his second voyage with an armada of 17 vessels and 1,200 to 1,500 men.Led by the Benedictine priest Bernardo Buil, twelve missionaries accompanied the expedi-tion. The fleet transported animals, plants, seeds, and tools for settlement.

Columbus set his course for farther south, and on November 3, 1493, reached a chain ofislands that he named Las Virgines (Virgin Islands). It was here that the Spaniards madetheir first contact with the Caribs. All that the Taino had said of this people was confirmed.They, indeed, ate human flesh — and they were fierce warriors, as the Spanish discovered ina battle on the island of Santa Cruz on November 14, 1493.

Yet, Columbus was soon to learn that even the gentle Taino people could wax fierce anddeadly, if pushed too far. After discovering an island Columbus named San Juan Bautista(Puerto Rico), the fleet rounded the island of Hispaniola. There the Spaniards made a dread-ful discovery: the village of Navidad had been burned to the ground. All the Spanish colo-nists had been slaughtered. Columbus soon learned the cause. The crew of the Santa María had maltreated the Indians, and the natives had taken a bitter revenge.

Columbus the Governor

With Navidad gone, Columbus established a new settlement farther down the coast ofHispaniola and closer to the gold-bearing region in Cibao. He named the settlement Isabela.

The story of Isabela is not a happy one. Columbus, though a great captain and navigator,proved to be a poor governor. Of course, his task was extremely difficult. The men who hadaccompanied him were not interested in settling Hispaniola but in exploiting the gold fieldsand returning rich to Spain. To his disappointment, Columbus soon learned that Cibao hadno mines. Gold there was, but it needed to be extracted from the sand and the mountainstreams — an arduous task, bearing little reward.

Hoping to discover the mainland of Asia, Columbus again took to sea on April 24, 1494.When he returned six months later (with no Asian discovery), he found Isabela in a dismalstate. A group of malcontents had extorted food from the natives, raped their women, andenslaved their boys. Missionary work had been neglected. Gangs of Spaniards wandered theisland, repeating the brutal acts of the colonists of Navidad. When the Taino responded by

A Line Drawn in Water

Spain and Por tugal later confirmed Pope Alexander’s decision in the Treaty of Tordesillas

(June 7, 1494). To further appease Dom João, Isabel and Fernando agreed to place

the demarcation line 370 leagues to the west of the pope’s line. This treaty secured Brazil,

which juts out east of the line, for Portugal.

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killing Spaniards, Columbus adopted a brutal policy; in all conflicts with natives, he said hewould consider the Indians the guilty party and the Spaniards innocent. He would punishany Indian who killed a Spaniard, no matter the provocation. “Guilty” Indians were to behunted down, punished, and enslaved.

Columbus felt a terrible burden had been laid on him. He feared that his sovereigns, dis-appointed at the small amount of gold found on Hispaniola, might lose interest in further

exploration. Feeling that he had to find more gold , he commanded every native, 14 years andolder, to pay him a tribute of gold dust every three months. Those who refused would bepunished with death. To increase the profits of his enterprise, Columbus instituted anIndian slave trade. He thought revenues raised from this trade would please the monarchs,but he was wrong. In 1495, when five shiploads of Indian slaves arrived in Castile fromHispaniola, Isabel was livid with anger. “What power,” she cried, “does the Lord Admiralhave to give my subjects to another?”

Royal Disfavor and a Final VoyageColumbus returned to Castile in June 1496. Two years later, he set out on another voyageand, in August 1498, discovered the South American continent. Sailing along the coast ofwhat is today Venezuela, Columbus was so taken by its beauty that he was certain he had

found the Garden of Eden.On August 31, 1496 Columbus landed at Santo Domingo, a town on the southern coastof Hispaniola, where he had moved the island’s capital from Isabela earlier that year. Thecolony was in rebellion. Columbus had left Hispaniola under his brother Bartolomé’s gov-ernorship, but a group of discontented settlers had rebelled and withdrew to the XaranguaPeninsula in southwestern Hispaniola.

Columbus’ poor showing as governor, coupled with slanders against him uttered byenemies in Spain, undermined his sovereigns’ good will toward him. The revenues fromthe Hispaniola colony, moreover, fell below Fernando’s expectations, and Isabel was angryover Columbus’ enslavement of the natives and the slow progress made in their conversion.

The Name “America”

The continents of North and South America received

their name from a man who was most certainly a

charlatan. In 1501, Amerigo Vespucci, a native of

Florence, Italy, but living in Spain, wrote a let ter in which

he claimed to have been part of an expedition that had

landed on the mainland of the New Wor ld in 1497 — one

year before Columbus had first sailed along the coast of

Venezuela and eight days before the English explorer

John Cabot had touched the coast of Cape Breton Island

far to the north.

Though its account was almost certainly fabricated,

Vespucci’s letter was published in 1504 and was widely

read throughout Europe. Because Vespucci claimed to

have been the first to have seen the Mundus Novus

(“New World”), Europeans began to call the new lands

after the latinized version of his Christian name, Americus. So it is that, to this day, we

normally call the two great continents of the Western Hemisphere, not Columbia (after

Columbus) but America.

Amerigo Vespucci

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The first sign of royal disfavor was the chartering of new expeditions under other com-manders than Columbus. And Fernando and Isabel evinced their disapproval of Columbus’government by sending Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola as chief justice and royal com-missioner. The spectacle of rebels hanging from gibbets greeted Bobadilla when he arrivedin Santo Domingo; and, suspecting misgovernment, the new chief justice clapped Columbusand his brother Bartolomé in irons, collected perjured testimony against them, and sent

them back to Spain to stand trial.Yet, despite her great disappointment in him, Queen Isabel never entirely lost confidencein Columbus. In September 1501, she dismissed the charges against him and restored histitles, though she did not allow him to exercise his powers. Instead, the Catholic sovereignsappointed Don Nicolás de Ovando as royal governor of the Indies.

On March 14, 1502, Columbus set forth on his last voyage. With four caravels, he set sailto discover a sea channel to Asia and followed southward the coastline of what are todayNicaragua and Panama. Although he did not discover a channel, Columbus learned fromIndians about the Isthmus of Panama and the great ocean that lay beyond it.

After a long and dangerous voyage, and a year spent marooned on Puerto Rico, Columbusreturned to Spain in 1504. After the death of Isabel on November 26, 1504, Columbus lostall favor at court, and his attempts to regain his lost privileges went unheeded. He died on

May 20, 1506, fairly rich, but disappointed, at the age of 55.

Other New World ExplorersSpain sent a mixed group of adventurers to explore and colonize her “Indian” lands. Somewere younger sons of nobles, left without inheritance; others were soldiers of fortune; stillothers were released prisoners. A desire for wealth and honor drove adventurers across theAtlantic, though there were always those whose inspiration was more spiritual and humane.One adventurer there was, however, who was drawn to exploration by a motive other thangold or God. This was Juan Ponce de León, of Valladolid in Spain.

Juan Ponce de León’s motive simply was this — he had fallen in love. Already in his earlyfifties, this wealthy landowner had sailed with Columbus on his second voyage and hadestablished a large plantation on the island of Hispaniola. He had founded settlements onthe island of Puerto Rico and had become its governor. Now, in 1512, this 52-year old generalhad fallen for the beautiful and very young Beatriz de Córdoba.

Ponce de León would gladly have given all his wealth only to be young enough to winthe heart of the maiden, Beatriz . In his desperation, he staked much of his wealth, his posi-

tion, and his honor to follow a fable.Indians had told Ponce de León of afountain whose waters could restoreyouth. This fountain, they said, couldbe found on an island called Bímini, tothe north of Cuba.

Outfitting an expedition, Ponce de

León set sail for Bímini landing onthat “island’s” eastern coast on EasterSunday, March 27, 1513. Since theSpaniards called Easter Sunday PascuaFlorida (Flowery Sunday), Ponce deLeón christened the new land, Florida.Starting from what is today known asthe St. John’s River, he explored theeastern coast south of Cape Canaveral

Routes of Spanishexplorers in theAmericas

BAHAMAS

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0 ϒ

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and the western coast as far north as Tampa Bay. On accountof the natives’ ferocity, however, the Spaniards did not attempta settlement. Later, in 1521, with the proud title, “Captain of theLand and Sea of San Juan and Governor of Florida and Bímini,”Ponce de León attempted a settlement at Charlotte Harbor, butthe Indians drove him off. They also gave him the wound from

which in a short space he died.Though other explorers did not have the amorous motives ofPonce de León, they were just as eager to find new lands. One ofthese explorers was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. In 1513, Balboa,with 170 men, plunged into the interior of Darien (Panama). OnSeptember 24, from a mountaintop, Balboa sighted a new ocean.He called it the South Sea; later, men would call it the Pacific.Balboa took possession of this sea for Spain.

Balboa’s discovery of the South Sea showed the Spanish thatthey had not reached the Indies, as they had thought. Indeed,they found that a vast ocean separated the new lands fromChina and Cipangu.

But the world would not know just how far the Spanish “WestIndies” were from the true, “East Indies” until 1522, when JuanSebastián Elcano sailed into a Spanish harbor after a long andarduous voyage.

Elcano had been part of the expedition under FernandoMagellan, whom in 1519 the new king of Spain, Carlos I, hadcommissioned to circumnavigate the globe. After crossingthe Atlantic from Spain, Magellan had sailed southward alongthe coast of South America. Rounding Cape Horn, Magellancrossed to the Hawaiian islands, from whence he sailed toGuam and then the Philippines. In the Philippines Coronado died from a poisoned arrowin a battle with the natives in April 1521. Elcano, taking command of the voyage, continuedsouth and then west into the Indian Ocean. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he returnedin triumph to Spain. Carlos I honored Elcano by placing a globe on his coat of arms, withthe legend, Primus circumdedisti me— “you have been the first to circle me.”

Magellan’s expedition proved that what had come to be called “America” was not evenon the outskirts of the Indies, but was itself an entirely new world. Still, Spain did not loseinterest in the new lands. Even after this momentous voyage, brave explorers continuedto feel their way along the coasts of North and South America in search of land and gold.These explorers included Juan de Grijalva, who landed near what is now Galveston, Texas,and Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, who discovered the mouth of the Mississippi and named thatgreat water the Río de Espiritu Santo (River of the Holy Spirit).

The greatest discovery and conquest, however, was reserved to a young caballero, a nativeof that barren region of Spain, Estremadura — a land that gave rise to so many conquerors.His name was Hernán Cortés (Hernando Cortez).

The Conqueror of MexicoFew if any observers of his early life would have thought Hernán Cortés would ever amountto much. Sent to college to study law, Cortés just wasted his time and dropped out of schoolafter only two years. He then returned home, where he led an idle and profitless life. Suchwere the unpromising beginnings of the man who was destined to carry out one of the mostarduous tasks in the history of North America.

Vasco Nuñez de Balboa

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It was news of Columbus’ discoveries that at last stirred the torpid spirit of the youngCortés. Leaving home, he found his way to Spain’s southern ports, where, in 1504, he joineda small fleet bound for Hispaniola. When he arrived on the island, the royal governor, DonNicolás de Ovando, granted him land and Indian slaves to work it. Seven years later, Cortés joined in the conquest of Cuba under Diego Velásquez, who became the island’s governor.

At first, Cortés enjoyed Velásquez’s favor; but not for long. He became the center of agroup of men who were dissatisfied with Velásquez’s government. Twice imprisoned byVelásquez, Cortés twice escaped. But in the end, Cortés was able to reconcile with the gov-ernor and received a grant of land in Cuba, complete with Indian slaves and a gold mine.

Cortés became alcalde of the town of Santiago and grew to be a popular figure in Cuba.

The Expedition Gets Under Way

In 1518, news reached Cuba of discoveries made by Juan de Grijalva off the coast of Yucatánand Mexico. Hungry for adventure and riches, Cortés sought and obtained from Velásquezthe position of captain general of an expedition (funded by both), the sole purpose of whichwas to further explore and exploit the riches of the new region. But before the expeditionset sail, the governor had second thoughts. Cortés had been too successful in enlisting shipsand men, and Velásquez was jealous. He tried to remove Cortés from command; but gettingwind of the plot, Cortés set sail with the f leet secretly by night.

Cortés’ fleet of 11 ships landed off the coast of Yucatán in February 1519. His forceconsisted of 100 sailors, 508 soldiers, two heavy guns, four falconets (smaller guns), and 16

cavalry. Two missionaries accompanied the expedition. (One of these, the Dominican fatherBartolomé de Olmedo, would in the course of the expedition temper Cortés’ martial zeal toconvert the natives, recommending patience and persuasion rather than force.)

Cortés and his fleet sailed for the coast of Yucatán and in March 1519 landed at Tabasco.There the Spaniards battled a force of 40,000 Indians. Following the battle, the caciques offered Cortés and his men 20 female slaves as a peace offering. Among these was an Azteccacique’s daughter whom her step-mother had sold into slavery. Baptized, she took the nameMarina and became indispensable to Cortés as his interpreter. Later, she bore him a son,Don Martín Cortés.

Hernán Cortés scuttleshis ships

alcalde: Spanish wordfor mayor

cacique: a chieftain

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After skirting the coast from Yucatánnorthward, Cortés landed on the coastof Mexico at the site of the modern cityof Veracruz. It was Good Friday, April21. Choosing a site a little farther upthe coast, Cortés established a settle-

ment there, naming it Villa Rica de VeraCruz. Velásquez’s friends who accom-panied the expedition were angry.They claimed Cortés had exceeded theauthority given him by the governor. Hewas only to explore the land, not estab-lish settlements, they argued. Cortésdefended himself, saying that in estab-lishing a settlement he only acted “inthe interests of the sovereigns” (KingCarlos I of Spain and his mother, QueenJuana , the mad daughter of Fernando

and Isabel). When a conspiracy to aban-don Cortés and return to Cuba aroseamong the men, Cortés commanded thedestruction of all but one of his ships.The troops were overcome and withshock and dismay at this daring act.They cried out that their general had led them to Mexico only to be butchered like cattle!Cortés, however, stood before them, unflinching. He declared that at least he, like a braveman, had chosen his part:

“I will remain here,” he said, “while there is one to bear me company. If there be any socraven, as to shrink from sharing the dangers of our glorious enterprise, let them go home,in God’s name. There is still one vessel left. Let them take that and return to Cuba. They cantell there how they have deserted their commander and their comrades — and patiently waituntil we return loaded with the spoils of the Aztecs.”

Cortés had thrown down the gauntlet. He had given his menthe choice between glory and riches, on the one hand, andcowardice and shame, on the other. The men, their couragerekindled by his words, cried out that they would not aban-don their commander! They would go forward, not returnas cravens to Cuba! One phrase alone now expressed theirdesire, and they shouted it with wild enthusiasm.

“To Mexico!” they cried. “To Mexico!”

The Aztecs

The burning of the ships was a wondrously daring act, for

the enemy the Spaniards were about to face was formidable.In landing in this region called Anáhuac by its inhabitants,Cortés and his men had already noted that the Indians therewere not primitive like the Taino. They raised buildings andtemple pyramids of stone instead of dwellings of stick andthatch. They were very numerous, too, and dwelt in orderedtowns surrounded by well-cultivated fields of maize, or Indiancorn. They were doubtless more formidable foes than the inhabit-ants of the Caribbean islands.

Aztec Jaguar Warriormask, ca. 1400s

Stained glass windowin the cathedral ofBrussels, Belgium,depicting an idealizedCarlos I (in his office asHoly Roman EmperorCarolus V), standing,orb in hand, and his

wife, Isabel of Portugal

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And, the Spaniards had learned, at the center of this land, in a city rising from themiddle of a lake, dwelt a powerful, warlike people — the Aztecs. Since 1502, their kinghad been Montezuma II, who, in his 17-year reign, had conquered the tribes of Anáhuac,gathering under him more lands than his ancestors had ever ruled before. It is said that asMontezuma’s power increased, so did his pride and arrogance. He ruled the subject tribesthrough fear, laying upon them heavy taxes and tributes.

According to their own history, the Aztecs had come from the northwest, from a regioncalled Aztlán. In the 14th century they arrived at the shores of a lake in the high mountain valley of Mexico where they beheld, perched on the stem of a prickly pear cactus, an eagle,its wings spread to the rising sun, a serpent grasped in its talons. The Aztecs took this for asign, and near the spot of the apparition they settled and raised their city, Tenochtitlán. In1418, a barbaric tribe, the Tepanecs, invaded and conquered Tenochtitlán and its neighbor-ing city, Texcuco. Later the Aztecs joined Nezahualcoyotl, king of Texcuco, and drove outthe invader. As a reward, Nezahualcoyotl gave the Tepanec lands to the Aztecs.

The 15th century witnessed the growing power of Tenochtitlán and Texcuco. Until about1500, Texcuco was predominant; however, by the time Montezuma II became king, theAztecs were the masters of Texcuco.

The Aztecs, once a relatively primitive tribe, had learned civilization from Texcuco. By

the 16th century, the Aztecs had advanced in agriculture and architecture; they plantedbeautiful gardens and raised a city that would elicit the praise of those Europeans who firstbeheld it. Aztecs excelled in metal work, especiallythe delicate craftsmanship of gold ornaments. Theexact observation of the stars allowed the Aztecsto make a solar calendar of eighteen 20-monthdays. In their hieroglyphic, or picture writing, theyrecorded history and wrote beautiful poetry. Yet, theAztecs never invented the wheel for transportation.No indigenous American peoples used the wheelfor that purpose until the arrival of the Europeans(though they had wheeled toys for their children).

The Aztecs worshiped many gods. Among themost important of their gods was Huitzilpochtli, thegod of war. Another important deity was Quetzalcoatl(“feathered serpent”), god of the air. According tolegend, it was Quetzalcoatl who had instructed menin agriculture, in the use of metals, and in govern-ment. Under this god a golden age had flowered. Butbecause he had incurred the wrath of another god,he left Anáhuac, going east over the sea to the land

of Tlapallan. Quetzalcoatl, who was said to have white skin, dark hair, and a flowing beard,promised his followers that, one day, he would return to Anáhuac from the east, over the sea.

It was also said that when Quetzalcoatl returned, he would abolish an integral part ofAztec worship — human sacrifice. One of the principal purposes of war for the Aztecs was

the capturing of victims for sacrifice. The Aztecs solemnized every festival — and there weremany festivals — with human sacrifice. It is recorded that the Aztecs sacrificed about 20,000 victims each year. On the summit of the great pyramid temple, or teocalli, in the center ofTenochtitlán stood a large, rounded alabaster stone. A victim was led to the stone, his backforced against it, exposing his chest. A priest, his long hair matted with human gore, thenraised an obsidian knife, plunged it into the victim’s chest and, cutting it open, pulled outthe still beating heart. The heart alone was offered to the god. The festival spectators ate thediscarded body.

Aztec idol

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March to MexicoApprehension filled the heart of the Aztec king, Montezuma, at the news of Cortés’ land-ing — might this be the prophesied return of Quetzalcoatl? Reports seemed to confirm theking’s fear: the strangers were white-skinned and bearded, and whatever Indian cities theyentered, they freed the victims intended for sacrifice. Montezuma was uncertain what to

do about the invaders. He sent embassies to Cortés. He vacillated between destroying theSpaniards and welcoming them to his capital. Through one embassy, he invited Cortésto come to Tenochtitlán by way of the ancient city of Cholula, the center of the cult ofQuetzalcoatl. Cortés accepted. But, in Cholula, Marina learned of a conspiracy to destroythe Spaniards, which she relayed to Cortés. Cortés responded by brutally slaughtering thou-sands of Cholulans and pillaging the city.

The Cholula episode drove many of the tribes of Anáhuac into an alliance with Cortés.He had already obtained the aid of the Totonacs, a people living along the low, tropicalshores of the Gulf of Mexico. As the Spaniards had ascended from the tropical plain into thecolder mountain regions, they met the Tlaxcalans, the warlike enemies of the Aztecs. AfterCortés defeated them in four, hard-fought battles, the Tlaxcalans joined him in an allianceagainst the Aztecs.

From Cholula, the Spaniardsclimbed to higher elevations. Afterpassing between two great volca-noes, Popocatepetl (“the hill thatsmokes”) and Ixtaccihuatl (“whitewoman”), they gained their firstsight of the valley of Mexico. Belowthem stretched the great lake, withTenochtitlán in its midst; and faraway on the northeast bank, rosethe city of Texcuco. One of thesoldiers, Bernal Díaz, wrote he hadnever seen a sight as lordly andbeautiful as Tenochtitlán. “Andsome of our soldiers even askedwhether the things we saw werenot a dream,” he later wrote. Sobeautiful was Montezuma’s city,with its great buildings and tem-ples, that fear filled the hearts ofCortés’ men. But buoyed by theircommander’s confident spirit, they recovered their courage and proceeded onward towardthe city. Marching across the great causeways that connected Tenochtitlán with land, the400 Spaniards with their 6,400 Indian allies beheld beautiful floating gardens and the vastpopulation surrounding the lake and swarming on its waters in innumerable canoes. It was,

as Díaz had said, a dream city, pulled into life from the romantic tales of chivalry so belovedto the stern soldiers of the Crown of Spain.

Montezuma welcomed Cortés and his men into the city and and showed them every hos-pitality. He allowed the Spaniards to visit the marketplace and the great teocalli. In the lastplace Cortés and his men saw signs of human sacrifice — hearts of victims, some still warm,set on the altars of the gods. Montezuma, whose religious sensibilities were more eclecticthan those of the Spaniards, allowed the Spaniards to have a chapel in their quarters whereMass could be offered.

An engraving of theGreat Pyramid atCholula, as it appearedin the 1890s

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Though Montezuma appeared gracious and kind, Cortés doubted his sincerity. TheSpanish general also worried that his own men and their Tlaxcalan allies might do some-thing to provoke the Aztecs. At last, to secure his position, Cortés decided on a daring plan.He would kidnap Montezuma. Using as a pretext a report he had received from Villa Rica,where he had left a contingent of troops under Juan de Escalante, Cortés put his bold planinto action.

At an audience with Montezuma, Cortés relayed what he had learned to the king.Escalante had reported that an Aztec cacique, who had come ostensibly to give his obedi-ence to the Spanish crown, had treacherously killed two Spanish soldiers. Subsequently,Escalante had set out with 50 Spanish soldiers and 1,000 Indians to punish the cacique.In the ensuing battle, the Spaniards were victorious, though seven or eight of them wereslain, including Esca lante. Indian prisoners had claimed that Montezuma was responsiblefor the treachery.

Why this treachery? Cortés demanded of Montezuma. The Aztec king replied that hewas not responsible for the attack. Cortés refused to believe him and demanded that the

king accompany the Spaniards to their quarters and punish the guilty cacique. Montezumaagreed to the demand. What else could he do, surrounded as he was by 25 to 30 armedSpaniards?

Now Cortés’ captive, the humiliated Montezuma, with his nobles, swore allegiance to theSpanish crown, and he divided up his treasures among the Spanish soldiers. Montezumaallowed Cortés to take a temple on the great teocalli and convert it into a chapel for Christianworship.

However, a new problem soon faced Cortés. Diego Velásquez, angry over reports ofCortés’ doings in Mexico, had sent against him an armada of 18 ships with 900 men and

A Poem from Texcuco

Banish care.

If there are bounds to pleasure,

the saddest life must also have an end.

Then weave the chaplet of flowers,and sing thy songs in praise of the all-powerful God;

for the glory of this world soon fadeth away.

Rejoice in the green freshness of thy spring;

for the day will come when thou shalt sigh for these joys in vain;

when the scepter shall pass from thy hands,

thy servants shall wander desolate in thy courts,

thy sons, and the sons of thy nobles, shall drink the dregs of distress,

and all the pomp of thy victories and triumphs shall live only in their recollection.

Yet the remembrance of the just shall not pass away from the nations,

and the good thou hast done shall ever be held in honor.

The goods of this life, its glories and its riches are but lent to us,

its substance is but an illusory shadow, and the things of today shall changeon the coming of the morrow.

Then gather the fairest flowers from thy gardens, to bind round thy brow,

and seize the joys of the present,

ere they perish.

— translated into English from a Spanish translation by the 16th century historian, Ixtilxochitl.

Taken from the History of the Conquest of Mexico, by William H. Prescott

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1,000 Indians under the command of Pánfilo de Narvaez. The ships arrived at Villa Rica inthe spring of 1520. Undaunted, Cortés again acted boldly. Leaving two-thirds of his force,140 men, in Mexico, he led only 70 men to the coast to meet Narvaez. Receiving reinforce-ments from Juan Velásquez de León (whom Cortés had sent out earlier to found anothersettlement) and from Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortés arrived at Villa Rica on a stormy night.Though outnumbered 900 to 250, Cortés and his men fell on Narvaez’s troops and, in a sur-

prise attack, defeated them. Following the battle, Cortés with soaring eloquence persuadedthe defeated soldiers to abandon Narvaez and follow his standard.

Cortés would soon find he was in sore need of the reinforcements.

Disaster in Tenochtitlán

While Cortés was fighting Narvaez, disaster struck the Spanish troops in Tenochtitlán.Pedro de Alvarado, who was commander in Cortés’ absence, had feared the Aztecs wereplotting an attack. To forestall it, he led an assault on a large company of unarmed Aztecsgathered near the Spanish quarters to celebrate the May festival to Huitzilpochtli. Spanishswords cut down the flower of the Aztec nobility. Spurred to wrath, the Aztecs then assaultedthe Spanish quarters. Only the appearance of the captured Montezuma, who addressed hispeople from the Spanish quarters, convinced them at last to withdraw.

Meanwhile, Cortés with a combined force of 1,000 foot soldiers, 100 horse, and 2,000Tlaxcalan allies was marching to Mexico. He entered the city unmolested; but on all sides hesaw the streets filled and the rooftops covered with armed Aztecs. Bloody fighting erupted.Once again hoping to stop the violence, Montezuma, clad in his royal robes and bearing thewand of authority, climbed to the central turret of the Spanish quarters. He pleaded with hispeople to withdraw and let the Spaniards depart from Tenochtitlán in peace; but this time a volley of stones from the street cut short his speech. Struck several times, Montezuma wasremoved to safety. Sorely wounded, shorn of his ancient glory and, it seemed, spurned by hisown people, the Aztec king died shortly thereafter, on June 30, 1520.

Meanwhile, the Spaniards had not been idle. Leading a contingent of soldiers, Cortésdrove the Aztecs from the great teocalli and there destroyed the image and temple of

LakeTexcoco

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Huitzilpochtli. That same night, the Spaniards burned down 300 houses adjacent to theirquarters.

The Spaniards’ position, however, soon proved desperate, and Cortés saw that he hadno choice but to retreat from the city. The attempt, planned for the night of June 30-July 1,was perilous; the Spaniards, with their artillery and horses, along with their Indian allies,had to pass through a hostile city and over a long causeway. Flanked on two sides by water,

they would be exposed to Indian assaults from the lake. Moreover, because the causewaywas broken at intervals, and the bridges that normally closed the gaps had been removed,the Spaniards could easily be surrounded and slaughtered as they attempted the crossing.

The Spaniards later named this night of crossing, la noche triste, “the sorrowful night.”Getting wind of the Spaniards’ retreat, some Aztecs had alerted the city. The beating ofdrums and shells sounded from the great teocalli as the Spaniards moved onto the causeway.Soon, thousands of Aztecs set off in canoes on the lake and swarmed from the city ontothe land bridge. Cortés’ army passed the first gap in the causeway over a bridge they hadconstructed for the purpose. But when they arrived at the second gap they were in trouble— they had been unable to extricate their makeshift bridge from the mud of the first gap.Soon, they were surrounded. As the Aztecs poured onto the causeway, the Spaniards lostall order — some men and women (for some wives had accompanied their husbands) were

slaughtered, while others were taken alive as sacrifices to Huitzilpochtli at the great teocalli.Wagons and the bodies of horses and men at last bridged the second gap, and the remain-ing Spanish force moved forward. Cortés, discovering a ford through the lake, led his mento the shore, but he returned to the causeway to defend the rearguard, commanded byAlvarado, which was halted at the third and widest gap. Charging on the Aztecs who pressedupon the rearguard, Cortés could make no headway but was driven back to the lake. At lastthe rearguard broke, and Alvarado, placing his long lance into the wreckage in the canal, vaulted across the breach to the other side.

The Spanish and allied Indian losses that night were heavy. Many of the men (mostlyfrom Narvaez’s command) were drowned, pulled down to the lake’s bottom by the weight ofthe gold they had hidden under their clothing. All told, 450 Spaniards and 4,000 Tlaxcalanshad been killed. The Spaniards had lost most of the treasure Montezuma had given them,along with all the artillery and guns they had brought with them.

The journey from Mexico was beset with danger. Seven days after la noche triste, over-whelming numbers attacked the army at Otumba. Though Cortés was able after severalhours to rout the Indians, it was with a broken and discouraged army that he, a few dayslater, marched into Tlaxcala.

Return to Mexico

Defeat and the condition of his army did not discourage Cortés. No sooner had he enteredTlaxcala than he planned to return to Mexico. Fortune seemed to aid him. New soldierssent by Velásquez to seize Cortés ended up joining him, and a shipload from the CanaryIslands, carrying guns and artillery, arrived on the coast. Another unexpected ally struckthe Aztecs — the smallpox. Having no immunity against the disease, they died in great num-bers. Among the dead was Montezuma’s successor, Cuitlahua, the king.

Before marching on Mexico, Cortés and his generals subjugated the surrounding tribes.Then, at Tlaxcala, Cortés ordered the construction of 15 small ships, called brigantines, toassault Tenochtitlán by water while the foot soldiers advanced along the causeways. Cortés’total force numbered 818 Spaniards, including 87 cavalry, and 25,000 Indian auxiliaries.

On December 28, 1520, six months after la noche triste, the army began the march toMexico. In a stirring speech, Cortés reminded his soldiers that the primary purpose ofthe war was the conversion of the Indians to the true God from the worship of demons;the second was to return the “rebellious” Aztecs to the service of the king of Spain. The

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Spaniards considered the Aztecs rebels, sincetheir king, Montezuma, had sworn allegiance toKing Carlos.

After crossing the mountains, Cortés’ army tookTexcuco on December 31, 1520. From Texcuco, hesent contingents of his troops to subdue the cit-

ies surrounding the lake of Mexico. The brigan-tines, which had been built at Tlaxcala and carriedpiece-by-piece over the mountains, they reassembledat Texcuco. Finally, on April 28, 1521, after theSpaniards had confessed their sins and heard Mass,the assault on Tenochtitlán began. As they launchedthe brigantines, the Spaniards broke forth in a joy-ous Te Deum.

The war on Tenochtitlán proved hard and bloody.In late May, the Spaniards blockaded the city byoccupying three causeways over which the threedivisions of the army, led severally by Cortés, Pedro

de Alvarado, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, advanced onthe city. The course of the war did not always favorthe Spaniards. For several nights on end, Sandoval’stroops, who were camped less than a mile from thegreat teocalli, watched as the Aztecs led their cap-tured comrades, wearing plumed headdresses and holding ceremonial fans in their hands,drums beating solemnly, to the sacrifice.

The advance into the city was hindered, too, by Aztec attacks from the roofs of build-ings. To prevent these attacks, Cortés reluctantly commanded his men to destroy everybuilding they encountered in their advance. Pushing into the city, the army saw the streetsstrewn with the bodies of those had died from famine. In the houses slated for destruc-tion, they discovered starving men, women, and children. Though Cortés commandedmercy for the wretches, the Tlaxcalans took revenge on their ancient enemies: they burntthe houses over the heads of the suffering. Cortés was powerless to restrain the vengeanceof his Indian allies.

When, in their slow and arduous progress, Cortés’ army had reached the marketplace,seven-eighths of the city had been laid waste. Yet, despite all the destruction, and though hispeople suffered from famine, Guatemozin, the Aztec king, refused to surrender. On August12, Cortés ordered a major assault on the Aztec position. The slaughter was hideous. “Thepiteous cries of the women and children,” wrote Cortés, “were enough to break one’s heart.”

On August 13, 1521, the Spaniards overwhelmed what remained of the Aztec defend-ers. Weakened by disease and famine, the Aztecs still resisted until one of Cortés’ brigan-tines captured Guatemozin, who, in a canoe, was seeking to escape across the lake. WithGuatemozin’s capture, the Aztecs laid down their arms.

“God Will Demand It of You”The conquest of Tenochtitlán did not end Cortés’ work in Mexico — and he proved that hewas as much a builder as a conqueror, a governor as well as a general. From 1522 to 1524,he labored to build a new city on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, which he had destroyed. Usingforced Indian labor, Cortés raised what became known as Ciudad de México, Mexico City,said to have been more beautiful and opulent than any city in Europe at the time. At Cortés’urging, many Spaniards settled in Mexico, where with Cortés’ encouragement they mingledand intermarried with the Indian population.

An old reproductionof a Spanish map ofMexico City.

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Cortés continued to extend Spanish power in America. He himself received the submis-sion of the cacique of Michoacán, and he personally led an expedition that discovered theGulf of California (called the Sea of Cortés in Mexico). Hoping to find a water passage fromthe Atlantic to the Pacific, Cortés authorized Pedro de Alvarado to explore and conquerGuatemala and sent Cristóbal de Olid to Honduras. After Olid proved treasonous, Cortéshimself went to Honduras. With him he took the Aztec king, Guatemozin, as well as the

cacique of Texcuco.It was in Guatemala, surrounded by jungle and beset with hunger, that Cortés heardthe reports that Guatemozin planned treachery against him, and believed them. ThoughGuatemozin denied any treasonable intent, Cortés ordered his execution and that of thecacique of Texcuco. Guatamozin, who had become a Christian, berated Cortés for histreachery. “I know what it was to trust your false promises,” he said. “I knew that youdestined me to this fate, since I did not fall by my own hand when you entered my city ofTenochtitlán. Why do you slay me so unjustly? God will demand it of you!” The caciquesreceived last rites and were hanged from the branches of a tree.

As it turned out, Cortés had more dangerous enemies than Guatemozin. Envious of hissuccess, some Spaniards accused Cortés of working to establish an independent kingdom inMexico. Though in 1528–29 Cortés proved his innocence to Carlos I, the king removed him

from governing the regions now called Nueva España —New Spain. Instead, Carlos madeCortés marquis of the valley of Oaxaca andmilitary captain of New Spain, with a right torule over any new lands he colonized.

Yet, on account of a series of unsuccessfulcolonizing efforts on the Gulf of California,Cortés again fell out of favor in the court ofSpain. In 1540, he returned to Spain to pleadhis case before the king, but Carlos wouldnot hear him. Frustrated with the rebuffs hereceived from Carlos (it is said he boastedto the king, “I am a man who has given youmore provinces than your ancestors left youcities”) Cortés journeyed to Seville, plan-ning to embark for Mexico. But he fell sickat Castilleja de la Cuesta, near Seville, andthere died, on December 2, 1547.

Such was the inglorious end of HernánCortés, the “Conqueror of Mexico.”

Quest for the Citiesof GoldThough he had become elaborately rich,Hernando de Soto was restless and dissatis-fied. Neither his great estate in Seville, nor hisstatus as a gentleman, nor even his beautifulwife, Isabel de Bobadilla, could content him.At the age of 35 he had become too comfort-able. He longed for heroic action.

Map of the Inca’sempire and the Spanishconquests in South

America

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In his 35 years, De Soto had already seen much action. He had joined Pedrarias Dávila(Pedro Arias de Ávila), his future father-in-law, who had at the ripe old age of 72 becomegovernor of Darien. (Pedrarias was notorious for his cruelty in subjugating the Indians ofthis region.) In 1516, Pedrarias made De Soto, then 16 or 20 (the records are unclear), a cap-tain of horse. De Soto proved to be an able horseman and commander. In 1523, he joinedFrancisco Fernández de Cordoba in conquering the regions that are today called Nicaragua

and Honduras.In 1532, a soldier of fortune, Francisco Pizzaro, with his brothers, embarked on an expe-dition to Peru, and De Soto joined them as second-in-command. It was De Soto who, highin the Andes, discovered the capital of the Inca, the ruler of Peru — an empire that rivaledthe glory of the Aztecs. De Soto, too, was the first to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, and he par-ticipated in the bloody battle in which the Inca was captured and disgraced. De Soto becamefriends with Atahualpa in his captivity and was angered when the Pizarro brothers orderedhim killed — even after Atahualpa had fulfi lled his promise to fill a room with gold for theSpaniards. Disgusted with this treachery and Pizarro’s subsequent behavior, De Soto, ladenwith treasure, retired to Seville in 1536.

Into Florida

De Soto had been only a year in Castile when he became interested in Florida. Believing theexaggerated account of the riches to be found there, De Soto sold all his property in Spainto outfit his own expedition. King Carlos I, who owed De Soto money, granted him the titlesof adelantado of Florida and governor of Cuba and promised to make him marquis of anyportion of the territory he might conquer.

Arriving in Cuba in 1538, De Soto settled his affairs there. Leaving his wife as governor,he set sail for Florida in May 1539 with nine ships and 1,000 men, landing at Espiritu Santo(now Tampa) Bay on May 30. De Soto explored the western Florida peninsula and subju-gated Apalachee (the northwest part of Florida on the Gulf of Mexico). In February 1540, DeSoto sent Diego Maldonado to Cuba to report on the progress of the expedition. He chargedMaldonado to meet the army at the bay of Achusi (Pensacola) in November. But whenMaldonado arrived in November at Achusi, De Soto was not there. For the next two yearsMaldonado sailed to Achusi but never made contact with De Soto and the army.

Where had De Soto gone?From Florida, he had headed north in search of gold and explored what is now eastern

and northern Georgia. The Indians he met were fierce, and their temper was not improvedby De Soto’s policy of forcing their people to carry the army’s baggage. From Georgia, DeSoto had turned south. At a village or fortress called Mabila, in what is now Alabama,his army fought a fierce, nine-hour battle against the Indians. At the battle’s end, 70Spaniards and 2,000 or more Indians lay dead. It was then that De Soto heard news ofMaldonado’s ships. But some of the soldiers had been threatening to abandon the expedi-tion and sail to Mexico. Trying to forestall this, De Soto ordered a march to the northwest,away from Achusi.

From December 1540 to April 1541, Indians attacked De Soto’s army almost everynight. On May 21, 1541, the army reached the Mississippi River in what is now northern

Mississippi. Crossing the river, they plunged into what is now Arkansas and wintered on theOuachita River. There De Soto raised a large cross and preached to the Indians:

This was he who made the sky and the earth and man in his own image. Upon this treeof the cross he suffered to save the human race and rose from the tomb on the third day. . . and having ascended into heaven, is there to receive with open arms all who wouldbe converted to him.

adelantado: a rep-resentative of theSpanish king, holdinggubernatorial powers

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In the spring of 1542, the army returned to the Mississippi. It was on the banks of thatgreat river that De Soto took sick with a fever and died on May 21, 1542.

The remainder of the army, now under the command of Luis de Moscoso, built makeshiftbrigantines and, harried by the Indians, floated down the Mississippi. Reaching the sea, thesmall fleet skirted the coast and arrived at Panuco in Mexico on September 10, 1542. Thefirst thing the men did when they arrived was to hear Mass and thank God for their deliver-ance. Several of the adventurers later entered monasteries.

It was the faithful Maldonado who, a month later, brought Isabel the tale of her husband’sdeath. Overwhelmed with grief at the news, she fell sick. A few days later, Isabel de Bobadilla joined her husband in death.

On the Trail of El Turco

It was a priest, Fray Marcos de Niza, who in 1539 brought reports of newly discovered richesto Mexico City. Fray Marcos had just returned from the distant north, where, he said, he hadfound the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” filled with gold. Intrigued by Fray Marcos’ stories, the viceroy of Mexico, Don Antonio de Mendoza, prepared an expedition to verify the existenceof the Seven Cities.

Mendoza placed the expedition in the hands of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, thegovernor of Nueva Galicia. Mendoza, it seems, not only saw the expedition as way of find-

ing more gold but intended it as a means of ridding Mexico of undesirables and criminals.Coronado did not seem to know this; he thought it merely another expedition of conquestand settlement. Along with 436 soldiers and settlers and five Franciscans, Coronado tookwith him hundreds of head of livestock into the far north.

The expedition’s route roughly followed the western coast of Mexico, passing throughwhat are today the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora, into what is now southeasternArizona. At last, Coronado reached Hawikuh, the chief village (or pueblo) of the Zuñipeople, and took it after a brief battle with the Indians. Hawikuh, it turned out, was oneof Fray Marcos’ Seven Cities of Cibola. However — Coronado found no gold there.

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DeSoto’s andCoronado’s expeditionsin North America

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From Hawikuh, the expedition divided into three groups. One, under García Lopez deCárdenas, went northward and discovered the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon.Another party, under Fray Juan Padilla and Hernán de Alvarado, struck to the northeast,traveling as far as northwest Texas, where they spotted a herd of “wild cows”— Americanbuffalo. Coronado led a third group to the east, pushing all the way to the Río Grande, nearthe present town of Bernalillo.

It was from an Indian captured by the Pecos tribe that Coronado learned of the Quivira

tribe in the plains farther east. “El Turco,” as the Spaniards named the captured Indian,claimed that the Quivira had gold. Taking El Turco as guide, Coronado, with Fray JuanPadilla and a portion of their party, pushed eastward to find this “city of gold”— Quivira.

Coronado and his company advanced eastward and spent three months exploring theregion around what is now Wichita, Kansas. Crossing over miles of grassland, the Spaniardssaw only buffalo and nomadic Indian tribes until they came to a settlement of round woodenhouses with grass roofs. This was Quivira. But, except for a bit of native copper, there wasno metal, much less gold, to be found. El Turco, the Spaniards thought, had deceived them.Death was the punishment for his “crime.”

The People of “Cibola”

Hawikuh was one village or town among 70 or more similar towns belonging to a group of native peoples that

dwelt, and still dwell, in what is now New Mex ico and northeastern Arizona. We call these peoples “Pueblo,”

derived from the Spanish word for “ town,” because they dwelt in compact, permanent settlements, unlike other native

peoples of the region, such as the Apache and Commanche, who led a wandering life.Pueblo Indian towns are a congeries of rectangular structures made from adobe brick or limestone blocks. A typi-

cal Pueblo building can be up to five stories tall, with each floor set back somewhat from the floor below it to form a

stair-like structure. People moved from level to level of their homes using wooden ladders. Each pueblo had one or two

underground ceremonial chambers, called kivas, where religious rites were carried out and men could meet and carry

on casual conversation.

Pueblo men were hunters, pursuing deer and antelope as their prey; men from pueblos farther to the east ventured

out onto the plains to hunt buf falo. Yet, the Pueblo Indians were an agricultural people, the women farming the maize,

squash, beans, and cotton (as well as gathering the w ild plants) on which the life of the pueblo depended.

Traditionally, the Pueblo peoples were not

politically united; each pueblo was autonomous,

ruled by a council of men drawn from each of

the pueblo’s religious societies. The culture ofthe Pueblo peoples was diverse, and they spoke

a number of dif ferent languages. The religion

of the Pueblo peoples was a form a spirit wor-

ship. They believed that hundreds of kachinas,

the spirits of ancestors or divinities, act as inter-

mediaries between themselves and God. The

Pueblo peoples have engaged in yearly, commu-

nal ritual cycles to ensure rainfall and the return

of the Sun from his “w inter house” in the spring.

It was believed that if the tribe — and every

member of the tr ibe — did not participate in the

yearly rituals, the cosmos could break down and

the world come to an end. Ruins of a kiva (foreground) at Pueblo de Arroyo, New Mexico.

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Six months later, Coronado returned to his settlement in the region now named Nuevo México, “New Mexico.” Finding the settlers discontent, Coronado and most of the expedi-tion returned to Mexico in April 1542. However, Fray Juan Padilla with another Franciscan,two lay brothers, and a handful of soldiers remained to evangelize the Pawnee and GuiaIndians.

In Mexico, Coronado received a cold reception from Mendoza — probably because the

conquistador had returned with the very people the viceroy wished to be rid of. The gover-nor thought the expedition a failure, and Coronado fell out of favor with the government.

Heroes, Villains, or Both?Coronado was but another of the number of Columbus, Cortés, and De Soto whose lives

were marked by stunning contrasts. They did extraordinary deeds, achievedglory and fame, and ended their lives in sorrow or disgrace. Not only

that, but they were men of mixed character; like true Christians,they displayed zeal for souls, but, at the same time, they could

be greedy, cruel, and treacherous. In many ways, as we shall

see in subsequent chapters, the conquistadors revealed intheir persons the contradictions of the Spanish settlementin the Americas.

The lives of the great discoverers and conquista-dors, however, underline an important fact — historicalcharacters are rarely pure heroes or mere villains. TheSpanish conquistadors demonstrate how men oftenoperate from mixed motives — the best of intentionsare sullied by the basest passions: pride, lust, andgreed — while all the while high ideals remain in men’s

hearts and inspire their deeds.The truth of this is illustrated by a rare archaeological

find. In 1886, over 300 years after Coronado’s exploration ofNew Mexico, a sword was discovered in Kansas. It was Spanish

and inscribed with the name of its owner, Juan Gallegos. Aninscription found on the blade, however, is probably of more interest

than the sword itself. It summarizes the ideal, if not always the reality, ofSpanish chivalry. It reads:

“Do not draw me without right. Do not sheathe me without honor.”

Medallion ofChristopher Columbusin Seville, Spain

Summary • The year 1492 was an important year for Spain

because Queen Isabel and King Fernando concludedthe 700-year war that Christians on the IberianPeninsula had been waging against the Muslims.

• Both Portugal and Spain desired to reach India andestablish a direct spice trade with East Asia, and sothey sent out explorers to find a route.

•

Columbus saw himself as destined to carry theCatholic faith to the heathens overseas. He alsolonged to find gold, however, and it was these twothings that drove him to set out for the Indies.He hoped to reach the Indies by sailing westwardacross the Atlantic Ocean.

• Columbus reached what he thought was the Indieson October 12, 1492. He attempted to establishcolonies there. The first colony he founded on

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Hispaniola was destroyed by the native Indiansafter his return to Spain.

• In 1513, by crossing the Isthmus of Panama(Darien),Vasco Balboa discovered a new ocean, thusshowing the Spanish that they had not reached theIndies.

• In 1522, Juan Elcano, by circling the world, discov-ered how far the supposed Indies were from the realIndies.

• Hernán Cortés discovered what is now Mexico onApril 21, 1519, and commenced to try to conquerthe Aztecs who dwelt there.

• In 1520, while Cortés was absent from Tenochtitlán,

the Aztecs rose up against the Spaniards. AfterCortés’ return, the Aztecs drove the Spaniards andtheir Indian allies from the city.

• Cortés returned with his own men and their Indianallies to Tenochtitlán. They conquered the city inAugust 1521.

• Hernando de Soto joined the Pizzaro brothers intheir conquest of Peru. Beginning in 1539, he led anexpedition in the exploration of Florida, going allthe way to the Mississippi, where De Soto died.

• Hearing of cities of gold, the viceroy of New Spainsent Francisco Vásquez de Coronado on an expedi-

tion of exploration. Coronado found no cities ofGold but he established the first settlement in aregion to which he gave the name, New Mexico.

Key Concepts

Enterprise of the Indies: Columbus’ belief that onecould reach the Indies by sailing west across theAtlantic.

Treaty of Tordesillas: the treaty between Spainand Portugal in which they agreed to a decision byPope Alexander VI to set a demarcation line in the

Atlantic. Everything east of the demarcation linewould fall to Portugal, while everything west of theline fell to Spain.

teocalli: a great pyramid temple of the Aztecs.

Dates to Remember

1492: King Fernando and Queen Isabel conquerGranada, thus ending the 700-year war Spanish

Christians had been waging against theMuslims.

Columbus reaches what he thought was theIndies (October 12).

1513: Vasco Balboa discovers the Pacific, thus show-ing that the New World was not the Indies.

1519: Cortés discovers Mexico (April 21).

1521: Cortés finishes the conquest of Mexico(August 13).

1522: By circumnavigating the globe, Juan Elcanodiscovers how far the supposed Indies are fromthe real Indies.

Central CharactersIsabel and Fernando: the Catholic Monarchs ofCastile and Spain. Isabel financed Columbus’ explora-tion of the Indies.

Christopher Columbus (1451–1506): the Italianexplorer, navigator, and colonizer who discovered theNew World.

Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503): the pope who setthe demarcation line in the Atlantic, dividing the NewWorld between Spain and Portugal.

Juan Ponce de León (1460–1521): Spanish explorer

and conquistador who led the first European expedi-tion to Florida.

Vasco Nuñez de Balboa (1475–1519): Spanishexplorer, governor, and conquistador best known forhaving discovered the Pacific Ocean.

Juan Sebastian Elcano (ca. 1476–1526): Spanishexplorer who completed the first circumnavigation ofthe world.

Hernán Cortés (1485–1547): Spanish conquistadorwho led an expedition to Mexico and conquered theAztec Empire. He began the first phase of the Spanishcolonization of North America.

Montezuma II (1466–1520): ninth ruler ofTenochtitlán, killed during the first phase of theSpanish colonization of the Americas.

Hernando de Soto (1496–1542): the f irst Europeandocumented to have crossed the Mississippi River.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado (1510–1554): Spanish conquistador who hoped to conquer the

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mythical Seven Cities of Gold and discovered NewMexico.

Questions for Review

1. What prompted Columbus to search for a routeto the Indies?

2. Why was Columbus turned down so often, andwhat finally convinced Isabel to finance his jour-ney to the Indies?

3. What prompted the bull, Inter Caetera, that led tosetting a demarcation line in the Atlantic?

4. How did Columbus fail to carry out the king andqueen’s command to establish a trading colony?

Why did he fail? 5. How did Columbus fall out of the royal favor?

6. What was Juan Ponce de León’s motivation forexploration in the Indies?

7. Who discovered that the new lands were not theIndies, and how did he discover it?

8. How was it discovered how far the new landswere from the real Indies?

9. What prompted Cortés to search for new landsand so discover Mexico?

10. What is la noche triste? Describe the events it

names.11. Describe some of the atrocities that Cortés and

his men inflicted on the Aztecs and some of thegood that they accomplished in Mexico.

12. What do the lives of the discoverers and conquis-tadors tell us about human nature?

Ideas in Action

1. Imagine that you are a member of eitherColumbus’ or Cortés’ expeditions, and write about

your first impressions of the New World. Or imag-ine that you are a native Indian or Aztec, and write

about your impressions of the Spanish.2. Read some historical fictional accounts of the dis-

covery of either America or Mexico, and reflect onthe complexity of the characters of the discoverersand conquistadors.

3. Read some Spanish poetry written at the time, orlisten to the music of the time.

4. Read the bull Inter Caetera (you may find it on theinternet). Do you think it permitted the conquest ofthe native peoples? Why or why not?

Highways and BywaysThe Aztecs: the First Chocolate Lovers

Chocolate was first used in the Americas, particularlyby the Aztecs. Chocolate is made from the fermented,roasted, and ground beans of the Theobroma cacao.These beans played a special role in the Maya andAztec royal and religious events; they were presentedas offerings to the gods, and drinks made out of thebean were drunk during the sacred ceremonies. Acocoa drink was prepared by grinding the cacaobean to powder and adding water and various spices,

since sugar was unknown to these American natives.The Aztecs called this mixture chocolatl . The Aztecsattributed the creation of the cocoa plant to their god,Quetzalcoatl, who descended from heaven on a beamof a morning star carrying a cocoa tree stolen fromparadise. The Aztecs, who also used the beans as cur-rency, seem to have been the first chocolate addicts!

Chapter 1 Review (continued)

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