1. Introduction

“The role represented by the mule, in the national economy [of Brazil], was of marked importance throughout history. Without its contribution, principally the acknowledged capacity it possessed to transport diverse cargos over exceptionally large distances, much of what was achieved in the creation of riches never would have been possible to obtain.”1

Carlos Borges Schmidt (1959) Brazilian Historical Author

Within a non-anthropocentric frame of reasoning, an important

consideration is the relationship between human and non-human worlds. The role

of human beings can be understood in consideration of all its social, economic and

spiritual relationships. As such, the act of domestication of a species, whether

plant or animal, involves a vast web of ecological, cultural and social relations,

which goes far beyond the domesticator (man) and the domesticated (either plant

or animal).

Within this framework, the landscape serves both simultaneously as the

stage and as an actor in the play being co-performed by man and the object of his

domestication. In this light, the use of horses, donkeys and mules allowed

historical economic development to have certain characteristics and possibilities

after these animals were domesticated. On the other hand, these equine species

have created and shaped the landscapes on which they worked based off their

needs and characteristics, both physical and metabolic. In particular, before

explaining the methods and means used by the mule in shaping the Brazilian

landscape, it is first worth understanding the genetic and physical characteristics

that permitted it to do so.

1 Original quote: “O papel representado pelo muar, na economia nacional, através da história, foi de marcada importância. Sem a sua contribuição, tendo em vista, principalmente, a reconhecida capacidade que possui, de transportar cargas diversas a distâncias excepcionalmente grandes, muito do que foi alcançado, na criação de riquezas, jamais teria sido possível obter.”

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1.1. The mule

Falling within the Equidae family of mammals that includes horses, donkeys

and zebras, a mule (known as a burro in Portuguese if masculine or as a mula if

feminine) is the result of genetic cross between a female horse, Equus caballus,

originating from the now-extinct wild horses of southern Russia, with the male

donkey, Equus africanus asinus, coming from wild ass originating from North

Africa and Southwest Asia (DIAMOND, 1999). The less common sister-species,

the hinny, is the resultant offspring of pairing a male horse with a female donkey

and distinguishable from the mule by its shorter ears, more horse-like looking

head, and a fuller tail (CLUTTON-BROCK, 1992).

All members of the Equidae family are capable of interbreeding; however

the result is typically a sterile offspring. Mules have the internal and external

organs capable of reproduction, but they are still unable to reproduce. Despite this

disadvantage, the mule is born with enhanced physiological benefits due to hybrid

vigor (CLUTTON-BROCK, 1992). Scientifically, hybrid vigor is due to an

increase in heterozygosity, or the condition of receiving an increased number of

disparate gene forms from each of its parent. Biologically, this means a mule is

going to be larger in size than its smaller parent, show greater endurance, and

sustain itself more aptly on poorer quality food choices than its parents (Figure 1).

Visually, the mule most distinguishes itself from the horse with its long ears, and

from the donkey with its larger size and longer face (Figure 2).

Figure 1: Comparative physical features of horses, donkeys, and mules. Source: (KUMARI, 2014)

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Figure 2: Facial identification features of equids. Source: (KUMARI, 2014)

In comparing the mule to the hinny, historically the mule has been the

preferred animal for domesticated use. In a few historical instances, the hinny

was preferred; during Sumerian times a rare stallion could be brought in to

produce an entire herd of progeny in the time a mare could produce only one

offspring (CLUTTON-BROCK, 1992). Despite this, mules have been preferred

over hinnies simply due to the fact the larger mare female horse can gestate and

produce a larger offspring than the smaller female ass.

1.2. Other domesticated transport animals in Brazil

In highlighting the mule, this dissertation does not diminish the historical

influence of other domesticated animals in transforming Brazil’s landscape. In

fact, in his seminal work on the history of ox-led wagons entitled Ciclo do Carro

de Bois no Brasil, Souza (1958) outlines the historic uses of oxen in both wartime

and peace. In emphasizing their importance, Souza (p. 103) writes “throughout

colonial times and those that followed, ox led wagons were always present in all

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of the mobilization of our economic riches, if even in all of our social evolution”2.

However, the use of the ox-led wagons was all but impossible on unimproved

rocky or steep trails; in these instances, the mule proved significantly more adept

in transporting goods, especially over longer distances.

Likewise, the horse was similarly influential in shaping Brazil’s history

and breeds were created to adapt to the geography of the country. For example,

bandeirantes, or early explorers sponsored by the Portuguese crown, led

expeditions from their saddle to open Brazil’s interior in the 17th century. In

adapting to overcome the terrain, horse breeders crossed local species from the

south of Minas Gerais with the Portuguese Alter breed to reproduce the

Mangalarga Marchador, a breed noted for its endurance in covering long distances

(ABCCMM, 2015). Similarly, the Campolina breed of horses arose out of the

small town of Entre Rios in Minas Gerais, bred in part for its smooth gait and

corresponding comfort for riders crossing the long distances of Brazil

(PROCÓPIO, BERGMANN e COSTA, 2003). Finally, although it is widely

believed in Brazil Prince Pedro I declared Brazil’s independence from Portugal in

1822 atop a horse (Figure 3), some scholars have argued Pedro’s “Independence

or Death” rallying cry was made atop the back of mule (CHAGAS, 2006).

Despite the conflicting theories marking Brazil’s historical transition, in both

colonial and imperial times the mule served as an ideal transport method in

opening, exploring and transforming Southeast Brazil’s landscape.

2 Original quote: “ao longo dos tempos colônias e dos que se lhes seguiram, esteve sempre presente o carro de bois em toda a mobilização da nossa riqueza econômica, senão até em toda a nossa evolução social.”

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Figure 3: Painting depicting Dom Pedro I declaring Brazil's independence from Portugal. Source: Pedro Américo, 1888.

1.3. The landscape of Southeast Brazil

For purposes of this research, southeast Brazil is defined as the states of

São Paulo (SP), Rio de Janeiro (RJ) and Minas Gerais (MG); for clarification, the

official Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics also includes the state of

Espírito Santo in their definition of Southeast Brazil (Figure 4). Despite being

only three of the 26 states in Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo

collectively represent the country’s economic engine accounting for 53% of the

Gross Domestic Product and 40% of its population (IBGE).

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Figure 4: Satellite imagery depicting topography of Southeast Brazil. Source: Author.

The economy of the area is markedly diverse amongst the three states. Rio

de Janeiro, while serving as the major tourist hub of the region with its idyllic

capital city of the same name hosting its annual New Years Eve and Carnival

festivals, also produces roughly three quarters of the nation’s petroleum (ANP,

2014). São Paulo, consequently, is anchored by its capital city of the same name

supporting strong services and financial sectors, while the state economy also

supports large-scale industrial production, primarily through the automobile and

aviation industries. Finally, Minas Gerais counts amongst its primary industries

coffee cultivation, cattle production, and the mining and exporting of precious

minerals (JAMES, 2015). The economies and physical landscape found in these

states today, though, is different than what was encountered by early arrivals from

Europe.

The Atlantic Forest, which originally covered the entirety of Rio de Janeiro

state, a majority of São Paulo, and the entire southern dimension of Minas Gerais,

is presently only at 8.5% of its original size (SOS MATA ATLANTICA, 2014).

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As seen in the photo below, the light green area indicates the original extent of

forest coverage along the Atlantic coast, much of which has seen been cleared for

agricultural or cattle raising purposes. Centuries ago, therefore, mules and their

owners confronted a landscape marked by a much denser forest impeding

exploration efforts.

Figure 5: Original Atlantic Forest coverage in Southeast Brazil. Source: Area of Application for Brazilian Law Number 11.428, 2006 and i3GEO MMA.

Further necessitating the need for a sturdy means of transport, mountain

ranges surround paths towards the interior at three major shipping ports serving

the area in colonial times (Figure 6). In Rio de Janeiro, the Guanabara Bay and

the now defunct port at Porto da Estrela is surrounded to the north by the

mountain range anchored by the Serra dos Orgãos National Park. Similarly, the

port city of Paraty in Rio de Janeiro state confronts the Serra da Bocaina mountain

range when moving inland. Finally, the port city of Santos that served the

growing metropolis of São Paulo is lined by a portion of the Serra do Mar range

just inland from the city of Cubatão. For individuals traversing the area in past

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centuries, the mountainous terrain required a steady transport animal not easily

scared by steep ascents or descents.

Figure 6: Major port cities of colonial Brazil encircled by mountain ranges. Source: Author.

1.4. Relevance of the Study

In the academic field of environmental history, there has been a recent

“turn” to portray historical consequences from the perspective of influential

animals. In particular, whereas the norm has been to explain history from man’s

perspective and the influence he has exerted on the earth, the current animal turn

is designed towards seeing the domesticated animals themselves as agents in the

shaping of the landscape. Encompassing the importance of the recent paradigm,

Sandra Swart (2010, p. xiv) categorized her work on the history of horses in South

Africa as just one "part of the long conversation that historians need to have to

understand the changing and essential relationship between animals and human

society and the impact that their relationship has had in their environment."

In Brazil, this methodology finds fertile ground in regards to the mule.

Much literary, historic, academic and cultural literature has been amassed

covering the tropeiro, a highly regarded historical figure responsible for leading

troops of mules, horses and other pack animals across Brazil’s expansive regions

transporting valuable merchandise. Furthermore, many museums dot the south

and southeast in small cities the tropeiro used as a resting place in his month-long

journeys. In one small example of how mules influenced the landscape, many of

these cities contain the name pouso for “rest” in Portuguese, such as Pouso Alegre

and Pouso Alto in Minas Gerais to name but just two. Therefore, due to their

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historic use in opening the interior of the country, the mule’s influence on the

landscape from its metabolic and physiological necessities is worthy of

exploration.

As stated, though, the majority of academic literature centers on the human;

little has been written from the perspective of the animal, not least of which being

that they cannot tell their own story. As such, the mule’s influence on the social,

cultural, and economic landscape is vast and far-reaching, and to some extent,

insufficiently documented. While only focusing on one region and sampling

small historical slices of Brazil’s long history, this research is an effort to tell the

mule’s story and how it transformed, and continues to transform, the landscape it

walked in service to its owners.

1.5. General Objective of the Research

The overall purpose of this project is to study the landscape created jointly

by man and mules along the history of Southeast Brazil while also detailing the

mule’s present day influence on the landscape in two protected areas. More

specifically, this research will seek to document three objectives, including:

• Describe the historical use of mules in southeastern Brazil, since its

introduction as an alien species, until its decline with the advent of

technological transport systems and more advanced production.

• Document the historical and present-day transformation of the landscape

caused by mules, describing the environmental requirements necessary to

mule use and how the landscape is changed from its "natural" state to allow

its use.

• Discuss the symbolic, cultural and ideological dimensions the use of mules

brings to current users and owners.