eportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edueportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edu/.../2013/03/Middle-Ages-Classnotes.do… · Web viewMarina Nebro Professor John O’Brien. History 100 – History of the

Marina Nebro Professor John O’BrienHistory 100 – History of the Middle Ages

Romans & Christians (I)PolytheismThe majority of the Roman Empire was polytheistic. The polytheistic religions, or those with many deities, were symbolic religions in which their gods represented elements of the natural world. A few of the polytheistic religions within the Roman Empire included the Druids, those who worshipped Baal, and the Roman Pantheon filled with gods. Being pious was very important, as the gods didn’t differentiate in punishment. The gods punished everyone for the fault of the few. Polytheists were generally more tolerant towards other religions than the monotheists were. Many times, polytheists would adopt other religions into their own.

Pax DeorumThe goal for the Polytheists was to please the gods and create the “peace of the gods.” The immortal gods had a strong power over them.

Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE)He was the first Roman emperor and was a strategic and strong administrator. He wanted to reorganize the empire in order to strengthen it, as there was a lot of religious diversity. The diversity made it difficult to rule. He introduced the…

Imperial CultAlso known as the cult of the emperor, the imperial cult was the unifying religion of the Roman Empire during and after Augustus’ reign. Because polytheists were not hesitant to adopt new religious practices, the act of worshiping the emperor wasn’t too far-fetched. The Jews were exempt from having to participate as the Romans respected the importance of tradition in the monotheistic religion. The Christians, being part of an illicit religion, were required to take part in the cult. In this way, Augustus was able to bring homogeneity to a diversified Rome. Through the imperial cult, the emperor became the “father” of the empire, and was ordained with…

GeniusA divine spirit that lived within the emperor as well as anyone who performed the rituals of the imperial cult

Neronian Persecution (64)A fire started within the city by the Roman Emperor Nero catalyzed the persecution of the Christians in the city of Rome. He placed the blame on the Christians because they were a “non-conforming minority of exceptional cohesion.” The Roman


historian Tacitus who was writing after the fact about half a century later recounts the events in his Annals. His perception of the Christians is as follows.

“noxious superstition” – lethal/poisonous irrational ritual Christians are hated for their crimes, take their name from Christ (an

executed and hence criminal man) “deserving of the severest penalty”

Nero (54-68)Nero is most commonly known for being a crazed Roman emperor. During his reign in the year 64, there occurred the Great Fire of Rome and many put the cause of this fire on Nero’s shoulders. It is said that he wanted to clear space through the use of fire to put up monuments and idols of himself. Tacitus’ Annals may also shine some light on the problems of an absolute ruler.

Tacitus (c. 115)Tacitus was a Roman historian during the time period when Rome was beginning to decline. He was conservative and wasn’t fond of the Jews or the Christians. His opinions of both differed, though, as he held some respect for Jewish tradition, while the Christians were a new religion and therefore had no bearing. He wrote about events after they happened as is seen in the Annals as he writes about Nero, a Roman emperor living half a century before. He sees Nero as a perfect example of corruption.

AnnalsThe Roman historian Tacitus writes in the Annals about the Neronian Persecution and other historical events before his time. See above.

Odium Generis HumaniTranslated as “hatred of the human race” and was a common charge put upon Christians during the Neronian Persecution and later.

Pliny & Trajan (c. 112)Pliny was a proconsul in charge of dealing with arresting and punishing dissenters within the empire, and was not sure of how to go about with the punishment. He asks Trajan, the emperor of Rome at the time, in a series of letters what he should do. Should Christians be punished for the crimes that go along with the name “Christian” or should they be punished for individual crimes. What would be considered a crime? Should there be leniency to certain people or any exceptions? Trajan answers that the arrests shouldn’t be a hunt (notice the contrast between this persecution and later Christian persecution against the Jews) and that Pliny shouldn’t follow anonymous accusations and calls. The crime is not paying respect to the Emperor and not worshiping the emperor in regard to the rules of the


Imperial Cult. Trajan also states that there are no set rules or regulations regarding how to deal with the arrested and arrests and punishments should be assigned individually based on the accused.

Lyons-Vienne Persecution (177)This persecution was the culmination of a lot of the population acting against the Christians as a socially and politically aloof group. It was mainly a “mob” organized persecution rather than led by the Roman Empire. The persecution was centered in Gaul (or present day France) and the mob believed in what they were doing as they were doing the work of the gods. Christians were accused of Oedipodean intercourse and Thyestean banquets (or baby eating). In the Letter of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons, a Christian writes about the torture, imprisonment, and death of many and also recounts the stories of martyrs such as Blandina, Attalus, Sanctus, and Maturus. Martyrs like these only encouraged the spread of Christianity.

Mystery ReligionsThese religions were “mysteries” to the Roman people and government because they mostly held their rituals in private. The term mystery religion comes from the Greek word “mysterion” which meant “secret.” Many of these religions focused on nature and had selective participation (all male cults, all female cults, etc.). There are overarching themes of resurrection and life after death. Many involve physical initiation rituals and tend to bless their food and drink.

Isis-OsirisA mystery religion that originated in Egypt, this cult worshiped the two gods Isis and Osiris, female and male respectively. The two gods were siblings as well as husband and wife and lived a very happy and celibate life together. Even though they never consummate their marriage, they have a son named Horus. Their brother Seth becomes jealous of their happiness and cuts Osiris into millions of pieces. It takes Osiris 1000 years to come back to life (resurrection).

MithrasAn old mystery religion that had resurgence during the 3rd century, Mithras worshiped the god of light. Its followers noticed the change in amount of time that the sun would stay up during the day as the seasons changed and feared that they would one day be enveloped in darkness. They saw this as a slow death of their god. By praying to the light god, they were able to bring back the light (also known as the spring/summer season). This was a very competitive religion with Christianity, but didn’t beat it in the end due to its exclusivity in initiating only men. There was a strong military draw to the cult as well and for initiation one must walk under a dead bull’s dripping blood. During the winter months, many Christians would denounce their


religion (apostatize) and celebrate in the winter solstice festival. For this reason, Jesus’ birthday was placed on December 25th to discourage the apostacy.

Romans & Christians (II)Origen (c. 248)The Christian theologian was a defender of the Christian faith. He detested Celsus. In his Apologies (defense), he wrote about Celsus’ arguments against Christianity. Origen also introduced the idea of scholarship to Christianity, combining classic literature with Christian texts.

Contra CelsumThe literal translation meaning “against Celsus,” Origen wrote this part of the Apologies to counter Celsus’ points about the faults of Christianity in his book The True Word.

Celsus (c. 180)Celsus was a traditional Roman citizen who believed in the traditional Roman gods. Christianity was unbelievable to him and therefore he detested it with a passion, along with the religion of the Jews. They were nonconforming minorities of exceptional cohesion. He wrote…

The True WordWritten by Celsus, The True Word talks about the inaccuracies of the Christian faith as well as mentions the dangerous nature of the Christian people and warns of their threat. This text is now lost but is remembered to this day through the writings of Origen.

Decian Persecution (250)There had been no consistent policy of persecution up until this time. We see this in Pliny’s letters to Emperor Trajan. Many persecutions targeted Christian leaders making martyrs of them. This did not help the Roman cause as it created a sense of encouragement for the Christian people, as martyrdom was the most holy thing to do. Decius, at first a military general and then emperor, was conservative and believed that the Christians had been undermining the empire. He launched the first empire-wide persecution of Christians (as opposed to local persecutions) that lasted a full year. Everyone had to honor and worship the Roman gods. If they didn’t, they would be tortured or executed. Many Christians denounced Jesus and in turn betrayed other Christians by turning them over as well as turning over sacred texts. It came to this point, later on, when the question arose of whom should the


Christian faith take back. Technically, if a Christian sins after being baptized, he could never reach eternal salvation. There came the conflict between whether the church should be a “Virgin Church,” one that was totally pure, and a “Mother Church,” one that would forgive all sins. Through the use of confession, the church adopted the role as a mother.

Perception of Christians: Motifs1. They abandoned the gods2. They are the reasons for calamities3. They are arrogant4. They keep to themselves5. HATRED FOR THE HUMAN RACE6. They have mixed allegiance7. They are undermining society by preying on the weak8. They have incest and eat babies9. They are sub-human

Constantine (312-337)Culturally and linguistically, the Roman Empire was divided between the East and West. Diocletian literally separated the empire, which led to wars of succession – who should rule the east and the west after Diocletian’s reign ended. There was a hierarchy instated. There would be an emperor of each half (the Augustus), and a lesser ruler (the Caesar). Constantine was the emperor of the West half of the Roman Empire and looked to gain more control. He was an enemy with Maxentius, who he had struggled with to gain the Western portion of the empire. In 324 he defeated Licinius, the emperor of the Eastern Empire. He converted to Christianity after an experience on his way to the…

Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312)On his way to a battle against his enemy Maxentius, Constantine had an experience that caused him to turn to Christianity. He saw a burning cross that said in hoc signo vinces (in this sign you will conquer). He had also had various dreams telling him to adorn his shields with the letters X and P (chi and rho) representing the first two symbols of Christ’s name. This would ensure victory in the battle. As the sign proved true, Constantine converted. He also paid favor to the Christians at points as he exempted priests from taxation and used part of the imperial budget to build churches. However, he did not become fully Christian until he was baptized on his deathbed, making sure that all of his sins would be forgiven.

Eusebius of Caesarea (d. 339)A major historian of the early Christian Church as well as a bishop (point of view), Eusebius recorded the event of Milvian Bridge. He also knew Constantine personally.


Edict of Milan (313)Co-issued by Constantine and the eastern Roman Emperor, the Edict of Milan was an edict of toleration. All religions were allowed to practice their rituals.

Early Christian Church (I)AuctoritasLatin for authority, auctoritas was important in the church as every action and assertion had to be backed by some legitimate authority. The bible was the most important source of authority.

PriestComing from the Greek word presbyteros (elder), the priest was in charge of the parish or the small local unit/church. The priesthood was male centered.

BishopIn Greek, episkopos (overseer), the bishop would hold the power over the diocese or a land encompassing multiple parishes. The diocese reflected the roman imperial structure. The geographic unit of the diocese resembled the geographic structure of imperial Rome. Like the priesthood, the bishop authority was male centered as well. The bishops were the key figures in the medieval church. They appointed authority to the priests. Power between bishops depended largely on the size of their diocese. The bishop would live in the city and govern from there. The bishops in the east and west differed. In the east, there were bishops (also known as patriarchs) of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria (later in Constantinople when Constantine founded the city). In the west there was only one bishop, the bishop of Rome. The amount of bishops led to conflict, mostly spurred on by the idea of…

Apostolic SuccessionThis was the claim that a diocese originated by an apostle. Rome, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria could all claim apostolic succession while Constantinople could not (as it was founded after the time of the apostles). The conflict came about when the bishop of Rome claimed that he was the supreme bishop. Not only could Rome claim apostolic succession with one apostle, but two apostles (Peter and Paul) that had founded the church. The east didn’t want to accept this, but eventually the diocese there fell at the outbreak of Islam.


Petrine DoctrineThe Petrine Doctrine claimed papal authority for the bishop of Rome. It was supported by the Gospel of Saint Matthew in which Jesus tells Peter (petrus) that he is the rock (petros) and from him the Church will grow. It also claims that Peter was the first bishop of Rome. This later brings about in 1059 the need for a College of Cardinals to elect the pope (after papal authority is recognized by all). The Cardinals were the “hinge” of the church and held the church together. They would usually elect the less knowledgeable popes so that they (the cardinals) could have more influence.

Leo I (440-461)One of two popes that were awarded the name “Great,” Leo The Great created the Petrine Doctrine, as he was the bishop of Rome.

Orthodoxy and HeresyOrtho means straight and doxy means opinion. Orthodoxy was the idea of what was right. The creation of orthodoxy was a long process but was never considered something new – orthodoxy was innate. The idea of right and wrong, orthodoxy and heresy, is attributed to the introduction of monotheism.

MarcionLiving around the second century, Marcion was an intellectual as well as a dualist. Dualism focuses on the idea of two gods – good (spiritual) and evil (material). The dualists also believed in reincarnation. If you didn’t live a good life, you would be reincarnated into a lesser being in your next life. If you did live a good life, then you would live a non-material, ethereal afterlife. Marcion was a heretic because he wrote his own version of the Christian bible that only included the gospels of Paul and Luke. He left out everything else, including the Old Testament. He viewed the Jewish god, Yahweh, as an evil god because he was material – he created the world, a material thing! In his mind, Marcion believed that Jesus was the good God while Yahweh was the evil one.

MontanistsAlso during the second century, the montanists were a millennial sect of Christianity that also encompassed some aspects of dualism. They separated themselves from the rest of Christianity in that they were all vegetarian, celibate, and even egalitarian. Millennial groups believed in Jesus’ eminent return to earth. When Jesus would return, there would be a battle between the good and the evil of the earth. Only 144,000 people would survive, all good, and all would live in harmony for a thousand years during the Golden Age. Many of their beliefs stemmed from the Book of the Apocalypse or the Book of Revelations. The


reason they were condemned as heretics was because they accused many of the clergy as being evil.

DonatistsThe Donatists were a sect of Christianity that originated in Northern Africa after the Diocletian Persecution in 303. They believed that once a priest apostatized, they could no longer return to Christianity as a practicing priest. Blessings from priests who later apostatized were also believed to be invalid. The wine and bread given to represent the blood and body of Christ would not contain his spirit if given by a sinning priest. The Donatists believed in a Virgin Church. They were deemed heretical because their ideas would create chaos in Christian society. Where would people go to get the true divine spirit? The Church clarified that the sacrament always carried the spirit of Christ within it.

Arius (d. 335)/Arians/ArianismThe belief spread first by Arius (a priest situated in Alexandria) was that Jesus was God’s first creation. Because Jesus was so perfect, God decided to adopt him as his own son. This led to the idea that Jesus was not eternal, and since God was eternal, Jesus must be lesser than god. This idea would also compromise the idea of monotheism. Arianism spread throughout the empire and posed a problem for the Church and hence Arius was deemed a heretic.

Council of Nicaea (325)Convened by Constantine, the council was called in the Eastern part of the Empire to discuss the problems and disunity of the Empire. It was the first ecumenical council in which the entire empire was represented. There were 317 bishops present and as a symbol, the Holy Spirit (part of God) was the 318th seat. The presence of the Holy Spirit granted authority for the convention. It was here that the idea of the Holy Trinity was created and added to the Church teachings.

Nicene CreedCreed comes from the word credo – “I believe.” The Nicene Creed was decided on at the Council of Nicaea. The Holy Trinity was the belief that there were three persons in one God: the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit.

Early Christian Church (II)


Tertullian (d. 225)An early Christian author, he coined the phrase “the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church.” He was highly educated but rejected Greco-Roman thinking because it served as detrimental to Christian thought.

Latin Fathers of the ChurchThe Fathers, also known as Doctors, include St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and Pope Gregory the Great. The Fathers held auctoritas – on a lesser level than the scriptures of course. The Fathers were all male, obviously, and this posed problems in creating Christian theology – men were creating the role for women. The Latin Fathers only applied to the Western part of the empire – as the Greek Fathers were in the East. The language difference (Latin vs. Greek) is very drastic.

St. JeromeComing from the upper crust of society, the aristocratic linguist (fluent in Greek, Latin, and later Hebrew) was interested in literature and philosophy – especially that belonging to the classical genre (for example Cicero). He struggled with ridding his mind of worldly thoughts and decided to escape from society by becoming a hermit in the desert near Syria. The point of becoming a hermit is to rid oneself of sin – sins are social. Jerome was an ascetic or someone who deprives himself of worldly pleasure. He found that by challenging his mind through learning that he could ward off sinful thought. He was anti-female due to the fact that he struggled with celibacy. He wanted all women to become celibate as well and did not respect those who were not.

Pope Damascus (366-384)This pope was integral in the canonization of saints from martyrs and he pushed for the Petrine Doctrine. He addressed all other bishops as his “son” rather than his “brother.” He assigned the linguist Jerome to translate the Greek and Hebrew bibles into Latin.

The VulgateThis version of the bible translated by St. Jerome (commissioned by Pope Damascus) was used throughout the Middle Ages. It was a compilation of the original Greek and Hebrew bibles. Jerome learned the Hebrew language in the desert during his hermitage.

St. Ambrose (d. 397)


This aristocrat came from a family of governors and later became Governor of Northern Italy himself. In the year 374, there was a civil war in Milan due to the fact that the last bishop had died. This past bishop had been an Arian and the Milanese people did not want another Arian bishop ruling them. When Ambrose marched into town to suppress the uprising, the people began to cheer – they wanted Ambrose to be the Bishop of Milan. Though he was reluctant and deemed himself unworthy of the position, he became bishop. This was interesting in the fact that he was not fully Christian at the time – he was waiting to be baptized later in life. Bishop Ambrose felt that the “bishop was the shepherd of his flock” and therefore took care of his diocese (the poor, the ill, etc). He was an eloquent speaker and was not hypocritical in his teachings. He later wrote a manual for all bishops on how to behave and act.

Theodosius (d. 395)The orthodox Christian emperor was the last Roman Emperor to keep the empire together. After his death, his two sons split the empire between east and west. In 392 he established Christianity as the official religion of the empire. He was also a big supporter of the Petrine Doctrine and supported the Roman bishop over all of the other minor bishops. He was a great friend of Ambrose but came into conflict with him after a massacre/execution in Greece. Ambrose plead for Theodosius to repent and the emperor did repent publicly and proved that no one was above religious authority.

St. Augustine (d. 430)The most important of the Latin Fathers of the Church, Augustine is known for his excessive writings. The only Father that came from modest means, Augustine was raised in North Africa and was educated in Carthage. Though raised Christian by his mother Monica (later canonized as a saint), he scoffed at the idea of Jesus and was very influenced by classical texts. He was really influenced in the method of rhetoric. Later on he became the Bishop of Hippo (in North Africa) from 395-430. He wrote the first known autobiography in the western world called…

Confessions (397)A revelatory autobiography by St. Augustine, this book recounts his feelings of pain, anguish, and anxiety and follows his life before he accepts Christianity up until when he finally accepts Jesus. He was easily tempted by worldly beings – drink and women. He read great works of ancient philosophers such as Cicero. It is not until he moved to Milan to become a professor of rhetoric that he accepts God. He hears the beautiful oration of Bishop Ambrose and was convinced that he spoke the truth. He also heard a voice of a child that told him to “take up and read,” luring him to open the Gospel of St. Peter.


410 ADThe Visigoth barbarians, under the direction of Alaric, sacked Rome. They were only storming through and later made their way to the Iberian Peninsula. The main impact of the violence was the doubt of Christianity. Many pagans within the western empire believed that the violence was caused by the turn on the Roman gods. There was overall shock.

City of GodWritten by Augustine between from the year 413-426, the City of God was a reaction to the sack of Rome and the blame put on Christianity. It created a new idea of history – the Christian philosophy of history. No longer was history looked at as cyclical (like the Romans and Greeks believed), but history was linear and importance was given to individual events and people. This gave the idea of purpose in the individual life – life was lived to get to the afterlife. The City of God was the opposite of the City of Man. The City of Man was filled with selfish and narcissistic people while the City of God was filled with people who cared for humanity.

Original Sin/Grace/PredestinationOriginal sin originates from the story of Adam and Eve. All humans have an intrinsic proclivity to sin. Grace is a gift from God and is necessary to have in order to reach salvation. To receive grace, one must participate in the sacraments. In Protestant religions that don’t have all of the Catholic sacraments, grace is freely given to those with faith. Predestination is a belief in religions such as Calvinism. God knows at all times who will be accepted into heaven and who will go to hell. There was an idea of elitism in this belief.

St. Benedict (d. 547)The Church wasn’t very fond of hermit monks because they saw these hermits as a threat to Church authority. St. Benedict was of the aristocracy and studied in Rome. He began as a hermit monk. He secluded himself and wore animal skins and acted very primal – he was once almost killed by hunters! He later founded the first monastery where monks lived together and lived by rules. He was also a very good monk in that he learned from his mistakes – when he assumed that all people could live by his strict rules and he was wrong, he changed his regulations.

Monte Cassino (c. 529)This was the first monastery established by Benedict. Located in a mountain, this monastery served as a model for all (for example, it had to be hospitable to all travelers). It was a retreat from society and set rules for monks.


Holy Rule (Rule of St. Benedict)Developed by St. Benedict at the monastery Monte Cassino, the Holy Rule was something that all monks had to live by as long as they resided in a monastery. They took a vow of poverty (no private property), chastity, and obedience (there was heavy discipline). First year monks were called novitiates. These novitiates were monitored by more experienced monks. The head of the monastery was the abbot (derived from the Aramaic/Hebrew word “abba” or “father”).

Secular vs. Religious ClergySecular is derived from the Latin word “seculum” which means worldly. The secular clergy consisted of those who worked within the world (priests, bishops, etc). Regular means rules. The regular clergy lived apart from the world and lived according to rules – MONKS!

Conversion of EuropeBarbarian Invasions (300-500)Barbarians were groups of people who didn’t speak civilized languages – Latin and Greek. Hence, there were many different barbarian tribes and they originated in many different areas. The Germanic barbarians pushed down from the area of the Rhine and Danube frontier of the Roman Empire, originally coming from areas of Scandinavia. Later on there were also invasions of Islamic groups as well as Persian groups on the eastern frontier of the empire. This multi-frontier push/invasion was one factor that led to the disintegration of the Roman Empire. The barbarians were of two religious groups. They were either pagan or Arian Christian.

Ulfilas (d. 383)Meaning “little wolf,” Ulfilas was an Arian Christian who had been held captive by the Goths but who later escaped. He had a calling to return to the barbarian tribe and spread his Arian Christianity as a missionary. The Goths were illiterate and for this reason, Ulfilas needed to create a Gothic alphabet and translated the bible. This was the first Proto-Germanic manuscript. Ulfilas left out some selections from the Old Testament that were extremely violent in an effort to not encourage the Goths to be any more violent than they already were. When the Goths sought integration with Christian Europe, they were considered heretics due to their Arian sect.


Germania (98)The title, speaking of a multiple variety of Germanic tribes, was the title of one of Tacitus’ writings. To refresh, Tacitus was a Roman aristocrat who was a pagan and also a conservative. This book, though pre-barbarian invasion, is an anthropological survey of the Germanic peoples. He characterizes them physically and almost raves about their virtues in admiration. Tacitus’ is known to have disliked the idea of the Roman Emperor having such absolute power. He also did not like the corruption in the upper crust of society. He admired the military prowess of the barbarians, their strong fidelity in marriage, and their coming of age rituals.

ComitatusA practice in many barbarian tribes, the warrior would give himself up to his chieftain. In return for his service and manpower, the warrior would receive weaponry and shelter. This idea brought about the beginnings of feudalism and symbiotic relationships between upper and lower classes.

Salic LawA law code set up by the Salian Franks concerning all facets of life. The laws were male centered and hence the role of women was to have children.

CompurgationThe process of swearing witnesses which was filled with inconsistencies in comparison to Roman legal rationality

OrdealA divine principal used in terms of accusation, the accused would be injured and correct healing would prove innocence. Another example is throwing the accused in water and if the accused quickly came to the surface, he would be guilty for the water found him impure.

WergeldThe term “were,” means man and the term “geld” means money. The wergeld is the payment after a crime, almost like a bailout. This was instated to prevent tribal warfare.

HunsDescending from the steppes of Central Asia, the Huns were known to be extremely violent and frightening. One of the first barbarian invaders, they terrified the Germanic settlers in Eastern Europe and prompted their invasion of the rest of Europe. They first conquered the Ostrogoths (the Eastern goths) in 370.


Attila (d. 453)He is mainly known for his rule over the Hunnic Empire, the empire from which the invading Huns came. He was mainly set on conquer and invasion, in comparison to other barbarian leaders who sought arable land for cultivating.

Battle of Châlons (451)The Battle of Châlons was a battle between the Huns and the Roman army (led mainly by the Visigothic king Theodoric I). It was a major victory for the Roman army. Its importance stems in the fact that if the battle had the opposite outcome, Attila would have taken over all of Western Europe and entered into Gaul.

VisigothsIn the year 376, the Visigoths appealed to the Roman Empire to become part of it. They were accepted but remained as a minority in both population and in religion as they were Arian Christians. They were the first full group of barbarians to enter the empire. They were looking for arable land in order to settle and cultivate a community, unlike the Huns who were set on conquest. They were given arid land by the empire and hence became upset and began to rebel. In the year 406, the Visigoths began to move into the north of the Italian peninsula. At this same time, Roman troops began to withdraw from the Rhine Valley area in order to deal with this and other problems in the southern regions. This withdrawal allowed other barbarian tribes to come into the empire.

Valens (d. 378)Valens was the emperor to accept the Visigoth community into the empire. One reason for this may be that he was an Arian Christian himself. He was actually the Eastern Roman Emperor and was considered the last true Roman.

Battle of Adrianople (378)The battle was fought between the Romans (in particular the Eastern Romans, led by Valens) and the Visigoths in an area between modern day Greece and Bulgaria. The main cause of the battle was Visigothic resentment of the Romans, as they were given poor, arid land to farm. The Visigoths defeated the Romans, and Valens was killed.

Alaric (d. 410)The leader of the Visigoths, Alaric had aimed to find arable land for his people to farm and settle on. He moved the Visigoths down the Italian Peninsula, dying on the way. On the way, the barbarians sacked Rome. They were unable to enter


North Africa and instead moved into Gaul until they were displaced by Vandals and landed in Iberia until 711 and the Islamic conquest.

410 ADThe Visigoth barbarians, under the direction of Alaric, sacked Rome. They were only storming through and later made their way to the Iberian Peninsula. The main impact of the violence was the doubt of Christianity. Many pagans within the western empire believed that the violence was caused by the turn on the Roman gods. There was overall shock.

VandalsWhen they invaded, the Vandals went from Gaul, to Southern Iberia (their name lead to the name of the coast, “vandalus”), and then finally settled in North Africa, particularly in Carthage. From this point in the Mediterranean, they took control of trade for the next 100 years and also took over many Mediterranean islands such as Corsica and Sardinia. In 455 they sacked Rome, similarly to the Visigoths in 410 – not destroying the city, just “vandalizing” it.

BurgundiansCirca 406, this barbarian tribe entered Western Gaul in the Rhone Valley area. Their name led to the modern day area named Burgundy. They were a minority group in this region, as the language in this area is known to be a romance language, originating from Latin.

LombardsThe Lombards moved into the northern region of the Italian peninsula, finally settling permanently under the rule of Charlemagne. They were a minority group in this region, as the language in this area is known to be a romance language, originating from Latin.

Angles/Saxons/JutesThese barbarian tribes entered the British Isles, or Britannia according to the Romans, starting in the year 410 when the Roman army withdrew from the area temporarily (never to come back). The tribes led to the names of areas within the Isles. For example, the modern name England comes from the Angles – Angleland, England. The Saxons contributed to the naming of areas such as Wessex, Sussex, and Essex (West Saxon, South Saxon, East Saxon). The barbarian groups here were majorities and trumped the indigenous population of the time, and hence the English language is a Germanic language.

Franks


The name “Franks” means free or valorous. They were a Germanic tribe that differed from the others in that they were religiously pagan. They settled in the North Eastern part of Gaul, and had their headquarters in Paris (which was chosen due to religious importance and saints). The name of their “state” was Francia, later softened to modern day France. They remained in close contact with neighboring Germanic tribes and populated France through colonization. They were creating the starts of a nation.

Clovis (r. 481-511)Clovis’ importance can be found through his name alone, later influencing the name of many French rulers – CLOVIS, Louis. He became king at the age of 15. He was very ruthless, clever, and was great on the battlefield. He settled where there was a Gallo-Roman population (the majority) that was Catholic Christian. He recognized the hierarchy in terms of church office and being politically astute as he was, despite his paganism, made friends with the Church. In 493, he married Clotilda (d. 546) who was from the Burgundian tribe. Though the tribe as a whole was Arian, her mother was Catholic and so she was raised as a Catholic as well. This marriage is an example of a dynastic marriage – a marriage made for political and military purposes. In 496, at a battle against an enemy group, the Alemanni, Clovis called on Jesus, as he feared his army was losing. As soon as he called on the Christian God, the enemy forces retreated, and on Christmas day that same year, Clovis, as well as his soldiers, converted to Catholic Christianity. It was Clotilda, though, who put the idea of Christianity in his head. Once the boss is converted, the rest will follow.

Merovingians (481-751)The dynasty that Clovis belonged to was named after Merovech. Merovech was both Clovis’ grandfather, and an esteemed river god of the pagan Franks. By claiming that a divine figure resided in the dynasty’s family tree gave legitimacy to the thrown.

Gregory of Tours (c. 594)A bishop (ecclesiast) and part of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy, Gregory was a historian who wrote the History of the Franks. He also represents the decline in Roman culture of the time, as his writings are filled with grammatical errors.

History of the FranksGregory of Tours recorded the event of the 496 battle between Clovis and the Alemanni enemy. The story very similarly compares to Eusebius of Caesarea’s story


of Constantine’s conversion. This is not surprising, as Gregory would have most likely read Eusebius’ texts. He also mentions Clovis’ conquests into the rest of Gaul: defeating the Visigoths in 507 and by his death conquering 2/3 of modern day France.

St. Patrick (431)Though there are many accounts of different Patricks in Ireland as missionaries, we consider only the most known Patrick and deem him a saint. To the Romans, Ireland was called Hibernia. The Romans never made it to Ireland and hence Ireland remained isolated. St. Patrick was a Celt from southwest Britain. He was a Christian (his dad was a deacon, and his grandfather a priest). He was captured by pirates and brought to Ireland (according to the Confessions of St. Patrick), forced to work on the fields. After escaping captivity, he felt that he was being called back to Ireland to convert the pagans there. Before his return, he became a bishop, and brought episcopal Christianity to Ireland. This system of bishops, however, did not work as the system relied on cities and Ireland was purely rural. Instead, the Irish took up monasticism and asceticism. They learned Latin and Greek in order to read manuscripts. They held other practices (private confession vs. public) than the continental (Catholic) Christians, and had a different calendar. Ireland had a high level of education and intellectual activity as compared to the rest of the declining empire.

Bede (d. 735)He was a Benedictine monk who was also a chronologist. He recorded historical events, and even used the idea of separating events into BC and AD. He was one of the more intellectual writers of his day. He wrote…

Ecclesiastical History of the English PeopleIn this book, Bede records the religious, Christian events of the English people. Within the selection is included the conversion of King Edwin of Northumbria to Christianity (through the advice of his priest Coifi). He also records the events of the Synod of Whitby in which King Oswy decides between the Irish Christian and Catholic Christian faiths.

Gregory the Great (590-604)Coming from the aristocracy, Gregory was well educated for his time (though not nearly as intelligent and intellectual as those during the time of Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine). He became a monk and only left the monastery (that he was a benefactor to) because the pope at that time called him to Constantinople to negotiate with the Eastern Empire for aid against the Lombards. Gregory never wanted to be pope and actually tried to avoid it, but he was anointed pope


nonetheless. He was one of the Latin Fathers of the Church and was highly involved with the conversion of England. He assumed secular responsibility in Rome and the surrounding areas. He helped the poor. He wrote a manual for bishops to follow (the Pastoral Care – see sources). For future medieval students, he summarized theology such as St. Augustine’s writings.

Augustine of Canterbury (597)Pope Gregory the Great sent him to England (particularly Kent) as a missionary. He had been the abbot of the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome. The name Canterbury means “City of Kent.” The king of Kent at the time was Ethelbert (d. 616). Though he was a pagan, he was married to Bertha (d. 612) who was a Frank and a Catholic, a descendent of Clovis and Clotilda. This is yet another example of a dynastic marriage. In 597, Augustine of Canterbury converted King Ethelbert and his fellow men to Catholic Christianity on Christmas day.

Principle of AdaptationThis principle is from Pope Gregory the Great in response to some worries on the part of Augustine of Canterbury. The recently converted pagans quickly reverted back to their pagan practices as soon as they were out of the Church’s sight. Pope Gregory said that conversion couldn’t be done by force, and the pagan converts had to be eased into their new religion. On the sites of old pagan temples and altars, all idols should be destroyed, but in their place, a church should be raised.

Synod of Whitby (664)Synod is the Greek word for council. This synod was held due to the collision of Irish and Catholic missionaries in Northumbria. The Irish Christian King Oswy (d. 670) of Northumbria was married to a woman from Kent (and hence, a Catholic Queen). This led to problems in terms of celebration of holidays. At this synod, it was concluded that Oswy would choose Catholic Christianity. The main reason had to do with the afterlife. According to the gospels and the Petrine Doctrine, St. Peter held the keys to heaven. The pope was working by the will of St. Peter. Therefore, Catholic Christianity was chosen. This religious synod and its outcome drew England into the rest of Western Europe.

IslamMuslimIslam means “submission to Allah” and the individual Muslim means “one who submits to the will of Allah.”


Arabian PeninsulaThis peninsula is the largest in the world; almost four times the size of modern day France. Notation of Arabs in this land date back to the Jewish bible and before. It was an important land because of its location between Asia and the Mediterranean. In the 6th century, it was through this peninsula that the most important routes ran through. In terms of demography, Bedouin tribes that were polytheistic dominated it.

MeccaThe birthplace of Muhammad, Mecca was a very important trade stop on route through the peninsula. In the 6th century, it had an economic upsurge. It had an important religious significance even before the introduction of Islam as many Bedouin tribes took pilgrimages there to visit the Kaaba. There were Jews and Christians here because of its influential location, and these people may have influenced Muhammad when it came to monotheism and preceding prophets. When Muhammad started preaching Islam, the people of Mecca felt threatened. They made a lot of money because of the polytheistic pilgrims, and thought that the preaching of a monotheistic religion would hurt their profit.

KaabaA cube right outside of the city of Mecca, the Kaaba was a pilgrimage sight for many polytheistic Bedouin tribes. Inside the Kaaba were 300+ idols representing deities of many of the different tribes. One of the idols included happened to be named “Allah.” The Bedouins brought a lot of commerce to Mecca and because of their pilgrimage, bought many religious related items during their stay.

Muhammad (571-632)Born in Mecca, Muhammad (“highly praised”) belonged to a local polytheistic tribe called the Kuraysh. His father (interestingly named Abba-Allah) had died before he was born, and his mother died when he was six, leaving him to be raised by his extended family. Being an orphan early in life really influenced some of the things mentioned in the Quran regarding orphans and needy children. At a very young age he had to fend for himself and worked as a merchant to make profit. Because of this, Muhammad remained relatively uneducated. This seems to be a good thing, on his part, because the less educated one is, the less corruption one brings to religion. He never truly became wealthy. He joined a trading company that was run by a woman named Khadijah, and later married her. In the year 610, he received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. The angel told Muhammad to recite/repeat after him – the beginnings of the Quran. The story of Muhammad’s revelation is very similar to the story of revelations had by Saint Paul. He was


encouraged to follow his revelations by his wife Khadijah and began preaching to the fringes of society. As mentioned before, he was seen as an enemy to commerce in Mecca and in the year 622 left for Medina. He returned to Mecca in 630 when he destroyed all the idols in the Kaaba and finally brought Islam to the Bedouin tribes. This transition from the polytheistic Kaaba to the Islamic Kaaba harkens to the advice given to Augustine of Canterbury by Pope Gregory the Great.

KurayshThe Arabian Peninsula was filled with many different tribes or clans, including the tribe of the Kuraysh. Muhammad belonged to this lesser tribe, and was even lesser himself by being on the outskirts of it himself. They were known for their religious rituals and some were even in charge of the Kaaba.

Khadijah (d. 619)A wealthy, elite widow and owner of a trading company, she recognized Muhammad’s talented ability in trade. At this time, women had more freedom than they did after the introduction of Islam (though originally there are many things instated in Islamic practice to protect women). She proposed to Muhammad for marriage against the advice of her tribesmen. They were married, exclusively, for 25 years until her death. She was a main driving force in the preaching of Islam as she encouraged Muhammad to follow his revelations.

Hegira (Hijra) 622Because he was seen as an enemy to the commerce of Mecca, Muhammad fled on September 24 to avoid persecution. At this point, Khadijah had died and he no longer had a foothold in the elite society of Mecca. The word Hegira actually means “flight.” After the death of his first wife, Muhammad begins to practice polygamy and his harem grows. This time is extremely important in Islamic history, and is marked so as being the first year on the Islamic calendar!

Medina (Yathrib)To the northwest of Mecca, this city was an oasis that was inhabited by many settling nomadic tribes. Like Mecca, Medina had a noticeable population of Christians and Jews, who worked as artisans and farmers – cultivating the land and making it as arable as possible. There were conflicts between the tribes in Yathrib at this time because of the increased population, and the scarcity of water and irrigation. Muhammad was invited to help fix the problem and conflict. He becomes a political as well as a religious leader here, in the “City of the Prophet,”


and this forms a theocracy. At this point, prayer was directed towards Jerusalem (as opposed to Mecca).

QuranDefined as the “recitation,” this sacred text is the word that Muhammad had spoken during all of his revelations. Similar to Judaism and Christianity, the introduction of a sacred text kept the religion alive as compared to disappearing religions of the time that had no written core. The text also brought about a certain authority. The Quran was written within 25 years of Muhammad’s death, unlike the Jewish and Christian texts that didn’t solidify for several centuries. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters or “surahs.” To get anything spiritual out of the text, it must be read in Arabic. Because of this, often times Arabs take an elitist position in the religion. Many themes repeat themselves in the Quran such as an intricately described afterlife, and the idea that life is a test.

Iman (beliefs)This is a theology, which is the more intricate and religious detail of Islam. Most people aren’t as in touch with this aspect of religion in general.

Ibadat (obligations, rituals)Rituals and traditions keep communities together and bring people together. Traditions such as rights of passage reinsure and reinstate the Islamic religion as well as many others.

JihadTribal warfare, originally conducted in order to seek revenge on Mecca, is described in the Quran. There are two types of jihad. The greater jihad is the inner struggle that one has with oneself in becoming the best Muslim one can be. Lesser jihad is a defending or propagation of the faith, and is usually done through warfare and violence.

HajjEvery Muslim must try to make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca, specifically to touch the Kaaba, in his or her lifetime.

Ramadan


This is a period of 30 days (a month) in which all Muslims must fast from sunrise to sunset each day. This is the month that Muhammad received his first revelation. One is exempt from the fast if one is traveling, but must instead fast the next month.

Five Pillars of Islam Profession of Faith

Acknowledging Allah as the one and only God, and acknowledging Muhammad as the final prophet

Prayer5 times a day, facing Mecca, ritualistic behaviors (washing) beforehand, holy day is Friday

Pilgrimage (HAJJ) Alms

Be kind to those in need and give charity (similar to Jewish and Christian practice)

Fasting on Ramadan

CarolingiansMerovingians (481-751)The dynasty that Clovis belonged to was named after Merovech. Merovech was both Clovis’ grandfather, and an esteemed river god of the pagan Franks. By claiming that a divine figure resided in the dynasty’s family tree gave legitimacy to the thrown.

Carolingians (751-911)Though Charles Martel is part of the family line, the Carolingian dynasty does not start until Pepin the Short becomes King of the Franks in 751. The Carolingians came from an aristocratic family and before becoming legitimate kings, held authority and power over the Merovingian “do nothing kings.”

Charles Martel (714-741)During the eighth century, the Merovingian power, the monarchial power, in Francia was decreasing. This was due to split succession with sons, as well as the fact that monarchs would give land to the aristocracy in return for loyalty and service. The latter gave more power to the aristocracy, and the former split up the centralized dynasty. There was now a split between Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy. The Carolingians were an aristocratic family that exerted true power in Austrasia, and in 687 took control of Neustria in the Battle of Tertry under


Pepin of Heristal (680-714). Charles Martel, then came to power in the year 714, after Pepin of Heristal, and in 732 restrained the Arab advance into Europe at the Battle of Tours-Poitiers. He extended the boundaries of the Frankish state drastically. He introduced the cavalry and brought the stirrup into popular use.

Battle of Tours (732)Up until this point, the Islamic forces of the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) had spread vastly through the Middle East, into Asia, Africa, and even the Iberian Peninsula. In 711 Al-Walid I conquered al-andalus, now Andalucia in Spain. The Battle of Tours took place in France, and marked the furthest point of Islamic invasion in Europe. Charles Martel and his army defeated the Islamic forces. Tours was an important religious center with gold and silver.

Pepin the Short (741-768)Similarly to Charles Martel, Pepin the Short (his son) began his reign as a powerful aristocrat, but not a monarch. His brother Carloman did not pose a threat to his power as he retired to Monte Cassino as a monk. In 751 at Soissons he was anointed as King by Pope Zacharius I (741-752), creating the Franco-Papal Alliance. The pope needed military aid to help secure Italy from the Lombard threat. He no longer could rely on Byzantine forces (because of the dispute over icons, as well as Byzantine preoccupation with Arab threats), so he turned to the Franks.

Zacharius I (741-752)He was actually a Greek pope sitting on the Roman papal throne. He was very involved with events taking place in Germany and France, and helped create the Franco-Papal Alliance. He encouraged the overthrow of the Merovingian Monarchy by anointing Pepin the Short as King of Francia. He also was very involved with Saint Boniface and the missions to England.

Stephen II (752-757)The pope succeeding Zacharius I was most known for increasing the separation between the Roman Papacy and the Byzantine Emperors. He relied heavily on the Franco-Papal Alliance for military aid against the Lombards. In 754 and 756, Pepin, through military aid, gave the papacy the Papal States – independent and ruled by the Pope. Now the Pope had both religious and secular power in the center of Italy. Donation of PepinPepin the Short, through the Franco-Papal Alliance, gave Pope Stephen II the Papal States. The pope himself independently ruled this land. The pope had both religious and secular power in the center of Italy because of the donation.


Donation of ConstantineThis forged “donation” came about around the year 740, and gave the pope the imperial crown and gave him the power to rule the entire west. This created problems later on between the Pope’s authority and Monarchial or Kingly authority.

Gregorian RevolutionCharlemagne (768-814)A strong conqueror and military man, Charlemagne inherited the name patricius romanorum from his father Pepin the Short. He brought a lot to his kingdom, especially in that he conquered many lands. In 774 he defeated the Lombards, giving him the name King of the Franks & Lombards. He also moved into Bavaria and the eastern Slavic lands, into Austria (Ostomark), and to the south of the Pyrenees (to prevent any future Muslim invasion). He also conquers the Saxons and converts them to Christianity by the 800s. A lot of his empire is highly suggestive of the Western Roman Empire (excluding the British Isles and the entirety of the Iberian peninsula).

Regnum EuropaeChroniclers termed the Western section of the Roman Empire as the Kingdom of Europe, characterizing it as a mixture of Germanic, Romantic, and Christian cultures.

Einhard (d. 840)A lot about Charlemagne is known today because of this important biographer. In Life of Charlemagne, we hear about his cultural exploits in education. Charlemagne (also known as Charles the Magnificent/Great) knew both Latin and Greek, though he was more proficient in the former. He was a great reader and his favorite book was St. Augustine’s City of God. He trained all of his children, both sons and daughters, in the liberal arts. He was never able to master the skill of writing. Einhard also writes about Charlemagne’s coronation as Emperor. He says that Charlemagne was surprised by the sudden anointment, but many scholars believe this could not have been the case.

Leo III (795-816)At this time in Christian history, aristocratic nobles in Rome usually chose the Pope. Because of this, there were often conflicting parties in the city. Leo III fell prey to his opponents who accused him of sinful acts such as adultery. There were times


(such as 799) when he was mugged and kidnapped. He turned to Charlemagne for help.

800Charlemagne went to Rome to help reinstate Leo III as Pope and to protect him from his opponents. Leo III swore his innocence on the Vulgate Bible. On Christmas day that same year (800), Charlemagne was imperially coronated emperor by Leo III. According to his biographer Einhard, Charlemagne was taken by surprise, but this most likely was not the case. This event also set a precedent that all imperial coronations must come from the Pope to be legitimate.

Pornocracy (904-964)This was the lowest point in the history of the papacy. There was a rumor that women (such as Theodora and Marozia) from the aristocracy were very influential in the church due to sexual favors and such. Because monks wrote history, perhaps the corruption of the church was just put on the women as scapegoats. It is during this time that the myth of the female Pope Joan came about, possibly another scapegoat.

John XII (955-964)An example of the corruption in the papacy during this period, Pope John XII was only 16 years old when he came into power. He was interested in women and drink; he didn’t like mass and was known for sleeping through it, and got into a lot of trouble. He also set the precedent for changing names when becoming Pope.

Otto I “The Great” (936-973)At this point in history, the Carolingians had dwindled to nothingness due to split inheritance, and Germany was a growing power. Otto I was a strong military man, and helped to consolidate and defend Germany. He began the practice of lay investiture in order to control the churches in his realm.

Battle of Lechfeld (955)Otto I fought the Magyars, a new people from the Asiatic Steppes. These Magyars, also known as Hungarians, were forced to settle in present day Hungary. It is because of this battle that Otto I received the name “The Great.”

962On February 2, John XII named Otto I as emperor. This was an example of sacred kingship, similar to that of the Carolingians. Otto I was a reformer and once


emperor, removed the corrupt John XII from the papacy in 964. It is here that Otto I claimed authority over choosing the Pope (though this was never actually reality for emperors later on). German emperors often removed popes that they saw were unfit for the job. Cluny (910)Duke William IV of Aquitane, forming a monastery, turned over a village to reform monks. The Duke issued a charter stating that the monastery would be free from secular interference. The monastery was established under the Rule of St. Benedict. Because so many monasteries were not living up to the Benedictine Rule, Cluny aimed to be a role model for other monasteries to follow. Their “daughter monasteries” became known as Cluniac monasteries. The head abbot at Cluny oversaw them. Each branch was head by a prior – only one abbot existed in this monastic order, and he resided at Cluny. It is from Cluny that many of the ideologies for the reform movement came.

SimonyThe practice of buying and selling church offices was one of the corruptive practices that reformers aimed to get rid of.

Clerical ConcubinageMonks were celibate, and in writing, priests were meant to be too. Many reformers believed that priestly marriage created a conflict of interest. Priests with sons would turn over their parish/church lands as inheritance, and henceforth, the Church would lose its lands. Priests were meant to be wed to the church only.

Lay InvestitureKings and emperors and other powerful men would invest bishops into office by giving them a ring and staff, spiritual and religious symbols. This secular involvement in religious affairs was one of the main reasons for the reform movement.

Leo IX (1049-1054)Bishop Bruno was from Alsace-Lorrain. He was German and because of this, was not so involved with the local corruption in Rome. Henry III, the German emperor, appointed him as Pope – Leo IX. As a monk from Cluny, Leo was a reformer aimed at eliminating simony and priestly marriage. He was the first pope to travel throughout Western Christendom, creating an international papacy. He also had legates, papal representatives or ambassadors, which would go all over Christendom to enforce reforms.


1054Leo IX sends one of his legates, Humbert of Silva, to Constantinople to insist that the Byzantines see things the way that the Pope does – in other words, to acknowledge the Petrine Doctrine. Humbert delivers this message in a disrespectful manner, and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicates the Pope and everyone who follows him. Humbert retaliates with a message from the Pope that the Patriarch and everyone who follows him is excommunicated from the Catholic Church. This marks the Eastern Schism.

1059 College of Cardinals

Before this point, there was no set way of becoming Pope. Deacons could elect you, an emperor could select you, or even the populous could choose. This was the first set way to elect the Pope and would be the only way to become a legitimate pope from here on out. Only fellow churchmen, specifically cardinals, could participate. A 2/3 majority was necessary.

Norman AllianceThe Normans were thought of as the most accomplished fighters. Because of this they were often hired as mercenaries. After coming back from fighting holy wars, they settled in Southern Italy. They moved north, conquering land as they went, up until the Papal States. The Pope grew nervous about the Norman proximity and assembled an army against them, but was obviously defeated. In response to the defeat, the Pope agreed to create an alliance between the two parties in return for a feudal contract of military service. This alliance would prove helpful to the papacy because the Normans were Catholic and Western, and having conquered Southern Italy, displaced many Eastern-oriented people.

Gregory VII (1073-1085)Hildebrand (maiden name) was a monk and a radical reformer. He was present in creating the College of Cardinals, and was also present in the formation of the Norman Alliance. He came to Rome as a reformer with Leo IX. He had such an influence in church reform that the reform movement, or the Gregorian Revolution, was named after him. When he became pope, he did not do so through the College of Cardinals, and for this reason, was very hesitant and unwilling. His enemies used this fact, that he didn’t follow the new law of how to become pope, often.

Dictatus Papae (1075)First of all, see sources. This source is not a church doctrine instated by Pope Gregory VIII but was a papal program or agenda to create a papal monarchy.


Henry IV (1056-1106)Henry was King of Germany and inherited the throne at a young age, not really coming of age until 1073. In 1076 he was in a position to challenge Pope Gregory through a letter about the practice of lay investiture. The pope had suspended the office of bishops that were not ordained by Church, but rather by the king – a secular man. This challenge and letter ended with excommunication for Henry IV. When one is excommunicated, one has no access to the sacraments. The people of Henry’s kingdom were advised not to follow him any longer, and because of this, Henry had to appeal to the pope at…

Canossa (1077)Henry IV went to the Castle at Canossa, in Tuscany, to appeal to Pope Gregory VII to be welcomed back into the church. He arrived in penitential garb and stood in the snow for three days until the pope agreed to hear his confession. It is a fundamental responsibility of a priest to hear a confession, and though the pope did not want to for political reasons, spiritually he had to. The excommunication was removed. This event shows that everyone was dependent on the church, even kings (and later emperors).

CrusadesJust WarThe Christians were originally a pacifist people, but once they grew to be the majority in Europe, they had to figure out some way to justify warfare. St. Augustine came up with the argument that a justifiable war is a war that is defensive. A Christian cannot offensively attack another person, but can defend himself. The term “defensive” was taken loosely as the First Crusade was considered a defensive war because the Muslims had taken Jerusalem (450 years earlier).

Holy WarThe Crusades were the first and only wars sanctioned by the Church and the pope. The Church and pope are representatives of God, and because the knights were fighting for the Church, they were in turn fighting for God. These fighters were called Militia Christi.

Feudal AristocracyThis was the main population who went out and waged war. They were knights with cavalry. There were infantrymen to help support these aristocrats, but


overall, because of the expense of horses, knights had to be of some sort of wealth. They were extremely well trained. Boys of aristocratic blood would first become pages, and then squires (trained fighters to assist professional knights). Later, at the age of 21, these boys would officially become knights. Because population was growing at this time of the Middle Ages, newly knighted men lacked a fief and would participate in private warfare for land. The Church became involved as they eliminated private warfare (or at least in theory trying to) and had knights perform special services for the church. Any important member of the aristocracy claimed ancestral connection to Charlemagne.

Peace of GodThis was the Church’s first involvement in France. The idea was to focus mainly on eliminating private warfare and the harming of non-combatants (civilians, clergy, farmers, etc). The Church may have condemned these actions and they were prohibited in theory, but of course there was minor continuance of private war.

Truce of GodThis was focusing more on when the military could fight or not. It was forbidden to fight on holy days, as everyone should be in Church. There were specific days proscribed for fighting. At one point, fighting wasn’t allowed between Wednesday and Sunday.

ReconquistaThe Reconquista was a re-conquest of the Iberian Peninsula during the second half of the 10th century. The Church was involved and supported the movement, and Papal Banners were used in many of the battles. Muslim powers were declining at this time in the peninsula and it was because of this that the Christians had a chance at victory.

Seljuk TurksThe Seljuk Turks came from the steppes of Asia, similar to the Huns, but from the area of modern day Turkistan. They began moving into the area of modern day Iran, and in the 10th century converted to Islam. They began expanding further in the 11th

century and in 1071 the started moving into the area of Armenia.

Battle of Manzikert (1071)This was a battle between the Seljuk Turks and the Byzantines. The Turks destroyed the Byzantines, which was a major shock. The Turks were moving into Asia Minor, which was an important region for the Byzantines as they drew many of their soldiers from there. The Seljuk Turks also took Jerusalem at this time, which effected Christian pilgrims (significant because Christians originated from


the Jewish people who were originally nomadic). At this point, the Byzantine Emperor Michael Doukas appealed to Pope Gregory VII for help, but because the pope was preoccupied with lay investiture issues with Henry IV, he couldn’t divert his attention.

Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118)The Byzantine Emperor, he appealed to the Pope for aid. This was significant because the Pope was the only universally recognized figure in the entire West. He thought it was good to attack the Muslims at this point when they were weak – they would have the best opportunity of success.

Urban II (1088-1118)This pope was one of the reform popes and was a Cluniac monk. He was clever and wasn’t part of the local Italian aristocracy, but rather came from France. In 1095, Emperor Alexius appealed to Urban for help against the Muslims in the east. Urban thought it would be beneficial to all to aid their Byzantine neighbors and went to France to rally knights together (as the stronger knights were located in France, not Italy).

Council of Clermont (1095) This council strengthened the power of the Papacy by getting a large part of the populous excited about the Crusades. The council was held in south central France on November 27th. Urban appealed to all bishops to bring well-trained men with them. Urban, a Frenchman himself spoke to the French people, initially buttering them up. He stated that he only wanted knights on the battlefield – no women or clergy. One of the reasons for this was to remove the problematic and violent knights from Western Christendom. There were women on the crusades who acted as prostitutes. The obligation to the Lord was greater than any other obligation. It was God’s will for the men to fight – “deus vult.” The pope promised protection of land while the knights were away, and freed all participants from debt. He also gave…

Plenary IndulgencesThe term plenary means, “full.” It was believed at this point that when one dies, one doesn’t go directly to heaven due to sin that wasn’t forgiven. Because of this, one entered purgatory to repent for those sins. By going on the crusades, all sins were removed and if killed, the fighter would go straight to heaven.

Peter the Hermit/Walter the PennilessThese were some of the leaders of the Popular Crusade. The popular crusades accompanied each of the legitimate and authorized crusades, but consisted of the


poor and general religious extremists. Urban II was specific in wanting only knights, but there was no way to stop the general populous from becoming involved. Peter was a monk who believed that the Crusades were something made for him. He preached to the general populous and even claimed that he had a letter signed by Jesus condoning his preaching. He also claimed ancestral connection to John the Baptist. The popular crusades were the beginning of pogrom-like Jewish persecution. When the popular crusade first entered Constantinople, the Emperor attempted to make them wait for the true crusaders, but they raised hell and Alexius let them get slaughtered by the Turks.

First Crusade (1096-1099)The people who participated in this papal sanctioned crusade were princes and nobility – no kings. The Arabs had taken Jerusalem in 637, but it was now that the crusaders aimed at taking it back. This was the one overtly successful crusade out of all of them. Though there was a lot of bloodshed and a lack of communication between the different factions, they were successful in conquering the crusader states – most notably Jerusalem. The crusades were seen as armed pilgrimages or controlled violence directed toward the infidel.

1099In July of the final year of the First Crusade, they successfully captured Jerusalem. Italian merchants at Yaffa aided them. They slaughtered all of the inhabitants in Jerusalem – Muslims and Jews, women and children. This was seen as righteous revenge for corrupting the holy city. The crusaders took over the Principality of Antioch, the County of Edessa, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem – the latter having control over the others.

Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099)This land was only 100 miles wide at its largest point. They feared when the Muslims might cooperate again and push them into the Mediterranean. They also feared the new crusaders who might create turmoil in the area. The Kingdom was established during the First Crusade. Second Crusade (1147-1148)This crusade was sparked by the loss of the County of Edessa to Zangi of Mosul in 1144. This was a distinctly unsuccessful crusade with the leadership of King Louis VII of France (1137-1180) and King/HRE Conrad III of Germany (1137-1152). Louis was very eager to go on the crusade; one reason may have been to get away from his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine (d. 1204) who ended up joining him anyway (later their marriage was annulled). Conrad was not extremely excited to go on the


crusade and would have rather remained to govern his land, but he was almost forced to go by the preaching of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Conrad led his army over land, and many of the Germans were destroyed before ever reaching the Holy Land. Louis led his army by boat. The goal was to conquer Damascus, which seemed like a bad idea because Damascus was an ally of the crusaders. They failed.

1187Jerusalem fell to the Muslims under Saladin (d. 1193). Saladin was a man of his word, a gentleman, and was a very strong ruler. This led to the events of the…

Third Crusade (1189-1193)This crusade is also known as the Crusade of the Kings because it was led by Frederick Barbarossa the HRE and King of Germany (1152-1190), Philip Augustus II of France (1180-1223), and Richard the Lion-Hearted of England (1189-1199). Barbarossa drowned on his way to the Holy Land as he crossed a river with a strong current. When he died, many of his knights turned back. Philip did participate minimally when he helped to besiege Acre but he returned to France soon after, as he was not too eager to be fighting. He would rather focus on getting land back from England. Richard took the crusade the furthest, and was able to re-conquer important cities on the coast, as well as create a treaty with Saladin for the protection of Christian pilgrims. That being said, the treaty would have been possible through negotiations and a crusade was not necessary. This was most probably the largest of the crusades.

Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)This expedition never made it to the Holy Land. Innocent III (1198-1216) preached this crusade. The plan was to go by ship to the Holy Land but because the crusades were no longer popular, there were not enough knights to fill up all the ships that were asked of. The Venetian ship builders agreed to let them pay less for less ships if the crusaders were to conquer Zara for them, another important port city that had been taken from the Venetians. The crusaders decided they would do this, and because they were attacking other Christians, the pope excommunicated them. The crusaders then entered Constantinople to aid the emperor-to-be, but then realized they could take over the city themselves – and hence, the whole of Byzantium. They sacked Constantinople, stealing and looting, and ultimately destroying many artifacts. Although the Pope was originally not happy about this, he later lifted the excommunication as there was no brief unity between Eastern and Western Christendom. This gave the pope more power, until 1261 when the Byzantines took Constantinople back.


Children’s Crusade (1212)It was believed that the failures of the previous crusades were due to the overall sinful nature of the men who were fighting. It was thought that if perhaps children would fight, their purity and innocence would lead them to victory. The children from Germany thought that the Mediterranean Sea would open up for them and allow them to walk to the Holy Land – they all drowned. The French children were offered free passage by Italian merchants, but were ultimately taken to the coast of North Africa and sold into slavery.

The PapacyInnocent III (November 1198-1216)This pope was elected into papal office at the age of 37 years at a very pivotal point in the history of the church. With the growth of population, there was an increase in heresy as well as problems within the church. There was a need for a dynamic and powerful pope, instead of the usual humble pope that the cardinals usually elected. Innocent III was a lawyer pope and studied theology at the University of Paris and canon law at the University of Bologna. He wrote multiple theological treatises before he became pope. He exerted the most influence of all popes before and after him, and represented the highest point in the history of the papacy. He believed that he was above all other man, and that he was the Vicar of Christ. He and all popes are representatives of God and Christ on earth.

ContiThis aristocratic family in Italy exerted a lot of influence in the papacy. There were 8 Conti popes that were elected to the papal throne. Innocent III was one of the Conti popes.

Sun/Moon Analogy“Now just as the moon derives its light from the sun and is indeed lower than it in quantity and quality, in position and in power, so too the royal power derives the splendor of its dignity from the pontifical authority” (Pope Innocent III to the nobles of Tuscany in 1198)

Ratione PeccatiLiterally translated as “reason of sin,” the church was entitled through the permission of the pope, to involve itself in state affairs when there were sinful actions taking place. Sin was always involved in war, and this way, the church was always involved in war as well. The church created a feudal relationship between


itself and secular powers. Kings, princes, and nobility formed the vassal class in the feudal relationship, and were subordinate to the church (the lord). The church had already created such relationships between itself and the HRE, England, Sweden, Denmark, Jerusalem, Constantinople (until 1267), and various other regions.

Fourth Lateran Council (1215)This council lasted only three weeks and can be argued to be the most important council in the history of the Catholic Church. Over 1200 representatives were present, including over 400 important bishops, over 800 abbots and priors, and various representatives from important states. Pope Innocent III called the council with all issues solved on his own. There was no argumentation or debate and the council was only a formality in the matter of approval. All of the loose strands of the church were brought together. The seven sacraments were defined and were needed to receive grace – the church was a necessary intermediary. It was necessary to confess and receive the Eucharist at least once a year. Approval of relics, sainthood, and new monastic orders had to be approved through Rome. Priests were no longer allowed to participate in Germanic trials such as ordeal, and all priests must properly be invested. Innocent III was an advocate of Roman law and the Fourth Lateran Council showed how the church was trying to replicate Roman imperial rule – centralized and one-man rule.

Canon 68All non-Christians must wear distinctive garb. In the case of Jews in the Rhineland region, they were forced to wear yellow badges. This canon heightened anti-Semitism in Europe, though this was never Innocent’s intent.

Medieval UniversitiesMonastic SchoolsThese schools were mostly located in the countryside because monks were usually secluded people who tended to retreat from society and the cities. These schools were in monasteries, and though they were open to non-monks, most students were interested in a monastic life

Municipal Schools


During the 11th and 12th centuries in Northern Italy, these schools were semi-secular. Often times, these schools led to the growth of universities in southern Europe.

Cathedral SchoolsThese schools were located in northern cities and were run outside of Cathedrals by bishops. This was the basis of northern universities.

UniversitasTranslated as “association” or “corporation,” this word usually referred to the collection of any type of guild – for example: carpenters. Later on, this was used to describe collections of students (student guilds). These student collections were formed because of their economic power in cities. Prices for foreign or traveling students were higher and therefore they needed to form a collective.

University of BolognaThis university is located in Northern Italy and is the model for future universities in Southern Europe. Students traveled from all over to come and listen to lectures on law as Roman law was having a revival. The students here were often times older because they already had a basic liberal arts education. Law was the focus at this university because with the economic renaissance of the time, law became important. All classes were held in Latin. The student requirements were as follows:

Literacy in Latin (reading and writing) Male Need to be able pay (middle class and lower aristocracy)

The students in southern universities had more power over their instructors or masters. The school calendar was 7 hours per day, 6 days per week, and 11 months per year.

University of ParisThis university was the basic model for all northern European universities as well as American universities. It evolved out of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. It was supported by both the secular state and church, and students took minor orders in the church. They swore oaths of celibacy. The benefit of their church office was that they were able to avoid certain fees and military services. Most students here were undergraduates at the faculty of arts.

Faculties


A faculty is a division or portion of a university – similar to a department. To be called a university, there must be at least one upper level faculty (law, medicine, theology).

Artsthis division of education was specifically for undergraduate students (usually around the age of 15). It took 5 to 6 years to complete the study and at the end, students would receive a bachelor degree.

LawThis was the most popular division. It was also one of the upper level divisions. It took around 6 years to complete this field of study, and at the end, the student would receive a PhD.

Medicinethis division was second popular in the upper level section and took 8 years to complete.

Theologythis was the least popular and most difficult course of study to complete, for it took 12 years to receive a PhD.

ChancellorThe Chancellor was the head of the office of chancery in the Cathedral. This office was in charge for official documents (made official by the official seal). This ecclesiastical figure issued the degrees at the University of Paris. In modern universities today, occasionally the chancellor will be called a “rector.”

Benefit of ClergyStudents at the University of Paris were awarded the status of a clergyman when they entered the university. The students were given church offices and were able to gain mobility in the church. Penalties in the ecclesiastical court were less harsh than those in civil court.

Robert de Sorbon (c. 1258)From the upper nobility, Robert was chaplain to the king. He took a piece of property from the area of the university and donated a building to theology students to live in rent-free. This was the establishment of the first college. Students put together in one building became very popular and proliferated through all universities. Students were more easily supervised in these conditions.

Peter Abelard (d. 1142)


He was the most famous of all university masters and was the most popular among students. He was very young and taught in an unconventional manner. Many masters disliked him for his popularity and often pushed him out of universities because of his monopoly over students. He turned to tutoring.

Historia CalamitatumThis was the second known autobiography in history written by Peter Abelard. In it he discussed the calamities of his life. The following is a specific story he recounts:

HeloiseShe was the niece of the priest of Notre Dame in Paris. She was very intellectual, but because she was a woman, was unable to learn at a university. Her uncle hired Peter Abelard to tutor her. Soon after, she became pregnant and had to secretly marry Abelard – for he was a clergyman and sworn to celibacy. Abelard was castrated by four of her uncle’s henchmen and retreated to a monastery.


Documents

eportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edueportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edu/.../2013/03/Middle-Ages-Classnotes.do… · Web viewMarina Nebro Professor John O’Brien. History 100 – History of the