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Psychological ProcessesReciprocal DeterminismCultural-Historical Theory
Social Issues and Conflicts Early Language Development
Noam Chomsky
Creator: Albert Bandura
Reciprocal Determinism: The world and a person’s behavior cause each other.
Both Environment and behavior cause each other.
Personality is viewed as an interaction among three elements:
Environment Behavior Person’s Psychological Process
Psychological processes consist of our ability to: Entertain images in our minds.
Images prohibit Bandura from being a strict behaviorist Language comprehension.
Imagery and Language allow Bandura to theorize much more than B. F. Skinner about two key concepts: Observational Learning (Modeling) Self-Regulation
Bobo Doll Studies: Film-
Adult beating up a bobo doll. Inflatable, egg-shaped balloon creature with a weight in the bottom that
makes it bob back up when you knock it down. The adult:
Punched the clown, shouting “sockeroo!,” Kicked it. Sat on it. Hit it with a little hammer. Shouted various aggressive phrases.
Presented to groups of kindergartners. Afterwards they were allowed to play. Inside the playroom:
Bobo doll. Hammers.
Observed Behavior: Kids beat the bobo doll. They punched it and shouted:
“sockeroo” Kicked it. Sat on it. Hit it with the hammers. They imitated the young lady in the film. __________________________________________Social Learning Theory: Children changed their behavior without first being
rewarded for approximations to that behavior!
Modeling Process:
Attention: Have to be paying attention. Anything that disrupts attention will decrease learning. Pay more attention to models that are:
Attractive Prestigious Colorful Dramatic Appears competent
Retention: Must be able to retain what you have paid attention to. Imagery and language:
We store what we have seen the model doing in the form of mental images or verbal descriptions.
Once stored-You can later “bring up” the image or description, so that you can reproduce it with your own behavior.
Reproduction: Must translate the images or descriptions into actual behavior. Have to have the ability to reproduce the behavior. Example:
“I can watch Olympic ice skaters all day long, yet not be able to reproduce
their jumps, because I can’t ice skate at all!” If I could skate, my performance would in fact improve if I watch
skaters who are better than I am. Our abilities improve even when we just imagine ourselves
performing!
Motivation: Must be motivated to produce the behavior. Potential motives:
Past Reinforcement (Traditional behaviorism) Promised Reinforcements (Incentives) Vicarious Reinforcement (Seeing and recalling the model being
reinforced)
14 million children are at risk: Locations of lead deposits-
Older homes Gasoline Ceramics Lead-soldered pipes Dust and water Areas near large cities Areas near automobile traffic Older Playgrounds
Low SES children are at the highest risk. Most hazardous health threat to children under the age of 6. Even very small amounts can permanently harm children.
Exposure to lead can lead to: Low Levels-
Lower intelligence Problems in verbal and auditory processing Hyperactivity and distractibility
High Levels- Antisocial behavior, aggression, delinquency
Very High Levels- Illness and death
Remember- Training should begin only when the child is ready. Even though they are toilet trained during the day does not mean they
are ready to hold it in during the night. Children often still have accidents at night.
Signs your child might be ready to toilet train: Staying dry for at least two hours at a time during the day. Waking up from naps dry. Predictable bowel movements. Telling you they are about to go. Facial expressions depicting their intent to go or that they are presently going. Major discomfort with soiled diapers. Desire to wear underwear.
Preference for handedness begins early: Handedness is inborn-
Nothing you can do to make them prefer one hand over the other.
Preschoolers- 90% right handed 10% left handed More boys are left handed than girls.
Emotions: Feelings occurring when in a state or interaction with
something that is important to the person; stronger if well-being is involved
Emotions vary in intensity from subtle to dramatic Darwin: human facial expressions are innate
Emotions linked to early development of: Limbic system Brain stem
Neurobiological systems can exert more control over limbic system as child’s self-control develops
Caregivers influence infant’s neurological development and regulation of emotions Emotions are first form of communication Infants react to others’ facial expressions, tone of
voice, emotions First form of attachment is emotion-linked Two broad types of emotions develop:
Primary: appear in first 6 months of life Self-conscious: appear from about
age 1.5 years to about 2.5 years
Primary Emotions
3 months
2 to 6 months
First 6 months
6 to 8 months
Joy, sadness, disgust
Anger
Surprise
Fear (peaks at 18 months)
Self-Conscious Emotions
1 ½ years
2 ½ years
Empathy, jealousy, embarrassment
Pride, shame, guilt
The First Appearance of Different Emotions
Most important ways of communicating in the youngest infants are crying and smiling
Stranger anxiety involving fear First appears about 6 months of age Intensifies about 9 months of age, escalating past
the 1st birthday
Intensity of anxiety depends on Proximity of mother Where stranger meeting occurs Stranger’s behavior
Defined: Perception of oneself as male or female. Concept of gender begins in preschool.
Gender Schema: Cognitive framework that organizes information
relevant to the gender to aide them in this process. Boys act this way and girls act that way.
Functional Play: Play that involves simple, repetitive
activities typical of 3-year-olds.
Constructive Play: Play in which children manipulate objects
to produce or build something.
Parallel Play: Action in which children play with similar toys, in a
similar manner, but do not interact with each other.
Onlooker Play: Action in which children simply watch others at
play, but do not actually participate themselves.
Associative Play: Two or more children actually interact with one
another by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they do not do the same thing.
Cooperative Play: Play in which children genuinely interact with one
another, taking turns, playing games, or devising contests.
Authoritarian Parents: Parents who are controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold, and whose word is law.
Value strict, unquestioning obedience from their children Do not tolerate expressions of disagreement.
Permissive Parents: Parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their
children.
Authoritative Parents: Parents who are firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but who try to
reason with their children, giving explanations for why they should behave in a particular way.
Uninvolved Parents: Parents who show almost no interest in their children and indifferent,
rejecting behavior.
Wild or feral children are raised in isolation and unable to recapture normal language development despite intensive intervention later For example:
Victor, Wild Boy of Aveyron
Genie: 13-year-old found in 1970 in Los Angeles
Both cases raise questions about biological and environmental determinants of language
Language is a system of words, symbols, and gestures that create shared communication that transcends time (future, present, and past)
Language develops in infants throughout the world along a similar path and sequence. Infant’s ability to recognize native
language, for English speakers this includes distinguishing “r” from “t”
On average, a child: Understands about 50 words at age 13 months Speaks first word at 10–15 months of age Can speak about 50 words at 18 months of age
Average 2-year-old can speak about 200 words
Vocabulary spurt begins at approximately 18 months of age
Two-word utterances occur at about
18–24 months
Overextension and underextension of
words are common
Defined: The systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which
provides the basis for communication.
Noam Chomsky: Language-Acquisition Device (LAD)
Explains language use and development. LAD is a neural system of the brain that permits
understanding of language. Developed the concept of morphemes and
phonemes.
Phonology: Basic sounds of language (phonemes) that can be combined to
produce words and sentences. The English language uses 40 phonemes to create our language.
Morphemes: Smallest language unit that has meaning. Some are complete words while others are added to complete a
word.
Semantics: Rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences. If a sentence is correctly written or spoken it is said to be
semantically correct. Many scientists believe that the ability to form complex speech is a
uniquely human characteristic and is what separates us from the other animals.
It is because of our speech that we are able to ask such higher-order thinking questions like:
“What is mortality, Is there a God, Is there a life after death, Are there other beings in the universe?”
Babbling: Making speech-like but meaningless sounds. Through repetition and brain growth human language begins to
form and become meaningful.
Holophrases: One-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase. Their meaning depends on the particular context in which they
are used. “Ball” means = “I want to play with the ball”
Telegraphich Speech: Speech in which words not critical to the message are left out. “Play ball” means = “I want to play with the ball”
Underextension: Overly restrictive use of words, common among children just
mastering spoken language. “Ball” means = Just that one ball Not all the different types of balls and all the balls in the world.
Overextension: Overly broad use of words, over-generalizing their meaning. When a child thinks of a bird, she is thinking of all flying things from
planes, to helicopters, to vultures, to kites.
Styles of Language:
Referential Style: Style of language used to label objects.
Expressive style: Style of language used to express feelings.
Birth Crying
1 to 2 months Cooing begins
6 months Babbling begins
8 to 12 months Use of gestures (showing and pointing); comprehension of words appears
10–15 months First word spoken
18 months Vocabulary spurts starts
18 to 24 months
Use of two-word utterances; rapid expansion of understanding of words
Language MilestonesAge
Some Language Milestones in Infancy
There is evidence that : Language has a biological basis Everyone “knows” its rules and has ability to
create infinite numbers of words and sentences
Specific regions of the brain are predisposed to be used for language. Broca’s Area Wernicke’s Area
Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area
Broca’s Area
Wernicke’s Area
14 16 18 20 22 24 2612
Infant’s age (months)
0
400
600
800
200
Infa
nt’
s vo
cab
ula
ry s
ize
(wo
rds)
Level of Maternal Speech and Infant Vocabulary
Mother’s level of speech
High
Medium
Low
Learning Theory Approach: Language acquisition follows the basic laws of
reinforcement and conditioning. Modeling. Positive and negative reinforcement. Punishment and Rewards.
Nativist Approach: There is an innate part of our physiology that allows
us to form speech. We will learn language with or without other people
present.