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pocummir RESUME 6,

ED 113 229 - SO 008 599

..AUTHOR Du Terroil, AnnaTITLE. Museum Education: Recen Trends in Learning

Environments. ',..

-dPONS.A.GENCY Texas Univ., San Antoni .

PUB DATE. 75.NOTE 20p4

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 Ht-$1.58 Plus Postagee.:,..DESCRIPTORS Community Education; Educational Facilities;

*Educational Programs;, Educational FoesearCh; .,4) *Extibits; *Learning Theories*Literature Reviews;

*MuseUms; School, Role; Visual Learning

ABSTRACTThe role. of museums in educational programs is

described in this Study and literature review. It collects,describes, and evaluates the museum's acceltanceeuse, and impact of

1 study reports that most museums can give only a portion of theirpsychological learning theories within educational prOgrams. The

space 'and imagination to educational programs. Thfoughout the °

literature review, a number of guiding principles point outpsychological learning,theories which museums use to provideexceptional learning experiences within their own institutions. Theguiding.principles which museums use-include (1) the recognitian of

relevancy between museum visits and school experiences; (2) the use

of visual objects as perceptual materials to.reinforce learning; (3)

the promotion of Otivity, discovery, 4nd inquiry as usefultechniquei in deyeloPing and refining discriminatory skills; (4) the

acceptance and utiliAtion of organized experiences' which facilitatelearning and retrieval; and (5) the-iecognition of the value ofstimuli and feedback as. art of an exhibit to enable visitors to *

"rfespond and attend to the exhibit as'a learning experience.(Author/JR)

***********************************************************************Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished

* materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes every effort ** to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal--** reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality *

* af the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available *

* via the ERIC ocument leproducti n Service (EDRS). EDRS is not *

* responsible fa the- equality of th original, document. Reproductions ** supplied by EDRS are the best thi can be made from the original.. *

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U.S DE PARTMENTOF HEALTH.EDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS PEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE

SENT OFFICIAL NATIONACINSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY.

MUSEUM EDUCATION: RECENT TRENDS- IN 'LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS'

4

S

`Anne Du TeiniDil,

U. T. S. A.-

Summer II, 1975

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MUSEUM EDUCATION: RECENT TRENDS IN LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS'. = .

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I. IntrodUction .61.. _

.

- *The basib principle which a rpsearcher-mustdetermine,. . ,

rolewhen bonsidering:a museum study is'the of the museum,

in a democratic,society. . In the base of this investigat4 Non, .

. . c; .-

the museuml,s edUcational function, namely its organized.. , .,

.

.educational programs *ill be considered as one of the most 1i

vital aspects in which the museum can test _fulfill its rote 4

in popular education. The purpose of this.stud be'to'

collect,,describe; and evaluate the museum's acceptanceand

use of psychological learning theories within their own edu-

cational programs. For, museums are -continually in the pro-,

cess'Of devel4ing educationalarograms which will give rise /

to,inteilectually stimulating museum visits, incr9ased return

visits, greater appreciation of the museum's 'role as bn educe=

tional experience, and improved relations between the museum

and the community.4

Leonard'Carmicilael has clarified the relationship between

the miseum and the community it serves by explaining that,:

"In the broadest.coricekt of education,' the museum has an essen-

tial role to play ,in the transmission to each new generation

of all that is'meant by civilization." (°beighton, 1971, p.4.22)

In a strict sense, this cultural transmission focuses on visual

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educationl. i,fo

objecis preserved within it are the tangi-/ ":*

ble evid6nce of..man's history, of his oreativityl.and. of the

'I 4014404,.1415qqttof the world he inhabits. But an object's

=*-

worth :24WWmessured not only by its beauty, but also in

, -.pro o."Its use. To extend the usefulness of these

0"c,4lected Objeets-to the society which is supporting the

. r

. t -inttitutiim th04-becomes a, primary goal of%the museum, arid,.

h 'by extension, one of the guiding objectives of its educational-..

services -.

As "a graduate student who had completed three field0

study: projects in a museum, this writer had an opportunity

.to observe the museum' s educational program which reached the

greatest number of visitors; namely st*Idents. rt became quite4

,clear that ;mo "s "t museums can give; bnly-1 portion of their time,

space, and imagination to educational programs, and the impor-

tent consideration of this investigation is the realization,

that if an educational program has, to be brief, it had better

be good. Since the museum has maintained its image of scho-;

larly %conservatism, it is of considerable value-to survey

educatiOnal literature in order to determine what impact

the psychological learning theories of then last fifteen years -

have made on museum education,

It should be pointed out that Withip -the museum, there

are two main target groups involved in instruction, docent%

ghidesand teacher-guides. A, docent guide is a .non -paid

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-individual who completes a'irainingargm within the museum

and is then allowed to conduct tours for Visitors. A teacher

guide is the individual'who is the' regular teacher' of a visi-

,

ting group of students and who may or'mayllot haite special

.

academic training regarding-.the specific. exhibits to be toured:

Therefore, this study will focus'on the various ypes- of

;4 'treatments advocated bymuseums and carried out by-(the guides

in. order to imIllement the educational services.

Anothen indispensable service of the museum is its out-,.

reach-program to the community chools. The association

which the museum attempts to establish with its own area0

schools will also be analyzed in terms of specific facilities

and services offered.

II. Literature

- Today educationa16psychologists stress the importance of

verbalization and perceptual skills.' Visuar aids are a means

of helping.children to see contihuity, relationships,, useful- -/,

ness and enjoyment in the subjects 'they study. In this case.,.

museums are a most unique source of visual education. They

offer contact with authentic, three-dimensional objects and

offer students an opportunity "to: practice and/or further .

refine -their perceptual skills. (Wittlin, 1949 The object

itself provides a strong stimulation to the learnerts,zenSe.

organs and facilitates the focusing of attention sd thatr

learningMay follow. (Morris, 1973) The use of conarbte

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materials°and their relationship eO the psychology..of"learning,.

applyparticularly"to" the meaningful performance of "verWi.-.

zation," in that the use of the threeL.dimensiohal object, in

conjunction with verbal coding, should facilitate comprehen-

sion and assimilation of the information experienced daring a

museum visit.,

Alma S. Wittrin (Larrabee, 196Q) his poirited out Ahat in

a...museum, attention is not enforced, or.reihforced, by extra-

neous rewards in thefbrm ofgrades Or credits,, or "by poten-

tial success in a cofipetitive game: 'The'reward can only be .

an intrinsic part of the experience itself. Smith (1971, p.,201)-

also comments on'internal rewards, one .earns in a

certain way under conditions that are reasonably interesting,

. dchallenging., an-ct rewarding, then-one learns to like to learn\

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0.undel similar conditions and to learn in general:" Wd.ttlin. . \ ,

then proceeds to describe exhibits which would provide the\

necessary stimuli to alert and hold the, attention of.

the \1

t I \

viewer by providing stimuli in the, form of novelty, complexity;

visual appeal,'and inquiry by posing challenging questions to

0

,the viewer.- 'PsYchologistsv

have determined' that novelty pro-.

\- vides a strong stimulus to the learner and, in conjunction with

complexity, which presents greater information, the learner is. .

more likely to attend for a longer period cof time,, .to thb.infor-

.mation being.presented. (Travers, 1972, pp. 237-238) Accor7

Oingly then, museum exhibits. should be ,planned zystemat4-1'yO

because the degree of the' 'organization or structure of a communi-k

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cation is an index of the amount of .information it supplies.

In examining an exhibit,-the viewer 'is sorting out.impress-

Cons andthe communicationwhich is most systematized has the

best chances of being received, recorded by the mind, and of

remaining retrievable. these explanatory cdmmtnts, Wittlin

has made reference to numerous psychological learning theories:

and if these guidelines are wrsued by exhibit organizers,

then the quality of the learning experience afforded by the-

exhibit would be greatly enhanced.

In thy early sixties, Museum News explored the subject

of the "widening gap" in the rtlationship between museum,

the public'schoolt the university and the .community. (Reese.,

1962) ApparentlY,__this_nelationship-ya-sa concerno-fmany

o persons in the-museum field, and a series of articles related,

to thisproblem were' published, not only in Museum News, but`m-

in educational journals throughout thel,sixties.

Two research studies (Barton 1974) .(Mason, 1974) Which

dealt with deterTining museum needs by recording attendance

and type of visitor, clearly concluded that the largest:per-.

centageof visitors was students of various age levels. The

asgessmdnt made by these two studies (the importance of fulfill-,

ingstudent needs) is clearly reflected in five other studies

which directed ettentionsto improving the school-museum rale-.

-tionship by promoting the use of the .museum for teaching

purpose's, 1W4) (Hayed, 1967) 1960 1Rebettz,

1970) (Reese, 1962) The Hcayes report, the only browd. suryey,n

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reflected:some important neghtive conclusions from inter-..views With fifty7seven different 8)0-museum officials. 'In

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general, the schpb1 visitors. were, at best, tolerated, few4.

'exhibits were especially designed for school 'use, and the

regular teacher-.guide was too ill- trained to provide an

effective tour.. . .

Recently; two_ studies have concentrated on measuring

the quO.ity of the museum visit itself, with'emphasis*on

.. . .

guided. tour techniques. (Chen, 1974) (Rabinowitz., 1973) The

Chen .study wasa well-controlled experimental design, using. .

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ob'servati'on techniques in order to.understand better the,

3

nature .of children's experiences in difterent'museuesettings.

The'Rebinowitz study investigated.theuse of. new educational

techniques which apply to museum teaching (by docentS), hudh

as en interdisciplinary approach, open classrooms, community

and career oriented education,. and themgtic' pnd conceptugl

.F0,

approaches for tours. During tours emphasis was placed.on

stimulating the group's own inquiry and a belief the active

involvement of children in 'the learning process later resulted

in farming, textile,. and cocking studios. Activity' centered

behavior is in keeping with Piaget's beliefs that '!...children's

0ability, to deal with the broad concepts, of space; time, matter

and causality depends on'learning that develops slowly from the

children's dArect sensory experiences.° (Victor,"1974, p. 2S)

J9rom Bruner algo promotes inquiry learning and rists.kour

major benefits; it enables children tq learn .8 yariety,of

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probl solving techniques; *the learning itself' becomes self- .

. A.. 44

eWrdin transfer of tp.p. inquiry tachnique can.applf.to many1 .

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-new tasks; and. It is an aid to memory processing: (Victor," 1974`).... .

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In the. psit, hOweyer, museums have conducted comprehen- '

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sive research programs designed to discover'methods for making.-- .

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museums of ill-kinds into more= effective educational `centers.0 ----__

Three .such museums werethe Buffalo Museum of Science, tiler .

-,ez .,_

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tlilweUkee,Public Museum, and -tile Cleveland Museum of Art..

These studies-, (Melton--; 1936) (Bloomberg, 1929) and2(qcreven4-.

,

1.9710) reflect the. realization that the museum°has a unique

A .

contribution to make, and IpvestiAete,the,;4ays in which this-a

c-ontributitn-c-ah--b-e--MOst,

The MeltOn study (1936) Considered thiee methods of.

instruction for visiting student groups. The customary pro-.

cedure was%to use an' `illustrated lecture with."the museum

exhibits as the illustrative material, and EC"docent'lectdping

on each exhibit. One variation from this technique was the

use Of game cards with questions in place of docent lectures

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in which, the students ould, discover the answers perely by.

looking at the exhibits, by reading some of-the e:khibit

labels. A second Veriatio was a technique called "disOissiOn

in which the docent Posed a lading question. regarding

exhibit to. create an active attitude toward the exhibit. Of

these three methods, the game card technique resulted in

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highly motivated investigation on the part of, the students,

in.direpting attention of thawstuden s toward pertinent

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ocloos".

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fitts and reletionshipS, and in making. maximum use of the

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visual materials. "AcCording td'Ellis (1969, p. 71)' the. .

transfer of learning iv faciliteted-by labeling or identifying

the important features of-iftask. These Ofdelines'help the.

'''learner -distinguish the important features of the task, but,

,

_at th*,..b me time reduce, the level of incidental learning..

..

1972;. 131 254)

aThere' were also two other important variations in the

study. During the first part of the-irivestigationrthe

students attended the,museum without having had, any prepare-4,

.tion schools,, except for abrief thirty minute lecture.

at the museum before the tour. lister in the study, the

Students were given preparation, a reading lesson with illus-

trative-material Snd.a test', usuplly one day before the mus3um

visit." 'After the tours, the.principal ideas presented during.

the visit were summarized in an, illustrated lecture, for on

the basis of educational learning evidence at the time, it

Uas known that some form of explicit review aided in fixating, 1 .

an prolonging the effects of the' museum Visit,,Vhichwas-. t .

measured and further hxated bythe use of iriformatiod tests.

CI, In summary, then, this' investigation rellected'ihat the, cm-,

e, bination of procedures whidh brought about .maximum learning

was the:game card echnique'before which students would have/ .

had a preparatory lesson at their respective schools,.and11

theme summary' lecture to focus an principal ideas consi-

dered during the tour These procedures reflAt numerous

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t.°ebucatiohel learning theort the activitir-ox:iented method

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',preferred byliagetr'the preparption of ttle learner by pro- :t...4

t..

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d'Iiiding a. framework df information onwhieh to. attach new .

. A .

.visual information,-and.a review Of the prino4ples of the'

.... . ,

,

,

,

,..It-presentation which enabled the learner'to again concentrate

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on-the.most zeneral and most releManp aspects of .the tour,:..

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;The Bloomberg study 11929)aused combinations of nUMAious----... ,.......

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te-ohni-que-s-:,:tea-cher-presentaton-ofall-mat4rial,,_quettions..

.and invesiigation,'Antroduction tb gallery experience'by, L

- .41-.

idies'and lecture, and-. the, .

\ .0 . .---, 1..- :

e

museum visit. SUUh

ggestiOnS offered by tts investigation... p,--- ,

% '10. m 0

were the need td*use: lees instrpction on:the parkof the:. .

teacher and more investigation ph the par . the students---'4.

increased motivation and- active tidipation on the Part of ")"--

tie Atudent.s to etimdl4

learning,...-rpreparation;;in the sqlool

room before the-museum visit which the investigatOr related,

to thelaceTof Preservetion (the tendency'aof.'a certain%quataitye

.

. . . ,

,-.-- 1."

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of nerve tissue to hold impreseiona automaticallymuchlonger.

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than others) for children of high intelligence who sborea./ .

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unuitially.high on aelayed recall- tests. The Investigatem. -

also correlated the remarkable recall scores as anoindi- 4

a0 cl._ ,4 -=-1.:.. . ..

cation off the value of the, use of visufirl'instructidewythe

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museum, In perieral,4then, BloOmberg achiemed more significant. 3

t, ' 4 5. 0-. -_,_rgsults when the students,yere alldwed to ihvestigate.and

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discover on their own, with little teacher interference=--. N. .

when they were motivateayd'itimulated tb search for infor-

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mlitiOn---and Oren they were pr4ared.b.4ore the mudeum visit.,

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i with 9,1esson at:. .school. Apparently the fact that the museum4 . ..

,. .. . r

'visit directly related-to previously learned'materiel added,, .

to its significalce and Garry (1970, 'Ii. 408) has indicated. .

.r

s.

t

t that ,retention is .pided by' the meaningfulness of the material

_ __1(ornad_and the ._degree to, Which it is related to earlier

learning. This preparatory lesson apparently provided a set

of cues.which were later used by the yisitor during the.tour;

it 'heliad,organize and structure ,thee inforMation.

fin the Mil aukee4Public Museum study, Screven (19:70).

acknowledged that.,moit museum displays are designed to reflect

6.

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sOholarly,acuracy, but with little Eittentionto whether t?, \ ,,.,

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vidiktolgh respond to displays in ways that are related to their--..-. ,... q .

instructional' obje.9tivei. Furthermore', peelthibitsare put.-,..._

. . ,, . . , .

,

tozether without specific learnirig outcomes in mind, without',,-

.,..,.

a.definition.tf communication Objectives orwaya wring'. , , -

.,.

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visitor'perforMarice.:*Screven OecificallY refers to tuggez-, . ' t. .. .

..< tions'by Skinner,:glaser and,Reynolds to cowe4et these defi-.

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,Eiericips through the df programmed instruction printi-0

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pies, interactive e

deviCes to help:tie0.

lectronic.deVices and automatedtesting, ,.

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visitor utilize the pp.tentials of. the..

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;museum as ahoieti freeLeocess lthrning environment. In, , .

Dthe investigation, the 'museum used ,exhibits with It punch-

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-board to answer.programmedquestion's doordihaed with'an .

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audio casstttel'exhioits with/no,-feeatiack pretests end

out supportive aidspandtxhibitswith no pre-test_nor

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upportive aids to provide guidelinei:for studying the exhibit.

Results on post-tests indicated tht the audio with punchboard

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was most effective in facilitating recall, even the no-feed-.

back gre-tests were productive in that.cues were provided for

visitor investigation; ihdifinally, the exhibit without any

structured guidelines produced the least learning. All of

these yethods,and techniqu\s,support learning principles

which emphasize the use of anized cues around which the

learner can cluster newt inform tion, as well as the use of

providing correct answers as reinforcement during the learning

procedure. Mathis (1970, p. 122) lits explained that the

.-critical variable in learning may be the amount of time,

spent_in_learn:ing-i---InthrS'aifie, motivation or stimulation

helps, but the-actual manipulation of `the machine for pro-

gramped instruction may itself be rewarding, and may 'keep

1 the learner at the machine for a longer time than might

normally be devoted, in the museum's case, to reading label.s.

'Three' other infornial articles dealing with learning hp

techniques in the museum, (Wood, 1974). (Fialkoff, 1974) A'

(McGlathery, 197j) further emphasized the use of active,

,

,vestigative learning procedures with visiting school group's,

,t

..2 Wood's recommendation was to extend the' museum's educational

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(function by establishing an art resource center-within the

ri-,---\ institution whe chIldreff and adults were encouraged to:::,

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er_

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actively involve themselves and experiment by =means- of six

art procesee. The art processes, with the cooperation of

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the area schools, were integrated into the school curriculum.

-and linked to the museum experiences., Garry (1970 p. 252)

emphasized that if the learner sees purpose in and has

knowledge of the value of the, task, more will be lea'rned

because a high level of 'motivation is established, for i abil7

ity to see value in learning tasks unfavorably affects ch 1-.0 0

drents-efforts to learn.

Pia1koff suggested using.a strategy (guidebopk) which

would lead visiting Students to focus attention upon relevant

exhibits, to discriminate the details of-thOse exhibits, and

to organize their experiences into big ideas which should be

, transferable to other museumexhibits. The-learning pro-

gedure involved preparation of the guidebook by the teacher

and then assisting the Students dgring'their active

gatiomat the museum. Use 'of this type of "guidebook" reflects

an important psychological learning principle that "organiza-

tion appears to be crucial in the transfer of information

from short-term,. to the long-term memory system;" ,furthermore,'

organizirig material, before presentation saves the learner the

time-consuming process of sorting and arrangi9g the inforMa-.

tion andmay make it"possible for the informatiOn to enter

--,:dir6dtiy into the long-term memory system: (Travers, 1972,

j). 140)

Finally, the McGlathery article emphasized the museum

visit as a relevant extension of the students' school exper-____

*iences _mbichshould be prepared --for by the individual tea-

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chers by familiarlzing themselves with the museum's exhibits,

planning a set of organized questions to- aid the students'

inquiry, and later providing a follow-up lesson which would

draw on the museum experiences. Travers (1922, p. 183r-ha

cautioned that; "...acquired knowledge tends to be most res-.

dily available to the person who has learned it in the situa-

tion in which it was acquired."' Therefore,- provision should

be made so that this knowledge will be used in a variety of

situations; in this case, the museum field trip."...can help

to prevent knoWledge and. its uses from becoming tied to parti..!

cular situations." (Travers, 1972, p. 183)

In these, three cases, the recommendations were to pro-

vide organized guidelines for visiting, groups, as well as

learning experiences in which the students were not just

simply listening to information, but 'actively involved in

visually scanning and discriminating the information Presented

in the exhibits. Gerhard (1971, p. 19) points out that "learn-.

ing is a search.for meaning," and that one learns by process -

ins. information, by analyzing, by generalizing and by ciassi-

fying. Furthermore, "thoughtful learning experiences" are

important in develOping the learner's thinking ability and

this skill has important long range effects in terms of recall

and future use for problem solving.

Regarding community out;,reach programs, museums in the

Detroit area have expanded:their educational functions to

include extensive loan services in the form of circulating

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_0_ collectionsp.distribution of publications, television shows,

and tours or, programs within the museum galleries. (Young, 1962)

,This interest in establishing a working relationship with area

Schools is further attested to by two additional 'articles

(Kirk,1964) ,(Mayer, 1974) which concluded-that coordination

between museum education and.the public schools was essential,

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in order to derive the maximum benefit from the museum learning

experiences. r.

124

III, Conclusion

Throughout th'isliterature review, there surface a number

to pLtych616gical learning theo-

ries which museums have utilized to provide exceptional l earning

experiences within their on institutions.

1. The,re'cognition of,relevancy between museum visits and school

experiences.

2. The use of visual objects as perceptual materials to

reinf9rc6

3: The promai5),of activity, discovery, and inquiry as useful

techniques in developing and refining discriminatory skills._.,

4. The acceptance' and utilization of organized experiences whichrt

facilitate learning and retrieval.

5. The use of reinforcement by offering pre-visit lessons and.__ ,

post-visit-summaries and related school experiences, '___

. _______"----------7 ---- ,,

i-6. The recognition of the value of stimuli and feedback as°

44

par-t- of an exhibit .to enable visitors to respond and attend

to the exhibit as a learhing experience.

obois

The evidence-reflected_in.Ihi_investigation indic

that, at least, in .numerous isolated' instances, and, during

4.

certain years, these types of learning procedures, were, indeed,'

utilized -,by museums. Except for thelayes study (1967), no.

recent survey-f. -istt which characterizes present' educational

trends in museums., In feet": there'is.no_indication to what

degree any or these successful learning procedures are being

incorporated into museum educational: p ograms throughout the

nation. Many, museum visitors still conceptualize museum exper-

iences as passive, lacking in stimulation, and uninformative,

except for brief lapeling. This' reflection of elitism still

exists in many museums that cater to the scholarly specialist,

.the person who lready-comprehends-the signifie-ance of the

objects exhibited within the museum:Pop the general public,

however, the object without effective communication will fail

to generate a high level of curiosity, investigatimior learn-,

ing. During the last ten years, there hos been afposAive indi-

cation that museologists .are gradually recognizing the educa-

tion department as one of the museum's strongest ties to the .

community. Although the education department may not support`

itself financially, and drains fundtt from other programs, the

dilethma is not easily resolved. BUt the museum CannotI

exist as

an_islandT-some-bri-dge must-156-fb-Und to the community.from whicho

it receives its major support, and what better bridge than to

provide meaningful educational experiences for the greatest

number of Visitors: the community's students.

I I I

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BIBLIbPRAPHY

0

. . . .

Barton, K. Recording attendance at Portsmouth City Museums:

. the method and its, effect. Museums Journal, March 197,4,

73: .167 -168. ''

BloOmberg, M. An. Experimentin Museum Instruction. AmericanAssociation of, Museums, ,Washington, D.C. 1929. 36 -pli--

ED 044 9211

/

..,,

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