Alcohol

Structure of Ethanol

Alcohol may be the world's oldest known drug. Fermented grain, fruit juice and honey have been used to make alcohol (ethyl alcohol or ethanol) for thousands of years. The production of products containing alcohol has become big business in today's society and the consumption and abuse of alcohol has become a major public health problem. On this page, only the effects of alcohol on the brain and behavior will be discussed.

Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant. Factors that influence how alcohol will affect a person include:

1. age 2. gender 3. physical condition 4. amount of food eaten 5. other drugs or medicines taken

The Path of Alcohol in the Body

1. Mouth: alcohol enters the body. 2. Stomach: some alcohol gets into the bloodstream in the stomach, but

most goes on to the small intestine. 3. Small Intestine: alcohol enters the bloodstream through the walls of the

small intestine. 4. Heart: pumps alcohol throughout the body. 5. Brain: alcohol reaches the brain. 6. Liver: alcohol is oxidized by the liver at a rate of about 0.5 oz per hour.

Alcohol is converted into water, carbon dioxide and energy.

In low doses,alcohol produces:

a relaxing effect

reduces tension

lowers inhibitions

impairs concentration

slows reflexes impairs

reaction time reduces

coordination

In medium doses,alcohol produces:

slur speech cause

drowsiness alter

emotions

In high doses, alcohol produces:

vomiting breathing difficulties unconsciousness coma

Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System

As mentioned above, alcohol is a central nervous system depressant. It acts at many sites, including the reticular formation, spinal cord, cerebellum and cerebral cortex, and on many neurotransmitter systems. Alcohol is a very small molecule and is soluble in "lipid" and water solutions. Because of these properties, alcohol gets into the bloodstream very easily and also crosses the blood brain barrier. Some of the neurochemical effects of alcohol are:

1. Increased turnover of norepinephrine and dopamine 2. Decreased transmission in acetylcholine systems 3. Increased transmission in GABA systems 4. Increased production of beta-endorphin in the hypothalamus

Chronic drinking can lead to dependence and addiction to alcohol and to additional neurological problems. Typical symptoms of withholding alcohol from someone who is addicted to it are shaking (tremors), sleep problems and nausea. More severe withdrawal symptoms include hallucinations and even seizures.

Chronic alcohol use can:

Damage the frontal lobes of the brain Cause an overall reduction in brain size and increase in the size of the ventricles. Lead to alcoholism (addiction to alcohol) and result in tolerance to the effects of alcohol and

variety of health problems. Cause a vitamin deficiency. Because the digestion system of alcoholics is unable to absorb

vitamin B-1 (thiamine), a syndrome known as "Wernicke's Encephalopathy" may develop. This syndrome is characterized by impaired memory, confusion and lack of coordination. Further deficiencies of thiamine can lead to "Korsakoff's Syndrome". This disorder is characterized by amnesia, apathy and disorientation. Widespread disease of the brain is a feature of both Wernicke's and Korsakoff's Syndromes.

Barbiturates

What are Barbiturates?

The hustle and bustle of everyday life creates stress in many people. To reduce stress, some people turn to drugs to bring back a feeling of calm. Alcohol is one drug people use to deal with stress; another class of drugs is called the "barbiturates." These drugs act to depress the central nervous system and are often called sleeping pills.

The first barbiturates were made in the 1860s by the Bayer laboratories in Germany. In 1903, the first barbiturate ("barbital") was used in medical practices. In 1912, a common barbiturate, Phenobarbital, was introduced.

There are many different types of barbiturates. The names of some common ones (and brand names) include Pentobarbital (Nembutal), Secobarbital (Seconal), Amobarbital (Amytal) and Phenobarbital (Luminal); slang names for these barbiturates include yellow jackets, reds, blues, Amy's, and rainbows.

Barbiturates have been used extensively in the past as sedatives. However, barbiturates are still used to treat some types of epilepsy.

BarbituratesImage courtesy

of theIndiana

Prevention Resource Center

BarbituratesImage courtesy of

theIndiana

Prevention Resource Center

Behavioral Effects of Barbiturates

Barbiturates have several effects on behavior depending on the dose:

In low doses: barbiturates reduce anxiety; reduce respiration, reduce blood pressure, reduce heart rate and reduce rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. In higher doses: barbiturates can actually increase some types of behavior and act like a stimulant. These effects may be caused by depression of inhibitory brain circuits. In other words, barbiturates at these doses act to remove inhibitory behavior.

Barbiturates can lead to excessive sedation and cause anesthesia, coma and even death. Barbiturate overdoses may occur because the effective dose of the drug is not too far away from the lethal dose.

A major problem with barbiturates is that they may lead to tolerance and dependence. Tolerance occurs when a greater and greater amount of the drug is required to get the desired effect. For example, if barbiturates are used to help a person sleep, over time, a greater dose of the drug will be needed to get the person to sleep. Dependence occurs when a person feels like he or she must use the drug and withdrawal symptoms occur when the person stops using the drug.

Withdrawal symptoms that occur when people try to "kick the habit" of using barbiturates include:

anxiety insomnia seizures nausea, stomach problems hallucinations

Effects of Barbiturates on the Brain

Barbiturates dissolve easily in fat. Therefore, barbiturates have ready access to the brain because they can cross the blood brain barrier easily. Also, because barbiturates dissolve into body fat, they can accumulate and re-enter the blood stream later. Different barbiturates clear out of the blood stream at different rates.

Although the exact mechanisms by which barbiturates affect the brain are not understood, it is thought that these drugs bind to sodium channels on neurons and prevent the flow of sodium ions. Because sodium ions cannot flow across the neuronal membrane, action potentials cannot be produced.

Barbiturates may also increase the flow of chloride ions across the neuronal membrane. This may occur through binding to the receptor for the neurotransmitter called GABA. The increased chloride ion flow reduces the chance that an action potential will be generated.

Did you know?

The barbiturate called sodium pentothal is known as "truth serum." However, it really does NOT cause people to tell the truth. Rather, it may lower a person's inhibitions and make people more talkative.

Musician Jimi Hendrix died on September 18, 1970 of a barbiturate overdose.

Cocaine

Coca Leaf

From the plant called Erythroxylon coca, cocaine is a local anesthetic and central nervous system stimulant. It can be taken by chewing on coca leaves, smoked, inhaled ("snorted") or injected.

Coca Plant

History of Cocaine

Early Spanish explorers noticed how the native people of South America were able to fight off fatigue by chewing on coca leaves. A medical account of the coca plant was published in 1569. In 1860, Albert Neiman isolated cocaine from the coca leaf and described the anesthetic action of the drug when it was put on his tongue. Angelo Mariani, in the early 1880s produced a "medicinal" wine, called Vin Mariani, that contained 11% alcohol and 6.5 mg of cocaine in every ounce. The famous psychotherapist, Sigmund Freud, in 1884, recommended cocaine for a variety of illnesses and for alcohol and morphine addictions. Unfortunately, many of his patients went on to become addicted to cocaine! In 1886, John Pemberton developed Coca Cola, a drink that contained cocaine and caffeine. Cocaine was REMOVED from Coca Cola in 1906 (but it still has the caffeine). In 1985, crack cocaine was introduced and rapidly became a major drug problem.

Coca Wine

Crack

Effects of Cocaine on the Nervous System

A dose of between 25 to 150 mg of cocaine is taken when it is inhaled. Within a few seconds to a few minutes after it is taken, cocaine can cause:

a feeling of euphoria excitement reduced hunger a feeling of strength

Cocaine

After this "high" which lasts about one hour, users of cocaine may "crash" into a period of depression. This crash causes cocaine users to seek more cocaine to get out of this depression and results in addiction. Withdrawal from cocaine can cause the addict to feel depressed, anxious, and paranoid. The addict may then go into a period of exhaustion and they may sleep for a very long time.

Various doses of cocaine can also produce neurological and behavioral problems like:

dizziness headache movement problems anxiety insomnia depression hallucinations

Emergency Room Visits due to Cocaine and Heroin

Image courtesy of the Office of National Drug Control Policy

Death caused by too much cocaine (an overdose) is not uncommon. Cocaine can cause large increases in blood pressure that may result in bleeding within the brain. Constriction of brain blood vessels can also cause a stroke. An overdose of cocaine can cause breathing and heart problems that could result in death. Comedian John Belushi also died from a cocaine/heroin overdose in 1982.

Cocaine is highly "reinforcing": when it is given to animals, they will give it to themselves. In fact, if animals are given the choice, they will put up with electrical shocks and give up food and water if they can get cocaine.

Cocaine acts by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain. Therefore, these neurotransmitters stay in the synaptic cleft for a longer time. Research has also shown that cocaine can also cause the release of dopamine from neurons in the brain.

Heroin

HORSE - CRANK - JIVE - SMACK -JUNK - SHAG – DOPE

You can even spell it by its chemical name: diacetylmorphine. It doesn't matter which way you spell it, it still means HEROIN.

Heroin is an illegal opiate drug made from the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The opium poppy is a plant found in the Middle East, Southeast Asia and parts of Central and South America. To harvest opium, the seed pod of the poppy is cut and a juice flows out. The main ingredient that is extracted from raw opium is morphine. Morphine is easily converted to heroin by a chemical process.

Opium Harvest

Places where opium is produced (shown in red) Papaver somniferum

In 1973, scientists discovered that the brain had receptors for opiates. In other words, there are places on neurons that recognize opiates. These receptors were located in parts of the brain important for breathing, pain and emotions. The discovery of opiate receptors in the brain raised the question as to why neurons would have such receptors. Two years later, scientists found the answer: the brain manufactures its own opiates known as "endorphins." Endorphins are always in the brain, but they are released in greater amounts when people and animals are in pain or under stress.

History of the Opiates

Records indicate that opium was used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. The poppy even appears on Egyptian art dating back 6,000 years. Opium was imported to China around 800 A.D. By the 1600s, opium smoking was widespread throughout China. In 1680, a famous English physician named Thomas Syndenham introduced opium to the medical field.

In the 17th century, many people in Europe were treated for a variety of health problems with opium. In 1729, opium smoking was made illegal in China and soon the importation of opium was banned. This ban upset the British who were in charge of trading this valuable product. Opium was still smuggled into China and this caused the "Opium Wars" (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) between the British and the Chinese.

In the US, opium was used to treat soldiers during the Civil War (1861-1865). During the late 1800s, doctors prescribed "tonics" containing opiates for many conditions. Rarely did these medicines list opiates as one of the ingredients. In fact, heroin was marketed as a cough medicine and a cure for morphine addiction. However, many physicians had concerns about possible addiction to these medicines.

Important Dates in the History of Opiates

1803 - morphine was isolated from opium by Frederick Serturner. 1832 - codeine was extracted from opium. 1853 - the hypodermic needle was invented.1874 - heroin was first produced from morphine. 1898 - The Bayer Company introduced heroin as a substitute for morphine.1906 - Pure Food and Drugs Act - required medicines to be labeled with the materials that they contained.1914 - Harrison Narcotic Act - added a tax on opiate distribution. 1922 - Narcotic Import and Export Act - restricted the importation of crude opium except for medical use. 1924 - Heroin Act - made manufacture and possession of heroin illegal.1930 - Federal Bureau of Narcotics was created.1970 - Controlled Substances Act was passed - divided drugs into categories, set regulations and penalties for narcotics

Morphine

How Heroin is Used

The purity of heroin can vary greatly. Heroin can be mixed with powdered milk, sugar, baking soda, procaine and lidocaine (local anesthetics) or even laundry detergent, talc, starch, curry powder, Ajax cleaner or strychinine. All of these "additives" are dangerous if they are injected into the bloodstream. Heroin is smoked or inhaled as a powder or it can be mixed with water, heated, then injected. Heroin crosses through the blood brain barrier 100 times faster than morphine because it is highly soluble in lipids.

Injecting heroin into a vein (intravenous use) produces effects in 7 to 8 seconds. Injecting heroin into a muscle (intramuscular use) or under the skin (subcutaneous use) can produce effects in 5 to 8 minutes. Addicts sometimes inject themselves up to 4 times in one day.

Effects of Heroin

The overall effect of heroin is a depression of the central nervous system.

Short Term Effects Analgesia (reduced pain) Brief euphoria (the "rush" or feeling of well-being) Nausea Sedation, drowsiness Reduced anxiety Hypothermia Reduced respiration; breathing difficulties Reduced coughing Death due to overdose - often the exact purity and content of the drug is not

known to the user. An overdose can cause respiration problems and coma

Long Term Effects Tolerance: more and more drug is needed to produce the euphoria and other effects on

behavior. Addiction: psychological and physiological need for heroin. People are driven to get more heroin

and feel bad if they do not get it. People begin to crave heroin 4 to 6 hours after their last injection.

Withdrawal: About 8-12 hours after their last heroin dose, addicts' eyes tear, they yawn and feel anxious and irritable. Excessive sweating, fever, stomach and muscle cramps, diarrhea and chills can follow several hours later. These withdrawal symptoms can continue for 1 to 3 days after the last dose and can last 7 to 10 days. In some cases, full recovery can take even longer.

Other Effects

In addition to the direct dangers of heroin, this powerful drug also carries the risk of:

HIV/AIDS - due to sharing of needles Poisoning - from the addition of toxin to the drug Hepatitis - liver damage Skin infections - from repeated intravenous injections Other bacterial and viral infections Increase risk of stroke Collapsed veins Lung infections

How Heroin Affects the Brain

Not all of the mechanisms by which heroin and other opiates affect the brain are known. Likewise, the exact brain mechanisms that cause tolerance and addiction are not completely understood. Opiates stimulate a "pleasure system" in the brain. This system involves neurons in the midbrain that use the neurotransmitter called "dopamine." These midbrain dopamine neurons project to another structure called the nucleus accumbens which then projects to the cerebral cortex. This system is responsible for the pleasurable effects of heroin and for the addictive power of the drug. Other neurotransmitter systems, such as those related to endorphins, are also likely to be involved with withdrawal from and tolerance to heroin.

Treatment of Heroin Overdose and Addiction

Behavioral Methods Heroin addiction is usually treated with both medical and behavioral methods. Behavioral treatment might give rewards to people for negative drug tests. Other treatments may attempt to change the drug-seeking behavior of addicts.

Naloxone People who overdose on heroin are given a drug called "naloxone." Naloxone is an opiate receptor blocker that binds to neurons so opiates cannot work.

Methadone Methadone is a drug that blocks the effects of heroin and has been used for several decades to treat heroin addiction. Methadone can be

Liquid

swallowed (rather than injected) and it blocks heroin withdrawal symptoms and does not have euphoric or sedative effects. effects last longer. LAAM was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for treating heroin addiction in 1993.

LSD

Lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD, is a chemical that alters a user's mood, thoughts or perceptions. For this reason, LSD is grouped into a class of drugs known as hallucinogens or psychedelics. These drugs can cause auditory, visual or somatosensory hallucinations, paranoia or dream-like states. LSD Pills

Image courtesy of the Indiana Prevention Resource Center

LSD was first synthesized from a fungus that grows on rye and other grains. In 1938, Albert Hofmann working in the Swiss pharmaceutical company called Sandoz, produced LSD for the first time. He was hoping that this new drug could be used to stimulate circulation and respiration. However, the tests he conducted were all failures and he forgot about LSD for 5 years. In 1943, Hofmann accidentally ingested (or somehow absorbed) a bit of LSD and experienced some of the psychedelic effects of this chemical: dizziness, visual distortions and restlessness. A few days later he prepared 0.25 mg of LSD in water and drank it. He again experienced the mood and thought altering effects of LSD.

Effects of LSD on the Nervous System

LSD is water soluble, odorless, colorless and tasteless - it is a very powerful drug - a dose as small as a single grain of salt (about 0.010 mg) can produce some effects. Psychedelic effects are produced at higher doses of about 0.050-0.100 mg. The effects of LSD depend on a user's mood and expectations of what the drug will do and last several hours. The behavioral effects that LSD can produce include:

Feelings of "strangeness" Vivid colors Hallucinations Confusion, panic, psychosis, anxiety Emotional reactions like fear, happiness or sadness Distortion of the senses and of time and space "Flashback" reactions - these are the effects of LSD that occur

even after the user has not taken LSD for months or even years. Increases in heart rate and blood pressure Chills Muscle weakness

Tolerance to the effects of LSD develops quickly and users must increase their intake of LSD to get the same effects. The exact neural pathways that are affected by LSD are not completely known. LSD has a chemical structure that is very similar to the neurotransmitter called serotonin. It is thought that the effects of LSD are caused by stimulation of serotonin receptors on neurons, perhaps in the brain area called the raphe nuclei. However, it is still not clear what produces all the effects of LSD.

Nicotine (Tobacco)

SURGEON GENERAL'S

WARNING: Quitting Smoking Now

Greatly Reduces Serious Risks to

Your Health.GENE

A complete list of the reasons to avoid smoking and chewing tobacco is not necessary here, but for starters, how about lung cancer, lip cancer, throat cancer, respiratory problems, heart disease and bad breath.

Tobacco contains nicotine. Nicotine is a drug. Therefore, when people smoke or chew tobacco, they are using a drug.

SURGEON GENERAL'S

WARNING: Smoking Causes Lung Cancer,

Heart Disease, Emphysema and May

Complicate Pregnancy..

Brief History of Tobacco

Christopher Columbus and his crewman on their voyage to the "New World" were the first Europeans to see tobacco smoking. The tobacco plant is called Nicotiana tabacum and is named after an early importer named Jean Nicot. A water/nicotine mixture has been used as an insecticide since 1746. In 1828, nicotine was isolated from the leaves of the tobacco plant.

Effects of Nicotine on the Nervous System

In tobacco smoke, nicotine "rides" on small particles of tar. When the smoke with this nicotine/tar mixture gets to the lungs, the nicotine is absorbed quickly - nicotine reaches the brain about eight seconds after the smoke is inhaled. American cigarettes contain about 9 mg of nicotine, but because much of the nicotine is burned off, a smoker gets about 1 mg of nicotine in every cigarette. Nicotine reaches the central nervous system in about 3-5 minutes when tobacco is chewed.

Smoking can be stimulating or relaxing - it depends on a person's mood and dosage of nicotine. Nicotine acts on the central and peripheral nervous system. The rapid effects of nicotine include:

Increases in blood pressure and heart rate Faster respiration Constriction of arteries Stimulation of the central nervous system

Long term exposure to tobacco and nicotine increases the chances of cancer and results in addiction and dependence. Exactly how nicotine produces addiction and dependence is not clear, but there are some theories. In the brain, limbic pathways that use the neurotransmitter dopamine are affected by nicotine and may be responsible for some of the addictive properties. It is clear though, that nicotine is one of the most addicting substances known...just ask anyone who has tried to quit smoking. Common withdrawal symptoms in people who are trying to "kick the habit" of tobacco include:

Anxiety Fatigue Headaches Depression Headaches Fatigue

Did you According to the World Health Organization, there are 1.1 billion smokers worldwide

know?

and 6000 billion cigarettes are smoked every year. According to the US Centers for Disease Control, there are about 46.2 million adult

cigarette smokers in the US. Moreover, tobacco use in the US results in more than 440,000 deaths each year (about 1 in 5 deaths.) The economic costs (medical costs and lost productivity) of tobacco use are more than $150 billion.

The New Straits Times (August 11, 1997) reported on a "smoking contest" between two young men (ages 19 and 21 years old). These two men wanted to see who could smoke the most cigarettes at a single sitting. The result was tragic: the 19 year old died after smoking 100 cigarettes and the 21 year old was seriously poisoned after smoking 80 cigarettes. It goes without saying, "Don't try this at home!"

"Bidi" cigarettes are NOT safe alternatives to regular cigarettes. A bidi cigarette has THREE times more nicotine and carbon monoxide and FIVE times more tar than a regular American cigarette. (Statistic from Yen et al., Archives of Pediatric and Adoles. Medicine, 154:1187-1189, 2000.)

The cost of a pack of cigarettes in New York is about $7.00. Therefore, a person who smokes one pack of cigarettes each day will spend $2,555.00 each year on tobacco. (Reference: Associated Press story, "With packs hitting $7, smokers try to kick habit" reprinted in the Seattle Times, July 13, 2002.)

More than 100 chemicals are added to tobacco to make cigarettes. These chemicals include benzaldehyde, butyric acid, decanoic acid, ethyl acetate, hexanoic acid, 3-methylbutyraldehyde, methylcyclopentenolone, and tolualdehydes. (Reference: Philip Morris USA.)

Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB)

Gamma hydroxybutyrate: An OverviewHave you heard of GHB? You may not have yet, but its use is increasing. Once limited to large warehouse scenes such as "raves," GHB is showing up at parties, perhaps in neighborhoods like yours. It gives the user a feeling of euphoria, that everything is fine. GHB, like alcohol, is a central nervous system depressant that takes only minutes to make a user lose control, forget what is happening, or lose consciousness. GHB is colorless, odorless, and has a slightly salty taste. The synthetic form of GHB

contains some of the same ingredients as floor stripper and industrial cleaners.

The same dose of GHB can have variable effects in different people. A dose that makes one person feel euphoric can make another person sick. The US Drug Enforcement Agency has linked GHB to 58 deaths since 1990 and there have been at least 5,700 overdoses recorded since then. Moreover, there are some reports that GHB

can cause dependence. Treatment of GHB overdoses is difficult because it is difficult for emergency room doctors to detect the drug.

Possible symptoms of GHB use:

Dizziness | Vomiting | Seizures | Coma | Drowsiness

GHB was first developed as a general anesthetic, but because it did not work very well to prevent pain, its use as an anesthetic declined. The observation that GHB may cause the release of growth hormone led some people, especially athletes and body-builders, to take it because they thought it would increase muscle development. At the time, GHB was available as a dietary supplement and as such was not regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration. In 1990, after numerous reports that GHB caused illness, the FDA began investigating the drug. It is now classified as an illegal substance. Research is being conducted to investigate the use of GHB in the treatment of the sleep disorder called narcolepsy.

GHB has been grouped with other drugs in the "date-rape drug" category such as Rohypnol, because it can be slipped easily into a drink and given to an unsuspecting victim, who often does not remember being assaulted. GHB is especially dangerous when combined with alcohol.

GHB and the BrainAlthough GHB can be made in the laboratory, it is also produced normally in the brain through the synthesis of a neurotransmitter called GABA. Some of the greatest concentrations of GHB are found in the substantia nigra, thalamus and hypothalamus. When GHB is ingested by a user, it affects several different neurotransmitter systems in the brain:

GHB can increase acetylcholine levels. GHB can increase serotonin levels. GHB can reduce dopamine activity, especially in the basal ganglia. This action is probably the

result of the inhibition of the release of dopamine from synaptic terminals. Some studies show that GHB first inhibits the release of dopamine, then causes the release of dopamine. The effect on the dopamine system may depend on the dose of GHB.

GHB can activate GHB receptors and GABA receptors on neurons in the brain.

Unfortunate Events Led to Tragedy

One case of GHB use ended in tragedy. On January 16th, 1999, three girls told their parents they were going to a movie, but instead they ended up at a party at someone's house. Some kids were drinking alcohol and some were smoking marijuana. One of the girls, ninth-grader Samantha, asked for a Mountain Dew. A 19-year old boy got it for her. At one point, she told her friend the soda tasted "gross," but she drank it. A few minutes later she vomited and passed out. She was moved onto the bathroom floor, beside another 14-year-old girl, Melanie, who also passed out after having a drink. Once the boys became concerned that they could not wake the girls, they took them to the hospital. Both girls fell into comas. Melanie recovered, but Samantha never regained consciousness and died in the hospital.

In February 2000 the four males involved (ages 18, 19, and 26) went on trial for the death of Samantha and the poisoning of the other girls, one of whom ingested some GHB but had no symptoms. This was the first trial of a GHB-related death. The younger males were found guilty of involuntary manslaughter and lesser charges of poisoning. The 26-year-old was convicted of being an accessory to manslaughter, poisoning, and possession of marijuana and GHB. The jail time for the manslaughter convictions is up to 15 years; the jail time for the poisoning convictions can be up to 5 years.

Amphetamines

Amphetamines are drugs such as dextroamphetamine, benzedrine, and Ritalin. Amphetamines were originally developed to treat asthma, sleep disorders (narcolepsy) and hyperactivity. In 1920, a drug called "ephedrine" was used to treat asthma. In China, the ma huang plant (Ephedra vulgaris) had been used for centuries to treat people with asthma. It is no wonder that the plant worked...the ma huang plant contains ephedrine. In 1932, synthetic ephedrine was sold "over-the-counter" and was available without a prescription until 1954. During World War II, amphetamines were given to soldiers and pilots to keep them alert and to fight off fatigue.

Amphetamine Effects on the Nervous System

Amphetamines are stimulants of the central nervous system and sympathetic division of the peripheral nervous system. It appears that the main action of amphetamines is to increase the synaptic activity of the dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter systems. Amphetamines can:

1. cause the release of dopamine from axon terminals. 2. block dopamine reuptake. 3. inhibit the storage of dopamine in vesicles. 4. inhibit the destruction of dopamine by enzymes.

All of these actions result in more dopamine in the synaptic cleft where it can act on receptors.

Many of the effects of amphetamines are similar to cocaine. Addiction to and withdrawal from amphetamines are both possible. Amphetamine use also causes tolerance to its effects. This means that more and more amphetamine must be used to get "high." Amphetamine withdrawal is characterized by severe depression and fatigue. Users will go to extreme measures to avoid the "downer" that comes when the effect of amphetamines wears off.

Short-term effects of amphetamine use include:

Increased heart rate Increased blood pressure Reduced appetite Dilation of the pupils Feelings of happiness and power Reduced fatigue

Long term use of amphetamines can result in:

Insomnia, restlessness "Paranoid psychosis" Hallucinations Violent and aggressive behavior Weight loss Tremors

Caffeine

You can call it 3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6,-dione OR 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, but what we are really talking about is CAFFEINE. Caffeine may be the most popular drug in the world. We consume caffeine in coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, some soft drinks, and some drugs. The actual source of caffeine is the coffee bean, tea leaf, kola nut and cacao pod. Pure caffeine is odorless and has a bitter taste.

Effects of Caffeine on the Nervous System

Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant. In moderate doses, caffeine can:

increase alertness reduce fine motor coordination cause insomnia cause headaches, nervousness and dizziness

In massive doses, caffeine is lethal. A fatal dose of caffeine has been calculated to be more than 10 grams (about 170 mg/kg body weight) - this is the same as drinking 80 to 100 cups of coffee in rapid succession - not an easy thing to do.

Caffeine enters the bloodstream through the stomach and small intestine and can have its effects as soon as 15 minutes after it is consumed. Once in the body, caffeine will stay around for hours: it takes about 6 hours for one half of the caffeine to be eliminated.

Caffeine belongs to the xanthine chemical group. Adenosine is a naturally occurring xanthine in the brain that is used as a neurotransmitter at some synapses. One effect of caffeine is to interfere with adenosine at multiple sites in the brain including the reticular formation. Caffeine also acts at other sites in the body to increase heart rate, constrict blood vessels, relax air passages to improve breathing and allow some muscles to contract more easily.

Some studies show that caffeine causes physical dependence. One way to tell if someone "needs" that cup of coffee or bottle of Coke is to take it away from them and then see if they have any withdrawal symptoms. Typical withdrawal symptoms associated with caffeine are headache, fatigue and muscle pain. These symptoms can occur within 24 hours after the last dose of caffeine. One study has stated that the minimum consumption of caffeine for physical dependence is 4 cups of coffee per day. Other studies say that a few more cups of coffee are needed to develop dependence.

Did you The "Discovery" of Coffee

know? Legend has it that coffee was "discovered" around 850 AD in upper Egypt by a goat herded named Khaldi. One night, Khaldi's goats did not return home. When he found his goats, Khaldi saw them dancing around a shrub with red berries (coffee beans). After Khaldi tried some of the berries, he started to dance too. Khaldi spoke with some monks who used the berries to make a drink and....coffee was born!

Caffeine can be found in many drinks, food and drugs. The following items all contain various amounts of caffeine:

Drinks

Item Item Size Caffeine Content (mg)

Coffee 150 ml (5 oz) 60-150

Coffee, decaf 150 ml (5 oz) 2-5

Tea 150 ml (5 oz) 40-80

Hot Cocoa 150 ml (5 oz) 1-8

Chocolate Milk 225 ml 2-7

Jolt Cola 12 oz 100

Mountain Dew 12 oz 55

Surge 12 oz 51

Diet Coca Cola 12 oz 45

Coca Cola 12 oz 64

Coca Cola Classic 12 oz 23

Tab 12 oz 46

RC Cola 12 oz 34

Dr. Pepper 12 oz 61

Mello Yellow 12 oz 35

Mr. Pibb 12 oz 27

Pepsi Cola 12 oz 43

Cherry Coca-Cola 8 oz 23

Surge 8 oz 35

7-Up 12 oz 0

Mug Root Beer 12 oz 0

Sprite 12 oz 0

Did you know?

An American tea and coffee merchant named Thomas Sullivan invented the tea bag in 1904. He used the tea bag to send samples to his customers.

Food

Item Item Size Caffeine Content (mg)

Ben/Jerry No Fat CoffeeFudge Froz. Yog. 1 cup 85

Starbucks Coffee Ice Cream 1 cup 40-60

Dannon Coffee Yogurt 8 oz. 45

Chocolate Bar 50 g 3-63

Chunky Bar 1 bar (40 g) 11.6

100 Grand Bar 1 bar (43 g) 11.2

Nestle Crunch Bar 1 bar (40 g) 10

Krackel Bar 1 bar (47 g) 8.5

Peanut Butter Cup 1 pk (51 g) 5.6

Kit Kat Bar 1 bar (46 g) 5

Mr. Goodbar 1 bar (50 g) 5

Raisinets 10 pieces (10 g) 2.5

Butterfinger Bar 1 bar (61 g) 2.4

Baby Ruth Bar 1 bar (60 g) 2.4

Special Dark Sweet Chocolate Bar 1 bar (41 g) 31

Chocolate Brownie 1.25 oz 8

Chocolate Chip Cookie 30 g 3-5

Chocolate Ice Cream 50 g 2-5

Milk Chocolate 1 oz 1-15

Bittersweet Chocolate 1 oz 5-35

Butterfinger Bar 1 bar (2.16 oz) 2

After Eight Mint 2 pc (8 g) 1.6

Jell-O Pudding PopChocolate 1 bar (77 g) 2

Non-prescription Drugs

Item (1 tablet or capsule) Caffeine Content(mg)

Dextrim 200

Vivarin 200

No Doz 100

Excedrin 65

Vanquish 33

Anacin 32

Midol 32

Triaminicin 30

Dristan 16

Sources: Pennington, J.A.T., Food Values of Portions Commonly Used (18th Edition), J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 2005; Soft Drink Manufacturers Association; United States Department of Agriculture, Human Nutrition Information Service, Handbook #8-14 (1986) and Handbook #8-19 (1991); Starbuck Co. Information Pamphlet, American Beverage AssociationResearchers have attempted to find out how much caffeine people consume every day. Americans consume about 45 MILLION pounds of caffeine each year. In the United States, coffee drinkers drink an average of 2.6 cups per day. Total caffeine intake for coffee drinkers was 363.5 mg per day - this includes caffeine from coffee AND other sources like soft drinks, food and drugs. Non-coffee drinkers even get plenty of caffeine: former coffee drinkers get about 107 mg per day and people who have never had coffee get about 91 mg per day. (References for these numbers is Schreiber et al., Measurement of coffee and caffeine intake: Implications for epidemiolgic research, Preventive Medicine, 17:280-294, 1988 and Chou, T., Wake up and smell the coffee. Caffeine, coffee and the medical consequences, West. J. Med., 157:544-553, 1992)

One more thing to think about...Caffeine does NOT counteract the effects of alcohol. In other words, coffee does NOT make a drunk person sober or fit to drive.

Ecstasy - MDMA

What is Ecstasy (MDMA)?

The American Heritage Dictionary defines ecstasy as "intense joy or delight." Despite its peppy name, the illegal drug ecstasy can damage nerve cells in the brain. Ecstasy, also known as 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine or "MDMA" for short, is a stimulant related to the drugs mescaline and amphetamine. Other names for MDMA are "Adam," "XTC," "Doves" or just "E."

MDMA was first synthesized and patented in 1914 by the German drug company called Merck. Scientists thought that this drug could be used as an appetite suppressant. In the 1970s, MDMA was given to psychotherapy patients because it helped them open up and talk about their feelings. This practice was stopped in 1986 when animal studies showed that ecstasy caused brain damage.

Behavioral Effects of MDMA

Some users say they take ecstasy because it lowers their inhibitions and relaxes them. MDMA is also said to increase awareness and feelings of pleasure and to give people energy. However, some people report side effects after taking MDMA such as headaches, chills, eye twitching, jaw clenching, blurred vision and nausea. Some doses of MDMA can cause dehydration, hyperthermia and seizures. The effects of MDMA send some people to the emergency room (see graph on right). Unlike the drug LSD, MDMA in low doses does not cause people to hallucinate. Ecstasy gained national attention when it was the drug of choice at club parties, called "raves." In a survey taken in 2004, 4.0% of 12th graders, 2.4% of 10th graders and 1.7% of 8th graders reported that they had used MDMA at least once within the year.

Data from NIDA Notes, 2001

Effects of MDMA on the Brain

MDMA appears to have several effects on the brain. MDMA can:

1. cause the release of the neurotransmitter called serotonin. 2. block the reuptake of serotonin by the synaptic terminal that releases it. 3. deplete the amount of serotonin in the brain.

Data suggests that MDMA may be toxic to the brain. Dr. George Ricaurte, an associate professor of neurology at Johns Hopkins University, analyzed brain scans of people who had used ecstasy. The study included people who had used ecstasy an average of 200 times over five years. Although the behavior of these people appeared normal, brain scans showed that the drug had damaged their brains. In fact, those who used the drug more often had more brain damage than less frequent users. Moreover, memory tests of people who have taken ecstasy as compared to non-drug users have shown that the ecstasy users had lower scores.

Specifically, the drug damaged cells that release the neurotransmitter called serotonin. Using an imaging technique called positron emission tomography (PET), Ricaurte noted a 20-60% reduction in healthy serotonin cells in the drug users. Damage to these cells could affect a person's abilities to remember and to learn.

At this point, scientists do not know if this damage is permanent, or if those damaged cells will replace themselves. Also, it is not known if this loss of cells affects behavior or the ability to think. Ricaurte is conducting other studies to gauge ecstasy's effect on mood, memory, cognition, and behaviors such as eating and sleeping. In 2003, German researchers used PET scans to study the brains of current and past users of ecstasy. This research demonstrated that ecstasy users had lower levels of serotonin activity in several brain areas. However, ecstasy users who stopped using the drug 20 weeks before the scan showed some recovery in serotonin function.

Information from brain scans of people is valuable, but it is difficult to control the different variables when using human subjects. Perhaps some of the students didn't report their drug use accurately. Maybe they didn't remember how many times they had used ecstasy. To be able to control the variables more carefully in a study, Ricaurte looked for help from animal experiments. In an article published in The Journal of Neuroscience (June 15, 1999), Ricaurte compared the data from monkeys who were given ecstasy dissolved in a liquid twice a day for four days to other monkeys who received the same liquid WITHOUT the ecstasy twice a day for four days. The study showed that the monkeys who were given ecstasy had damage to the serotonin-containing nerve cells. This damage was still visible seven years later!. Areas that were especially affected were the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex, an area in the front part of the brain that is used in thinking, and the hippocampus, an area deep in the brain that

helps with memory. Although damage was still observed seven years later, it was less severe than when it was observed two weeks after drug use. This suggests that some regrowth could have occurred, but that it is far from complete.

Effect of MDMA on serotonin neurons in the monkey brain.

Image courtesy of the National Institute on Drug Abuse

Now scientists must tease out what these results from monkeys mean to humans. Although the specifics are lacking, at this point, the evidence points to loss of memory and cognitive ability among ecstasy users.

Inhalants

QUESTION: What do nail polish, paint and glue have in common?

ANSWER: They can:

be found at home or school be inhaled by people looking

for a quick high cause damage to the body

including the brain STINK.

Inhaling (also called "huffing" or "sniffing") chemicals is a problem for many people including teenagers.

DANGERExtremely Flammable

Harmful of Fatal If SwallowedVapors May Cause Fire

DANGER: Keep away from heat and flame. If swallowed or if excessive inhalation occurs resulting in abnormal reactions including dizziness or nausea, contact a physician. Intentional misuse by deliberately concentrating and inhaling contents may be harmful or fatal.

(From a warning label on waterproofing spray)

Inhalants are cheap and can be found everywhere - in kitchens, garages and schools. There are hundreds of different materials that can be abused by people who inhale these dangerous chemicals. Inhalants not only damage the nervous system, but other organs such as the lungs, liver, heart and kidney can be injured permanently.

ERor if excessive inhalation occurs resulting in abnormal reactions including dizziness or nausea, contact a physician. Intentional se by)

Variety of Inhalants

Product Chemical Content

Hair Spray Fluorinated hydrocarbons; propane; isobutane

Nitrous Oxide Nitrous Oxide

Cleaning Fluids Chlorinated hydrocarbons; naphtha

Typewriter Correction Fluid Trichloroethane; trichloroethylene

Nail Polish Remover Acetone; aliphatic acetates; benzene

Gasoline Hydrocarbons; tetraethyl lead

Glue; rubber cement Toluene; acetone, benzene; xylene; ethanol; chloroform

Paint/Paint Thinner Toluene; methylene chloride; benzene, ethanol

Lighter Fluid Hydrocarbons

Room Deodorizers Amyl, butyl and isobutyl nitrite

Marker pens Toluene; xylene

Effects of Inhalants on the Nervous System

When vapors are inhaled (1), they are absorbed through the lungs (2) and enter the bloodstream (3). Once in the bloodstream, the chemicals travel to the brain (4) and other tissues throughout the body. Most inhalants that are abused depress the functioning of the nervous system. However, the effects of each inhalant are difficult to determine because each product in made up many different chemicals and each person may breathe in different amounts of each chemical. Nevertheless, these chemicals do have significant effects on the nervous system.

Some of the effects of inhalants are simliar to those of alcohol. The immediate effects of inhalants include:

relaxation slurred speech euphoria hallucinations

drowsiness dizziness nausea vomiting DEATH - from heart failure or suffocating on plastic bags or vomit.

Long term use of inhalants can cause:

memory loss concentration problems visual disturbances; blindness motor problems

peripheral nerve damage

Nervous System Targets of Inhalants

Inhalants may affect different parts the brain and nervous system and may cause a variety of sensory, motor, psychological and emotional problems. One major effect of inhalants is the destruction of the myelin sheath that surrounds neurons. This can result in problems in the normal transmission of impulses through neurons and cell death.

Specific areas of the brain targeted by inhalants include:

1. Cerebral cortex: damage can cause changes in personality, memory loss, hallucinations and learning problems.

2. Cerebellum: damage can cause problems in balance and movement. 3. Hippocampus: damage may result in the memory problems. 4. Visual System: damage to the peripheral nerves may cause visual disturbances.

Did you know?

Nitrous oxide was discovered in 1776 by Sir Joseph Priestley. In 1799, Sir Humphrey Davy suggested that nitrous oxide could be used during surgery to reduce pain.

Marijuana

Marijuana is one of the world's most commonly used illegal drugs. There are approximately 300 million users worldwide and 28 million users in the United States (Diaz, 1997). Marijuana comes from a plant called "Cannabis sativa." The chemical in this plant that produces the altered states of consciousness is called "delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol" or "THC." Marijuana is usually smoked like a cigarette, but it can also be cooked into baked goods like brownies or cookies or brewed like a tea. THC is also contained in "hashish" (hash) which is the resin from the marijuana plants. Hash is usually smoked in a pipe. Other names for marijuana include: grass, pot, reefer and

weed.

Effects of Marijuana on the Nervous System

THC acts on "cannabinoid" receptors which are found on neurons in many places in the brain. These brain areas are involved in memory (the hippocampus), concentration (cerebral cortex), perception (sensory portions of the cerebral cortex) and movement (the cerebellum, substantia nigra, globus pallidus). When THC activates cannabinoid receptors, it interfers with the normal functioning of these brain areas. In low to medium doses, marijuana causes:

relaxation reduced coordination

reduced blood pressure sleepiness disruption in attention an altered sense of time and space...a good reason not to drive or operate

machinery while under the influence.

In high doses, marijuana can cause:

hallucinations delusions impaired memory disorientation.

Scientists have known for a long time that THC interacted with cannabinoid receptors in the brain, but did not know why the brain would have such receptors. They thought that the brain must make some kind of substance that naturally acted on these receptors. In 1992, they found the answer...anandamide. Anandamide is the brain's own THC (just like "endorphin" is the brain's own morphine). Still, scientists are not sure what the function of anandamide is in the normal brain.

The effects of marijuana start as soon as 1-10 minutes after it is taken and can last 3 to 4 hours or even longer. Experiments have shown that THC can affect two neurotransmitters: norepinephrine and dopamine. Serotonin and GABA levels may also be altered.

Whether marijuana can produce addiction is controversial. Also controversial is whether marijuana causes long-term mental abnormalities. Only future

research will give us the answers. It is interesting to note that there are NO documented cases of a fatal overdose produced by marijuana. However, because there is a high level of tar and other chemicals in marijuana, smoking it is similar to smoking cigarettes. The lungs get a big dose of chemicals that increase the chances of lung problems and cancer later in

life.

How long does THC stay in your body and for how long can it be detected after you use marijuana?The amount of time depends on several factors such as how much a person has smoked, how long a

person has smoked for, and the method used to detect THC or its metabolites. Marijuana can be detected in urine, blood and saliva using methods called thin layer chromatography, high pressure liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, enzyme immunoassay and radioimmunoassay. The most psychoactive ingredient in marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC is broken down into several other compounds that are also psychoactive. The half-life of THC is about 24 hours. However, the metabolites of THC can be detected for 45 to 60 days after the last use.

According to Maistro et al., in the book Drug Use and Misuse (1991):

"Approximately half of the THC is excreted over several days, and the remainder by the end of about a week. However, some metabolites of the THC, a number of which may still be active in the system, can be detected in the body at least thirty days following ingestion of a single dose and, following chronic use, in the urine for several weeks."

Did you know?

In 1969, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA, vol. 207, pages 1349-1350, 1969) published a paper that described the psychoactive effects of catnip in people. People who smoked catnip were said to become happy and relaxed. Catnip (from the plant Nepeta cataria) DOES cause most cats to act strangely: they roll around, shake their heads, rub against things, and try to get the plant all over their bodies. Interestingly, cats are only affected when they smell it - it has NO EFFECT if they eat it. It appears that catnip has little or no psychoactive effects in people. Actually, in the 1969 JAMA paper, the authors mislabeled the pictures of marijuana and catnip. They labeled the pictures of marijuana as catnip and that of catnip as marijuana.

THC was identified as the major psychoactive chemical in marijuana in 1964.

Rohypnol

What is Rohypnol?

"Roofies." Sounds like a cartoon character or a piece of candy. However, nothing could be further from the truth about Roofies, also known as the drug Rohypnol.

Rohypnol (Flunitrazepam) is a type of benzodiazepine, a class of drugs that depresses the central nervous system. You may have heard of Valium and Xanax. These are also benzodiazepines used as sedatives and antianxiety agents. Rohypnol was developed as a sleeping aid. It is also used in therapy settings to relax patients and to get them talking. Rohypnol is manufactured in Europe and Latin American and is sold in many countries around the world. However, it is illegal in the United States and Canada. The pills are round, white and smaller than aspirin.

Because Rohypnol is inexpensive, it is becoming popular with high school and college students. In the US, Rohypnol is used mostly at parties, and usually taken with alcohol. It has a synergistic effect with other drugs such as alcohol.

Rohypnol Tablets

Image courtesy of theU.S. Department of

Justice

This means that one drug increases the effect of the other.

Behavioral Effects of Rohypnol

Rohypnol can produce amnesia (memory loss) and muscle relaxation and make people lower their inhibitions. An inhibition is when you feel like you can't do something. When inhibitions are lowered, people feel as if an obstacle has been removed. Therefore, they can talk more freely and feel less shy.

Because Rohypnol is colorless, odorless and flavorless, it can be slipped into drinks unnoticed. This is one reason this drug is so dangerous. People may consume it without knowing it. It dissolves quickly and takes effect in 20-30 minutes. Its effects can last 8-12 hours. Within the past few years, Rohypnol has become known as the "date rape" drug. People will come home from a party and have no idea what happened to them because they unknowingly ingested Rohypnol, passed out, and woke up several hours later with no memory of the evening.

Continued, repeated use of Rohypnol may result in addiction and although Rohypnol is a sedative, it can cause aggressive behavior in some people. Withdrawal symptoms may occur and include headaches, sore muscles, hallucinations, convulsions, and possibly seizures 1-2 weeks after quitting the drug.

Although overdoses are rarely fatal, emergency services are sometimes required because Rohypnol can cause a person to vomit, hallucinate, have trouble breathing and fall into a coma. When Rohypnol is combined with alcohol the outcome is usually worse.

Street names for Rohypnol include rophies, ruffies, R2, roofenol, Roche, la rocha, rope, roopies, ropies, and rib.

Effects of Rohypnol on the Brain

The benzodiazepines influence behavior by interacting with receptors on neurons in the brain that use the neurotransmitter called GABA. When GABA binds to receptors, it usually inhibits a neuron and acts to reduce neuronal activity. When benzodiazepines attach to GABA receptors, they increase GABA binding to other receptors. In this way, benzodiazepines enhance the effects of GABA and reduce brain activity.

PCP - Phencyclidine

What is PCP?

"Angel Dust," "Hog," "Rocket Fuel," "DOA," "Peace Pill" - these are other names for the illegal drug phencyclidine (PCP). PCP was developed in the 1950s as an anesthetic. However, the use of PCP as an anesthetic was stopped after some people experienced psychotic reactions after using the drug. PCP is now made illegally and has found its way onto the street, often contaminating other street drugs. In fact, PCP is often sold in place of drugs such as LSD and mescaline.

PCP is classified as a dissociative anesthetic because users appear to be "disconnected" from their environment: they know where they are, but they do not feel as if they are part of it. The drug has different effects on different people. It can act as a stimulant, a depressant, an analgesic (decreasing pain) or a hallucinogen depending on the dose and route of administration. The effects produced by PCP are different from those caused by hallucinogens such as LSD. Rather than producing visual hallucinations, PCP causes changes in body image. In addition to these distortions of reality, PCP can cause frightening side effects such as feelings of terror and confusion.

PCP (Image courtesy of the Indiana

Prevention Resource Center)

Behavioral Effects of PCP

PCP can be eaten, snorted, injected or smoked. Depending on how a person takes the drug, the effects are felt within a few minutes (2-5 minutes when smoked) to an hour. PCP can stay in a person's body for a long time; the half-life of PCP ranges from 11 to 51 hours. Furthermore, because PCP is made illegally under uncontrolled conditions, users have no way of knowing how much PCP they are taking. This makes PCP especially dangerous.

PCP users are often characterized as violent or suicidal. However, this portrait of a PCP user may not be accurate. Dr. Jaime Diaz, a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Washington, reviewed many of the published reports of PCP use in his book, How Drugs Influence Behavior. A Neuro-Behavioral Approach (Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall, 1997). He states that PCP use rarely results in violence and concludes that: "Phencyclidine does not cause aggression or criminal behavior."

Dr. Diaz believes that the reported violent behavior

% of 12th Graders Who Have Used PCP Sometime During Their Lifetime

(Source: Monitoring The Future Survey)

is not due to the pharmacological effect of PCP, but rather is the result of the way people under the influence of PCP perceive things and are subsequently treated by law enforcement personnel. People under the influence of PCP may not feel pain and their perception of sensory stimuli may be altered, possibly causing police officers to use stronger methods to control such individuals.

Dose Effect

LowFeelings of euphoria (well-being), relaxation, numbness, sensory distortions, feelings of detachment from one's own body, anxiety, confusion, amnesia, illogical speech, blurred vision, blank stare

Medium Confusion, agitation, analgesia, fever, excessive salivation, "schizophrenic-type" behavior

High Seizures, respiratory failure, coma, fever, stroke, DEATH

Tolerance and dependence on PCP are possible. Withdrawal symptoms include diarrhea, chills, tremors.

Effects of PCP on the Brain

PCP affects multiple neurotransmitter systems in the brain. For example, PCP inhibits the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin and also inhibits the action of glutamate by blocking NMDA receptors. Some types of opioid receptors in the brain are also affected by PCP. These complex effects on multiple chemical systems in the brain most likely underlie the behavioral effects of PCP.

PCP affects multiple neurotransmitter systems

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms

What are Hallucinogenic Mushrooms?

Mushrooms, a kind of fungus, come in many varieties. From those on a pizza to those in spaghetti sauce, mushrooms enhance our cuisine and flavor our lives. But not all mushrooms are so harmless. Some contain toxic and/or hallucinogenic compounds. Hallucinogens are substances that alter or produce false perceptions of sight, sound, taste, smell or touch. Some toxic substances in mushrooms can cause severe illness and even death. Most hallucinogenic substances, including synthetic ones such as LSD, are illegal.

Historical Background

The hallucinogenic properties of certain mushrooms have been known for centuries. The discovery of mushroom sculptures in ancient Central and South American ruins suggests that hallucinogenic mushrooms were used by native people during religious ceremonies. The Aztecs used the term "teonanacatl" meaning "flesh of the gods" to describe hallucinogenic mushrooms. Historians have proposed that Aztec spiritual leaders used these hallucinogens to induce an altered state of consciousness that they believed would allow them to communicate with their gods and other spirits.

Types of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms

1. Psilocybin/Psilocin MushroomsMushrooms that contain the hallucinogens psilocybin and/or psilocin belong mainly to the genera: Psilocybe, Stropharia, Conocybe, and Panaeolus. The word "psilocybin" comes from the Greek words "psilo" meaning "bald" and "cybe" meaning "head."

2. Amanita muscariaThe Amanita muscaria mushroom is also known as "fly agaric" because of its ability to attract and kill flies. The Amanita muscaria does not contain psilocybin or psilocin. Rather, the hallucinogenic chemicals this mushroom contain are muscimol and ibotenic acid.

The fly agaric is related to other deadly mushrooms: the Amanita virosa (the "Destroying Angel"); Amanita verna and Amanita phalloides (the "Death Cap"). These deadly mushrooms contain toxins that destroy cells in the liver and kidneys. Five to 24 hours after eating one of these toxic mushrooms people may become sick with nausea and stomach problems. Later, severe liver and kidney

damage may occur.

Psilocybe Mushroom

Psilocybe cubensisPhotographs courtesy of

theIndiana Prevention

Center

Effects on Behavior

Psilocybin/Psilocin MushroomsBoth psilocybin and psyilocin produce yawning, inability to concentrate, restlessness, increased heart rate, and hallucinations (visual and auditory). These symptoms may appear 30 to 60 minutes after the mushroom is eaten and can last about four hours.

Amanita muscariaAmanita muscaria contains muscimol that produces feelings of euphoria, hallucinations, muscle jerks,

drowsiness, sweating, pupil dilation, and increased body temperature. Symptoms appear 30 to 90 minutes after eating this mushroom and are most intense after two or three hours. People who eat these mushrooms usually fall into a deep sleep. Some people describe the effects of eating Amanita muscaria as similar to being intoxicated by alcohol.

Effects on the Nervous System

The chemical structure of psilocybin and psilocin is similar to the neurotransmitter called serotonin. In fact, the primary effect of psilocin is on the receptors for serotonin. There is also evidence that psilocybin reduces the reuptake of serotonin by neurons in the brain allowing this neurotransmitter more time to act in the synapse.

Muscimol and ibotenic acid from the Amanita muscaria appear to act on the GABA neurotransmitter system. Muscimol activates GABA receptors on neurons. The GABA neurotransmitter system is one of the brain's major inhibitory systems. Therefore, muscimol acts to inhibit the activity of neurons in the brain.

CAUTION Picking and consuming mushrooms can be a dangerous activity! Identification of hallucinogenic mushrooms can be difficult because they look similar to toxic, deadly mushrooms. It is also possible that mushrooms bought from "street dealers" may be contaminated with drugs such as LSD or PCP. The images used on this web page are NOT meant to be used for mushroom identification purposes.

Steroids

Anabolic-androgenic steroids are man-made substances related to male sex hormones. “Anabolic” refers to muscle-building, and “androgenic” refers to increased masculine characteristics. “Steroids” refers to the class of drugs.

These drugs are available legally only by prescription, to treat conditions that occur when the body produces abnormally low amounts of testosterone, such as delayed puberty and some types of impotence. They are also prescribed to treat body wasting in patients with AIDS and other diseases that result in loss of lean muscle mass.

Abuse of anabolic steroids, however, can lead to serious health problems, some irreversible.

Today, athletes and others abuse anabolic steroids to enhance performance and also to improve physical appearance. Anabolic steroids are taken orally or injected, typically in cycles of weeks or months (referred to as “cycling”), rather than continuously. Cycling involves taking multiple doses of steroids over a specific period of time, stopping for a period, and starting again. In addition, users often combine several different types of steroids to maximize their effectivenesswhile minimizing negative effects (referred to as “stacking”).

Health Hazards

The major side effects from abusing anabolic steroids can include: liver tumors and cancer jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of skin, tissues, and body fluids), fluid retention, high blood pressure, increases in LDL (bad cholesterol) decreases in HDL (good cholesterol)

Other side effects include: kidney tumors severe acne trembling aggression and other psychiatric side effects (ROID RAGE)

In addition, there are some gender-specific side effects: For men — shrinking of the testicles, reduced sperm count, infertility, baldness,

development of breasts, increased risk for prostate cancer. For women — growth of facial hair, male-pattern baldness, changes in or cessation of the

menstrual cycle, enlargement of the clitoris, deepened voice. For adolescents — growth halted prematurely through premature skeletal

maturation and accelerated puberty changes. This means that adolescents risk remaining short for the remainder of their lives if they take anabolic steroids before the typical adolescent growth spurt.

In addition, people who inject anabolic steroids run the added risk of contracting or transmitting HIV/AIDS or hepatitis, which causes serious damage to the liver.

Scientific research also shows that aggression and other psychiatric side effects may result from abuse of anabolic steroids. Many users report feeling good about themselves while on anabolic steroids, but researchers report that extreme mood swings also can occur, including manic-like symptoms leading to violence. Depression often is seen when the drugs are stopped and may contribute to dependence on anabolic steroids. Researchers report also that users may suffer from paranoid jealousy, extreme irritability, delusions, and impaired judgment stemming from feelings of invincibility.

Research also indicates that some users might turn to other drugs to alleviate some of the negative effects of anabolic steroids. For example, a study of 227 men admitted in 1999 to a private treatment center for dependence on heroin or other opioids found that 9.3 percent had abused anabolic steroids before trying any other illicit drug. Of these 9.3 percent, 86 percent first used opioids to counteract insomnia and irritability resulting from the anabolic steroids.2

Extent of Use

Monitoring the Future (MTF) Survey *MTF annually assesses drug use among the Nation’s 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students.

Annual** use of anabolic steroids remained stable at under 1.5 percent for students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades in the early 1990s, then started to rise.

Peak rates of annual use occurred in 2002 for 12th-graders (2.5 percent), in 2000 and 2002 for 10th-graders (2.2 percent), and in 1999 and 2000 for 8th-graders (1.7 percent).

Eight-graders reported significant decreases in lifetime and annual steroid use in 2004, as well as a decrease in perceived availability of these drugs. A significant decrease in lifetime use was also measured among 10th-graders for 2004.

Most anabolic steroids users are male, and among male students, past year use of these substances was reported by 1.3 percent of 8th-graders, 2.3 percent of 10th-graders, and 3.3 percent of 12th-graders in 2004.

Anabolic Steroid Use by StudentsYear 2004 Monitoring the Future Survey

   8th-Graders  10th-Graders  12th-GradersLifetime 1.9% 2.4% 3.4%

Annual 1.1 1.5  2.5 

30-day 0.5 0.8  1.6 

1 Pope, H.G., and Katz, D. L. Affective and psychotic symptoms associated with anabolic steroid use. American Journal of Psychiatry 145(4):487-490, 1988.

2 The New England Journal of Medicine 320:1532, 2000.

* These data are from the 2004 Monitoring the Future Survey, funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, and conducted by the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research. The survey has tracked 12th-graders’ illicit drug use and related attitudes since 1975; in 1991, 8th- and 10th-graders were added to the survey. The latest data are online at http://www.drugabuse.gov.

** "Lifetime" refers to use at least once during a respondent's lifetime. "Annual" refers to an individual's drug use at least once during the year preceding their response to the survey. "30-day" refers to an individual's drug use at least once during the month preceding their response to the survey.