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Developmentalism and how it portrays Direct Teaching Methodologies By: Madeleine Kautz

+Presentation based on article by J.E. Stone

Developmentalism’s Impediments to School Reform: Three Recommendations for Overcoming them

+Add some Youtubes!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybsAsuzGdYs (“play is the work of the children” shows a video of a child centered pre-school)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_b-ytQl7LU (how to show 70% of a hotdog middle school)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIMWOOlR_9g (Man performing “child centered” play therapy)

+Developmentalism “[N]atural ontogenesis to be optimal and it requires

experimentally demonstrated teaching practices to overcome a presumption that they interfere with an optimal developmental trajectory…it also discourages teachers and parents from asserting themselves with children…Instead of effective interventions, it seeks the preservation of a postulated natural perfection” (Stone, p. 1, 1996)

A teaching methodology that discourages parents and teachers from pushing a child past their developmental limits for fear that doing so will result in an interference with natural and optimal development.

+Supporters

Jean Jacques Rousseau John Dewey Jean Piaget

+A Little History….

In the years during which it gained ascendance, Developmentalism was created to reject the harsh and inhumane methods use in America’s early history.

However, today it impedes efforts to hold schools accountable for student academic achievement (Stone, p. 1, 1996).

+Beliefs

Stone believed that in fact, developmentalism was developed to absolve teachers and schools of their responsibility to foster student achievement.

As class sizes grew, school systems needed an excuse for why their students were not meeting certain expectations.

Their theory is based on the ideology that children should not be pushed past their developmental limits for fear that this will ultimately do more harm than good.

+Developmentalists are AGAINST

Using teaching methodologies that prove their capabilities and effectiveness through empirically based evidence.

They market their approach based on untested, unvalidated practices by selling them as “innovative”

+Developmentalist “Lingo” “Child centered”

“Progressive Teaching”

“Whole language approach”

“Language Experience”

“Discovery Learning”

“Cognitive apprenticeship approach to instruction”

Bring children into literature in a “natural way”

+How Developmentalists Negatively Target Behavior Analysis Criticize that behavior analysts:

Drill students Give too much corrective feedback Contrive incentives

Developmentalists believe that expected skills and interests will emerge over time

Do not want to expose children to the “hazards inherent in intervention” (Clark & Starr, 1991; Lemlech, 1994; Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak, 1993; Stone, 1995). P. 19

+Lemlech’s (1994) report on Curriculum and instructional methods for the elementary and middle schools

In classrooms where students are given little opportunity to choose what they will learn, how they will learn, and the way in which they will be evaluated for learning, there is a greater likelihood that the classroom is structured through intrinsic rewards, incentive programs, and normative evaluation. As a consequence, learning will become joyless. There is also a tendency in these classrooms to overemphasize repetition, drill, and commercially produced dittos for practice materials. Some believe this to be prevalent in low socio-economic and low achieving classrooms, and as a consequence it may the cause of negative motivation patterns. (p. 91)

+How Developmentlist Theory is Contradictory:

Incentive based programs are what motivate students to learn

Learning stems from operant conditioning A student will be more likely to engage in a behavior

when they are met with reinforcement (Sr+)

“Drilling” otherwise known as discrete trial teaching is simply giving students multiple opportunities to learn

Developmentalism has not worked, especially for “at-risk” students (Stone, 1994).

Developmentalism was discredited in the 1950’s after 40 years of classroom trials (Ratvich, 1983) Stone, 1994,p. 60

+The continuous call for “better methods”

Stone discusses a “cyclical problem” that exists in education system today.

As a result, teaching methodologies are “cyclical,” and the same types of strategies filter in and out of the system.

Stone critiques, “Criticisms that are behind the curve can be ignored because they are no longer relevant. Criticisms of the latest innovations can be ignored because they are premature and intolerant of innovation.”(Stone, p. 3, 1996)

As a result, teachers accept practices and reject practices without a clear understanding of which are more effective.

+Why Non-Experimental Research Methods are Better Accepted Teaching practices informed by studies of naturally

occurring social and educational processes are relatively well received by the educational community

These do not suggest alterations of “natural conditions” (Stone, 1996).

Teachers are encouraged to “shape instruction to the preferences and inclinations of the student in order to enhance achievement” (Stone, 1996).

+Stone’s retortWhile developmentalists acknowledge

research as a foundation for educational practice, they give it little credibility in determining a teaching method.

Neither do they encourage the reader to rely on research as a basis, judging the quality of teaching practices.

They seem to wear the mantle of science but oddly neglect its substance and purpose” (Stone, p. 3, 1996).

+ Concepts of Developmentalist Thought by Jean Jacque Rousseau

Rousseau believed that nature was God's work untainted by human influence.

In his interpretation, optimal development occurred when children were able develop without being tainted by society.

Rousseau believed that development was more due to maturation, however he attributed social and educational influences to have the ability to “facilitate and nurture” or to “corrupt and misdirect the optimal progressing to which nature was postulated to tend” (Stone, 6, 1994).

+Concepts Contrasted by Dewey & Piaget

By contrast, Dewey and Piaget considered a child's tendencies and characteristics were the result of Darwinian evolution (Stone, 1996).

The belief was that evolution produced people that had the ability to learn by solving problems and therefore “learning in the context of problem solving was optimal” (Stone, p. 6, 1996).

+Piaget (1970’s)

Gained popularity in the 1970’s through his observations of his 3 children. His claim was that this was enough empirical evidence to study individual intelligence

+Piaget’s theory of intelligence

Bring attention to child’s mode or style of thought (Stone, 1996).

Expose child to one stage of reasoning above their own

Arouse children to cognitive and social conflict and disagreement (similar to Dewey) This contrasts traditional beliefs about

adult’s reinforcing “behaving well”

Piaget instead believed that children should learn through stimulus-situation associated with natural-feedback (Stone, 1996).

+Piaget’s definition of Development and Intelligence

Takes 3 forms: Different individuals differ on the same task

and much more than an IQ mentality would have us believe

2nd type is found within an individuals as he performs a variety of tasks

3rd type is variability is a child’s performance fluctuating throughout the day

+Dewey’s Beliefs

Felt school should be unstructured in a way so that students came into contact with problems

Wanted them to learn to problem solve

Teachers should be available to” facilitate spontaneous learning processes, but should not produce unnatural or artificial situations that he felt would induce a preconceived outcome” (Stone p. 9, 1994).

Dewey believed that the main function of school was to produce “growth”

+Maturation vs. Darwinism

Dewey DID NOT accredit Maturation to development or believe it to be an important process to be included within the education system.

He was critical of Rousseu’s followers.

+Dewey Quote In Dewey's words, the only proper aim of

education is "growth" (Dewey, 1916/1963):

“Since growth is the characteristic of life, education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself. The criterion of the value of school education is the extent in which it creates a desire for continued growth and supplies means for making the desire effective in fact” (p. 53).

(Stone p. 9, 1994).

+More on Dewey

Held the belief that teachers should prevent students from acquiring any- “preconceived understanding or

knowledge”Rather students would “arrive at

commonly held truths as a result of their personal explorations”( Stone, p. 9, 1994)

+But what does this “growth” mean?

Dewey never operationally defined growth

Term is vague and subjective

+Inability to transcend the times

Dewey’s developmental ideology posed to be far from innovative in the sense that it could not transcend the times

Did not take into account: the cost-effectiveness of schooling children who may have early onset learning delays

but still encompass the desire to become a fundamental component of society.

“Neither was the availability of meaningful occupational opportunities for students whose natural thirst for learning was significantly delayed” (Stone, p. 9., 1994).

+The Global Economy

Dewey also did not take into consideration our growing global economy and the competitive nature of capitalism.

Children no longer simply needed to learn a trade, but in fact needed to be well-rounded in their academic endeavors

“Thus in spite of his pragmatic orientation, neither Dewey nor his

followers seemed to appreciate the pedagogic and economic inefficiencies that would result as growing children became immersed in a world increasingly dominated by competing attractions” (Stone, p. 9, 1996).

+What Dewey Overlooked

It is important to learn a widespread variety of skills being that one set of skills can provide itself useful for another set.

For instance, human hands initially used for hunting and building,

they were not originally used to write or produce music

The ability to acquire and retain knowledge may have originally been for the soul purpose of work that was contexualized but today there are many avenues of work that are partly or wholly decontexualized

For instance growing technology, people have to learn to grow and adapt and learn new skills

+Noam Chompsky’s remarks on John Dewey

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZFuOZ0yTNM&feature=related

+No Longer One View, but Only View

Nonetheless, Dewey’s progressive ideologies continued to gain stead and “developmentalism became a very potent educational orthodoxy” (Stone, p. 10, 1994)

By the 1940’s “developmentalism was no longer thought of as a particular educational view”, but rather the ONLY known effective educational practice, known as “best practices.” (Stone, p. 10, 1994)

+Developmentalism said to be the most commonly used educational practice:

At the preschool and K-3 levels, the "developmentally appropriate instruction" concept has so thoroughly penetrated educational thinking that it is included in the "America 2000" statement of national educational goals (U.S. Department of Education [USDOE], 1991)

It is acknowledged in the school reform principles formulated by business leaders (Committee for Economic Development, 1991)

It is explicitly cited in school reform legislation (Kentucky Education Reform Act, 1990; Stone, 1993).” P. 12

+How to support Behavior Analytic Education Methods Gain support from powerful people whose backgrounds

are not necessarily in education but seek pragmatic, cost-effective teaching solutions: Such as corporate participants in educational reform

The New American Schools Development Corporation designs teams such as: Modern Red-School House Whittles Corporation

These corporations first priority is educational result.

+Collaborate with more corporate mentalities

1. This is where the money is!

2. Behavior Analysts are MOST likely to appeal to these type of people because they offer relatively cost-effective means of overcoming student deficiencies (Stone, 1994).

*Pragmatists such as lawmakers from the states of Kentucky and Tennessee appear to be influenced by findings of effective behavior analytic teaching methods. Believe in educational practices fostered by the Madeline

Hunter’s Mastery Teaching Program (1981) which advocated for behavioral measurement and criterion referenced educational objectives.

+Stones Overall View of Developmentalism:

Has encouraged parents and teachers to be less assertive

Grant children greater freedom

Encouraged lessened parent insistence on study and effort in school and in overall mature and responsible behavior.

Frustration and delayed gratification are to be minimized

While immediate success and satisfaction are to be maximized.

+Applied Behavior Analysis Teaching Vs. A Developmentalist Approach

Both seek to decrease frustration in learning

Both do not promote delayed gratification but rather immediate reward (reinforcement)

Study is expected to be more fun than work

Developmentalism does not seek to contrive motivation

Believes that children have an inherent drive to learn and this process should not be obstructed

Not empirically based

Measure success in whether or not child appears “enthusiastic”

Similarities Differences

+A few more similarities…

Do not want to push someone too hard to learn, for fear that they will lose their intrinsic motivation inside of them to learn.

Do not want to thin the schedule of reinforcement too quickly!

Developmentalists Behavior Analysts

+The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) policy statement

  Identifies that the following actions to be

INAPPROPRIATE(Bredekamp, 1988):

The teacher's role is to correct errors and make sure the child knows the right answer in all subject areas. Teachers reward children for correct answers with stickers or privileges, praise them in front of the group, and hold them up as examples. (p. 76) Stone, p. 13, 1996

+Developmentalism’s Restrictions on Teaching and Parenting Makes parents and teachers hesitant and

uncertain of how adults should attempt to influence children

Strongly suggesting the possibility of harm

Provides NO clear guidance to a safe and effective course of action

Requires merely an estimation of a child's developmental status as a prerequisite to action

yet it offers no workable means of ascertaining that status.

+Kid can’t do it on his own!

I would relate this to telling a parent of a child with autism that their child needs to be potty trained but giving them no clear understanding of how to do this.

 

+Continued PUSH to NEVER PUSH For instance, a child who is

reasoning at a concrete operational level may exhibit skills of preoperational level but never more mature levels such as formal operational

Developmentalists champion the notion that current levels of intellectual performance, (e.g., effort, maturity, achievement) can understate but should never exceed present levels of development.

+Developmentalism encourages “tolerance and acceptance of

immaturity, irresponsibility, and failure” In essence, developmentalism creates a school

mentality where, while attendance might be mandatory….study is not.

Students are expected to make an effort only if they feel interested and enthused.

If students waste time and educational opportunity because they find schoolwork boring, their behavior is tolerated and understood

+CONTRADICTIONS CONTRADITIONS

CONTRADICTIONS

While this sort of behavior is excused, teachers are then blamed for not providing a sufficiently stimulating environment.

Developmentalism blames teachers for not providing a “stimulating enough environment” but also criticizes behavior analysts for making students “reinforcement junkies” (Stone, p. 60, 1994). The thought is that increasing extrinsic motivation will decrease

intrinsic motivation

Behavior Analysts have conducted thousands of empirically based studies that have proved otherwise

+Developmentalism’s threat to teachers

Under developmentalist policy, teachers are held to impossibly high expectations “Student inattention and apathy are met with herculean efforts to stimulate

interest and enthusiasm” (Stone, p. 62, 1994) Nonetheless, outcomes are reduced to what a child is willing to do

The thought behind this theory is that if a teacher is “creative” enough to motivate each student by figuring out what they are “enthusiastic about learning” students will fulfill their minds “natural drive to learn.”

Nonetheless, the product of developmentalism is undefined. There is never a clear measure of success.

However, teachers are also held responsible for not being creative enough to draw out the “natural juices” for learning in their students (Stone, p. 62, 1994).

Developmentalism places all of the burden on the teachers when students are not successful

+Some interesting similarities….

Behavior analysts as well are often held at fault by parents and administration if students are not acquiring skills.

A great deal of work is placed on the teacher to make completing tasks as effortless as possible for their students.

Teachers are responsible for contriving environments in which learners are met with consistent reinforcement

Students immaturity is viewed as the result not acquiring skills

Teachers are held accountable for making learning environments stimulating (how do they this without manipulating the environment….?)

Teachers are supposed to create stimulating environments that will make their students want to learn….BUT they are not supposed to contrive their environment

ABA Developmentalism

+How Developmentalists continue to market themselves

Promotes teaching as being “fun! And learning is therefore effortless.”

Stone writes; p. 18 “In effect, developmentalism requires experimentally vindicated practices not only to be attractive, interesting, and engaging, it obliges them to overcome the belief that they are likely to be risky or harmful, i.e. that they interfere in unknown or unsuspected ways with a virtually boundless range of developmental considerations (Elkind, 1981).”

+Threat to Intrinsic Motivation

Worry that vindicated, empirically based teaching methods such as direct teaching are a threat to student thinking such as cognitive processes, higher-order intellectual skills, critical thinking, & reflective thinking.

+The Reality

Survey showed in 1991 that students were “attitudinally unprepared for responsibility in the workplace. Do not understand reciprocity of pay for performance” (Stone, 1994, p. 63).

“Teachers have found that the concept of developmental readiness is a very convenient excuse for teaching ineffectiveness” (Stone, p. 63, 1994).

+Unkept Promises Developmentalism promises to make learning

more spontaneous (incidental teaching) enjoyable (reinforcement) and require less student exertion (errorless learning techniques and behavioral momentum)

Yet behavior analysts are able to do the same thing through: Incidental teaching Positive reinforcement Errorless teaching techniques Behavioral momentum

+Why can’t learning be fun AND Empirically Validated?

Developmentalism was built on the idea that learning should be fun, and the classroom would be filled with “independent, enthusiastic learners instead of passive, resistant conscripts appealed to both teachers and parents” Stone, p. 64, 1994).

The reality is that students need to learn and therefore be taught to abide by time schedules and not simply when the individual is ready to work.

+The Incompatibility of Development and Experimental Views

Does not want change to emerge as a result of a contrived external agent

Want the child to emerge independently

BUT ALSO believe that each child’s way of learning is unique and can only be understood by a teacher deeply immersed in the situation (Stone, p. 21, 1996).

+Many teachers STILL believe that teaching is more of an art than a science Situation specific

Each classroom is unique

Emulate nature

+Stone Recommendations

In conclusion, J.E. Stone provides 3 main recommendations for how to promote empirically validated education and expunge progressive education ideals.

+Stones Recommendations:

Number 1: Inform the parties who are concerned with educational reform of developmentalism’s counterproductive results: Its record of failure Its emphasis on assumed student limitations Its overemphasis on the assumed dangers of intervention Its tendency to foster student and teacher complacency

about achievement (Stone, 1994).

+Stone’s Recommendations

Number 2: Address developmentalists unvalidated concerns about how structure hinders a students personal development and mental health

+Stone’s Recommendations

Number 3:Make educational reformers AWARE of how developmentalists use “immaturity” in children to reduce parent a teacher blame for lack of progress and academic achievement Bring to their attention the multitude of cases where

children overcame their limitations due to teacher and parental support!!!

Special education teachers can be especially effective in demonstrating how dedicated teachers can be successful in teaching to even the most challenged learners!

+Stone’s Recommendations

But Most Importantly!

Collaboration is key!

Play into the competitive nature of American capitalism at a young age “American youth may be self-indulgent and intellectually

unengaged but they are competitive and patriotic”

We are the next generation so it is up to us to evoke change!

+References Bredekamp, S. (1988). NAEYC position statement on

developmentally appropriate practice in the primary grades, serving 5 through 8 year olds. Young Children, January, pp. 64-84.

Committee for Economic Development. (1991). The unfinished agenda: A new vision for child development and education (A statement by the Research and Policy Committee for the Committee for Economic Development). New York: Author.

Elkind, D. (1981). The hurried child. Newton, MA: Addison- Wesley

Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990, KRS }} 156.010 (1990)

Lemlech, J. (1994). Curriculum and instructional methods for the elementary and middle school (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan College.

Ravitch, D. (1983). The troubled crusade: American education 1945-1980. New York: Harper-Collins.

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Stone, J. E. (1993a, August). Behavioral technology in a developmentalist context. In S. Axelrod (Chair), Educational technology - concepts and applications. An invited symposium held at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Stone, J. E. (1993b). An open letter to the Oregon state governing bodies. Effective School Practices, 12(2), 3-6.

Stone, J. E. (1994). Developmentalism’s impediments to school reform: Three recommendations for overcoming them. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J.W. Eshleman, & T. A. Grossi (Eds.) Behavior analysis in education (pp. 57-72). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.

Stone, J. E. (1996). Developmentalism: An obscure but pervasive restriction on educational improvement. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 4(8), 1-32.

Wlodkowski, R. J. (1986). Motivation and teaching: A practical guide. Washington DC: National Education Association.

U.S. Department of Education. (1991). America 2000, an education strategy (revised). Washington, DC: Author.