Date: Page 3 PSY ï: Aggression î ì í ó/ í ô Lutterworth ollege: Psychology Department Resource Developed y: Mrs A Pepper General o Reactive Aggression o Proactive Aggression

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Lutterworth College: Psychology Department Resource Developed By: Mrs A Pepper

PSY3: Aggression 2017/18

Specification:

Source: AS Psychology (7181) and A-level Psychology (7182). AS exams May/June 2016 onwards. A-level exams May/June 2017 onwards. Version 1.0

4.3.8.1 Aggression (1)

R A G Content Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression including the roles of the limbic system, serotonin

and testosterone.

Genetic factors in aggression, including the MAOA gene.


R A G Content

The ethological explanation of aggression, including reference to innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns.

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression.


R A G Content Social psychological explanations of human aggression, including the frustration-aggression

hypothesis.

Social psychological explanations of human aggression, including social learning theory as applied to human aggression.

Social psychological explanations of human aggression, including de-individuation.


R A G Content

Institutional aggression in the context of prisons: dispositional and situational explanations.


R A G Content

Media influences on aggression, including the effects of computer games.

The role of desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming.

What is

aggression?

What

causes it?

Aggression is…

And could be caused by…

Date: Page 3



General o Reactive Aggression o Proactive Aggression o Free Will o Determinism o Nature o Nurture

Social Learning Theory

o Observation o Imitation o Role Models o Vicarious Reinforcement o Attention o Retention o Motivation o Reproduction o Self-Efficacy o Within Culture o Between Culture

Deindividuation o Deindividuation o Anonymity o Collective Mindset o Mob Mentality o Private Self Awareness o Public Self Awareness

Frustration Aggression

o Psychodynamic o ID o Pleasure Principle o Catharsis o Displacement o Absent o Powerful o Abstract o Cues

Institutional Aggression

o Dispositional o Importation o Social History o Subculture o Criminal/Thief o Convict o Conventional Straight o Situational o Deprivation o Autonomy o Liberty o Good & Services o Heterosexuality o Safety o Bad Apple o Bad Barrel o Bad Barrel Maker o Systemic

Genetics o Twin o Adoption o Concordance o Variance o MAOA o Serotonin o Warrior Gene o Diathesis Stress

Neural/Hormonal o Serotonin o Testosterone o Limbic o Hypothalamus o Amygdala o Thalamus o Hippocampus

Evolutionary o Cuckoldry o Mate Retention o Vigilance o Violence o Uxoricide o Sperm Competition

Ethological o Innate Releasing

Mechanism o Fixed Action Pattern o Ethology o Ritualism o Stereotyped o Universal o Ballistic o Single Purpose o Single Stimulus o Unaffected by Learning o Encephalisation

Video Games o Experiments o Equivalence o Correctional o Causation o Longitudinal o Temperament o Publication Bias o File Drawer Phenomenon

Media o Desensitisation o Sympathetic Nervous

System o Disinhibition o Sponsor Effect o SLT o Cognitive Priming o Schema o Threshold

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What do you remember?

Social Learning Theory suggests we learn aggression in 2 ways:

Directly through reinforcement (reward / punishment)

Indirectly through seeing (observing others) and from being rewarded or punished for behaviours =

vicarious learning

Bandura & Walters thought aggression could not be explained through traditional learning theory where only

direct experience was needed to acquire new behaviours. Instead they suggested the social learning theory –

we also learn from observing others.

Through the SLT we learn the specifics about aggression such as:

the forms it takes

how often it is enacted

situations that produce it

Children learn their aggressive responses through observation of a role model & then imitating that behaviour

and it is enough to learn just through observation of role models to whom they identify. Bandura argued that

children can also observe and learn about the consequences of behaviours from watching others being rewarded

or punished. They therefore learn whether certain behaviours are worth repeating or not. These models can be

good or bad.

Bandura (1986) claimed that in order for social learning to take place the child must form mental representations

of events in their social environment. Child must represent possible rewards & punishments for such actions i.e.

In terms of expectancies of future outcomes. When opportunities arise in the future the child will display the

learnt behaviours as long as the expectation of reward is greater than the punishment.

Therefore aggression is INTIALLY learnt through INDIRECT means. However Bandura argued that maintenance of

the behaviours is through DIRECT experience. If a child is rewarded for behaviour – they are more likely to repeat

it. E.G a child who has a successful history of bullying will come to attach value to aggression. In addition there is

a role for self-efficacy. Children develop confidence in their ability to carry out the aggressive actions. Children

who were not good at aggression in the past are less likely to do it – less confidence in it.

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiNueDo2IDVAhVKYVAKHWhHB9gQjRwIBw&url=http://depositphotos.com/5623050/stock-photo-knowledge-highlighted-in-green.html&psig=AFQjCNEiSLg-C3pKbwEOFBFaAHWkayKQLg&ust=1499844101889234

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Procedure Involved children observing aggressive and non-aggressive models & then being tested for imitation in

the absence of the model.

Male & female children aged 3-5 yrs. Half exposed to adult (role) models interacting aggressively with

bobo doll, another half not aggressive.

(Role) models displayed aggressive acts such as punching, kicking saying POW to the bobo. Following

exposure, children were shown toys they were not allowed to play with in order to frustrate them then

taken to another room with toys including the bobo doll.

Results Children in aggressive condition reproduced aggressive behaviours resembling model.

No aggression from non-aggressive group.

Boys more physically aggressive than girls but no gender difference in amount of verbal aggression

Methodological evaluation- It is possible that the children in Bandura’s studies were aware of what was

expected of them (demand characteristics). This may affect the validity of the findings.

Reduce the AO1 information into the following space…you cannot go outside the box, you cannot use

other paper. Therefore the task is to ensure you are only writing the key information. You can

approach this is several ways, key terms, mind maps, imagery… your choice!

https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj3udCT9_HUAhUHU1AKHTmYDz0QjRwIBw&url=https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/research/&psig=AFQjCNGb48zUDUhnWzY4s-9T1kn4kQylUg&ust=1499336848688267

https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjQncnQhYHVAhUQaFAKHXXoBw4QjRwIBw&url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/bandura-and-bobo.html&psig=AFQjCNEImwKLaSxYYOI1SZybJZ0oKTVUlw&ust=1499856130798118

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Study/Commentary Type Elaboration Theme Order

A Social Learning Theory fails to consider internal, physiological factors which may be the basis of aggressive behaviour. For example, the male hormone testosterone is claimed to be linked to aggressive behaviour (see later essay - Dabbs).

B If aggression is due to Social Learning Theory we would expect different practices in different cultures to produce variations in levels of aggression.

C It has been found that children who watch violent television programmes are more likely to behave in an aggressive way which is consistent with SLT

D Evidence for social learning theory relies heavily on experimental evidence, laboratory and field studies of observational learning. These studies lack ecological validity. A Bobo doll is not, after all, a living person.

E Griffiths and Hunt (1993) found that older children who played video games reported higher levels of aggression. They study looked at long term aggression increasing studies validity, as most have focused on short term aggression.

F There are examples of societies that are non-aggressive (e.g. the Amish of USA).

G Philips (1986) found homicide rates in the US increased in the week following a major boxing match suggesting viewers were imitating behaviour watched.

H There are two different types of aggression. Reactive and Proactive. Social Learning theory can explain proactive aggression very well - a conscious decision; but is less able to explain why reactive aggression happens – heat of the moment blow ups.

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I Social Learning Theory can explain differences within individuals and between them. Between: exposure to different models can explain why some ‘groups’ are more or less aggressive than others. Within: people respond differently to the same role model because they have different experiences of direct reinforcement. They also respond differently in different situations (context dependant learning).

J Patterson et al (1980) compared families having at least one highly aggressive child with other families of the same size and socio-economic status who had children with no such problems. They found that families with an aggressive child tended to have a ‘coercive home’ (little affection and aggressive tactics are used to deal with conflict).

K Margaret Mead (1935) compared three New Guinea tribes living fairly close to each other. The Mundugumor: both men and women were aggressive in their behaviour. The Arapesh: Both men and women were non-aggressive and cooperative and would hide when invaded rather than fight. The Tchambuli: Man carved, painted and indulged themselves, whereas the women were relatively aggressive.

The danger of this essay is it reads generic! It is not an essay about Social Learning theory – that’s in

PSY2! This is an essay about why people are aggressive. The question would ask you to “Outline and

evaluate the Social Learning Theory explanation of aggression”. However, you need to imagine it says

“Does Social Learning Theory adequately explain why people act aggressively”

The homework will test for the following features of essay writing:

• Directly answering the question throughout (AO1 and AO3)

• Development of a line of argument.

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From the video in last lesson, can you guess at any of the answers

to these statements? I am going to ask you to guess at points,

and take a risk, “I dunno” is not the answer! I will give you the

‘correct’ answers to fill in the rest as we go through.

An individual becomes deindividuated when they…

The theory is based on early work by Le Bon (1896) who claimed…

In groups, individuals feel less identifiable which can …

Zimbardo (1969) claimed deindividuation also occurs as…

Factors that contribute to deindividuation include…

Diener (1980) proposed deindividuation occurs when…

According to Diener, when in a deindividuated state…

Prentice-Dunn & Rogers (1989) refined the concept …

Reduced public self-awareness occurs when a person…

Reduced private self-awareness occurs when a person…

Dodd (1985)



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Support It: Zimbardo (1969) asked groups of four female students to give electric shocks to another student –

pp’s in the deindividuated condition were never referred to by name, wore lab coats and hoods to hide their face

however pp’s in the individuated condition wore normal clothes were introduced to each other by name and

were given large name tags to wear. Regardless of the description given to pp’s about whether the learner was

‘honest’ ‘conceited’ or ‘critical,’ deindividuated pp’s shocked the learner for twice as long as the pp’s in the

individuated condition.

This study therefore indicates:

Does it have to be aggression? ‘deviance in the dark’

Does it have to be bad? ‘nurses and the KKK’

However, it could be argued that deindividuation theory lacks validity as it is based on evidence conducted under

controlled lab conditions, where pp’s were asked to perform actions that were unfamiliar or unlikely to happen in

their everyday life.

This issue was however addressed by cross-cultural research has indicated the universal nature of deindividuation

– Watson (1973) collected data on warriors in 23 cultures and found that warriors who concealed their identity in

conflict situations were more aggressive than those who were identifiable.

This evidence therefore suggests that:

Real life application and implcations to the internet!

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This is based on the work of Freud and the Psychodynamic

approach. Therefore what can you remember…

Term What it is How it might link to

aggression

What Dollard said

ID

Catharsis

Diplacement

Green (1968)



Date: Page 11



DEBATE:

The idea of displaced aggression is valid

The idea that aggression is cathartic is false

It is not frustration, it is any negative emotions

It depends on if the frustrations are justified

It has important implications for gun control

Berkowitz (1968)


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Home Work / Class Work / Voluntary

Social Learning AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3

Deindividuation AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3

Frustration-Aggression AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAwQjRwwAGoVChMIhomwy-6RxgIVZ3DbCh3p0gB7&url=http://plpnetwork.com/2013/12/30/interview-marsha-ratzel-talks-teaching-high-gear/&ei=BNt-VYb3COfg7QbppYPYBw&psig=AFQjCNHbui3nlabD5ECXpVlIkZw0RQZa-g&ust=1434463364315135

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Importation Model: Irwin and Creasey (1962) argue that prisoners are

not ‘blank slates’ when they enter prison and that they bring with them

their own social histories & traits which causes the violent aggression

seen within the prison. This dispositional theory argues that firstly pre-existing factors such as alcohol and drug

addiction, unemployment, low levels of education or demographic factors such as race and age correlate with

higher aggression inside a prison. Making some prisoners more likely than others to commit aggressive acts.

Secondly they recognised the importance of imported prisoner subcultures, identifying the criminal/thief, convict

and conventional/straight subcultures. They argue that the conventional subculture comprises of one-time

offenders who reject the other subcultures within the prison, identifying more with the staff. These are not likely

to engage in aggressive behaviour. On the other hand, convicts have been raised in the prison system. They look

for positions of power, influence and information within the institution and are most likely to use aggression to

secure these things. Lastly the criminal/thieves follow norms and values inherent within those professions such

as not betraying one another and being trustworthy to other criminals. Therefore while not aggressive

themselves, will be unlikely to report such acts, allowing them to continue out of loyalty.

Deprivation Model: Sykes (1958) acknowledged that individual factors are important however, the prison

environment has to be taken into consideration. This situational model argues that institutional aggression occurs

as a result of ‘deprivations’ inmates experience on a daily basis which lead to increased stress, and as a

consequence, some inmates act aggressively to both reduce this and try and gain some control over their lives.

The main deprivation is of liberty through the use of numbers and uniforms many civil rights are los, such as

overcrowding, having to obtain permission to eat, sleep, shower, and interact. This links to the deprivation of

autonomy in decision making leading to feelings of helplessness. This can lead to frustration and in turn,

aggression. Thirdly through deprivation of goods and services they would ordinarily have access to creating a

need for aggressive acts to obtain such things from other inmates. Deprivation of heterosexual relationships is

also key to aggression as for many men female company is an important part of their self-identity. This in turn

increases the chance of a non-consensual homosexual experience, in itself an aggressive act. Lastly despite

perception to the contrary prisoners suffer a deprivation of security with many prisoners reporting fear for their

own safety. Many inmates describe others as violent and aggressive and this can lead to a heightened sense of

physical threat.

Aggressive / Not AggressiveConvict

•Explain:

Aggressive / Not AggressiveCriminal

•Explain:

Aggressive / Not AggressiveConventional

•Explain:


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Lastly Zimbardo suggested we must also remember the number of aggressive acts against prisoners perpetrated

by the guards themselves, such as those seen in his study or Abu Ghraib. He argued for a systemic model, which

takes account of the power and policies in these institutions. For instance arguing that the regular

dehumanisation and deindividuation which occurs is responsible for the aggressive acts seen, and the lack of

power and status given to some guards which leads to aggression towards the only individuals they are more

powerful than, the prisoners. www.prisonexp.org, www.TED.com – Psychology of Evil

Liberty•Reason for Aggression:

Autonomy•Reason for Aggression:

Goods/Services•Reason for Aggression:

Heterosexuality•Reason for Aggression:

Safety•Reason for Aggression:

Bad Barrel Makers

Bad Barrels

Bad Apples

http://www.prisonexp.org/

http://www.ted.com/

Date: Page 15



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Q1) Briefly explain one limitation of the situational explanation for institutional aggression. [2marks]

Institutional Aggression AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3

Dispositional

Situational




Date: Page 17



Think about this…How could you go about trying to study if aggression had a genetic link?

IS AGGRESSION INHERITED? Trying to determine the role of genetic factors in aggression is essentially

a question of nature and nurture. To disentangle the relative

contributions of nature (genetic inheritance) and nurture (environmental

influences), researchers have employed a variety of methodological

techniques, including twin and adoption studies, studies of individual genes and studies of violent populations.

Twin Studies

Monozygotic (identical) twins share all of their genes, while dizygotic (non-identical) twins share only 50 per cent.

In twin studies, researchers compare the degree of similarity for a particular trait (such as aggression) between

sets monozygotic (MZ) twins to the similarity between sets of dizygotic (DZ) twins. If the MZ twins are more alike

in terms of their aggressive behaviour, then this should be due to genes rather than environment (both types of

twin share the same environment as each other but monozygotic twins are more genetically alike). Most twin

studies have focused on criminal behaviour generally, but one of the few studies to specifically study aggressive

behaviour using adult twin pairs found that nearly 50% of the variance in direct aggressive behaviour (i.e.

aggression toward others) could be attributed to genetic factors (Coccaro et al., 1997).

Adoption Studies Adoption studies can help to untangle the relative contributions of environment and heredity in aggression. If a

positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and aggressive behaviour in their

biological parents, a genetic effect is implied. If a positive correlation is found between the adoptee’s aggressive

behaviour and the rearing family, then an environmental effect is implied. A study of over 14,000 adoptions in

Denmark found that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents

(particularly fathers) with criminal convictions (Hutchings and Mednick, 1975), providing evidence for a genetic

effect.

What’s wrong with twin studies?

Studying

Genetics?


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A gene for aggression? The role of MAOA – Although no individual gene for aggression has been

identified in humans, a gene responsible for producing a protein called

monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) has been associated with aggressive

behaviour. MAOA regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain,

and low levels of serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour. In the 1980s, a study of a

Dutch family found that many of its male members behaved in a particularly violent and aggressive manner, and a

large proportion had been involved in serious crimes and violence including rape and arson. These men were

found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA in their bodies, and a defect in this gene was later identified

(Brunner et al., 1993).

Gene-environment interaction – A second study (Caspi et al., 2002),

linking MAOA to aggressive behaviour, involved 500 male children.

Researchers discovered a variant of the gene associated with high levels

of MAOA and a variant associated with low levels. Those with low levels

of MAOA were significantly more likely to grow up to exhibit antisocial behaviour but only if they had been

maltreated as children. Children with high levels of MAOA who were maltreated, and those with low levels who

were not maltreated, did not display antisocial behaviour. This shows that it is the interaction between genes and

environment that determines behaviours such as aggression.

META-ANALYSES Miles and Carey (1997) carried out a meta-analysis of 24 twin

and adoption studies that had investigated the genetic bias of

aggression. Most studies had relied on parental or

participants’ self-reports of aggressive tendencies, although

some involved observation of aggressive behaviour. The results suggested a strong genetic influence

that could account for as much as 50% of the variance in aggression. Age differences were notably

important, with both genes and family environment being influential in determining aggression in youth,

but at later ages the influences of rearing environment decreased and the influence of genes increased.

A later meta-analysis by Rhee and Waldman (2002) combined the results of 51 twin and adoption

studies and concluded that aggressive antisocial behaviour was largely a product of genetic

contributions. However, in this study, as with the Miles and Carey study above, several variables,

include age of participant and assessment method for aggression, moderated the genetic influence on

aggression, suggesting that although genetic factors play a significant part in the development of

aggressive behaviours, the influence of other factors affect their expression.

M Mono

A Amine

O Oxidise

A Variation 'A'


Date: Page 19



When considering methodological evaluation you should always be evaluating the research field rather than a

specific piece of research, that way you avoid evaluating you evaluation.

For your IDA there are several ways you can cap your marks or indeed lose/not gain credit for you work:

• It is the wrong side of the debate (happens more than you’d think!)

• You make too strong a claim (e.g. this is nature and therefore ignores nurture)

• You talk about the wrong debate

• It sounds very generic, therefore not using other AO2 as evidence to back up your claim or not specifically

linked to AO1.

Impact on AO1

Methodological Issues

N. Vs N. OR FW.Vs D.

Which side?

So what? Thinking about strength of your so what…

How could you bring in evidence?

How does it link to AO1?

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THE VALUE OF ANIMAL RESEARCH Studies of aggressive behaviour in non-human animals have an important role in helping us understand

aggressive behaviour in humans. For example, rodents offer the advantage of experimental manipulation to test

the effects of specific genes on aggressive behaviour. Manipulations may involve selective breeding programmes

and ‘knockout’ techniques (where a single gene is eliminated from a group of experimental animals in order to

study its effect). An example of such a study that has potential for an understanding of human aggression was by

Young et al. (2002). These researchers claim to have identified a genetic mutation that causes violent behaviour

in mice. This mutation, nicknamed ‘fierce’, has a range of effects on mice, including extremely violent behaviour

towards other mice. A counterpart of this gene does exist in humans, although its precise function is not known.

1

2

3 3 3

2

5

4 4

Date: Page 21



Evidence from non-human studies – Raleigh et al. (1991) have added

support for the importance of serotonin in aggressive behavior in a

study of vervet monkeys. They found that individuals fed on

experimental diets high in tryptophan (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of

aggression. Individuals fed on diets that were low in tryptophan exhibited increased aggressive behavior,

suggesting that the difference in aggression could be attributed to their serotonin levels. Other evidence for the

importance of serotonin in aggression has shown that in animals that are selectively bred for domestication and

for increasingly docile temperaments, there is a corresponding increase, over generations, in brain concentrations

of serotonin (Popova et al., 1991).

Evidence from antidepressants – If low levels of serotonin are associated with low impulse control and aggressive

behavior, drugs that clinically raise serotonin levels should produce a concurrent lowering in aggression. Bond

2005) has established that this is exactly what happens in clinical studies of antidepressant drugs that elevate

serotonin levels. She established that such drugs do tend to reduce irritability and impulsive aggression.

REDUCTIONISM AND BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS -The links between biological mechanisms such as serotonin

and aggression, and testosterone and aggression are well established in non-human animals. However, the

position is not quite so clean in the case of humans. This is not to deny that such links exist, but rather that the

complexity of human social behavior means that a biological explanation for human aggression is insufficient on

its own to explain all the many different aspects of aggressive and violent behavior.

Neurotransmitter: Serotonin

Serotonin is thought to reduce

aggression by inhibiting responses

to emotional stimuli that might

otherwise lead to an aggressive

response. Low levels of serotonin

in the brain have been associated

with an increased susceptibility to

impulsive behaviour, aggression,

and even violent suicide. Some

drugs are thought to alter

serotonin levels and thus increase

aggressive behaviour. Mann et al

(1990) gave 35 healthy subjects

dexfenfluramine, which is known

to deplete serotonin. Using a

questionnaire to assess hostility

and aggression levels, they found

that dexfenfluramine treatment in

makes (but not females) was

associated with an increase in

hostility and aggression scores.

Serotonin Story


Page 22 Date:



The main neuroanatomical explanation is the Papez-Maclean limbic

theory involving structures such as the amygdala, hypothalamus, and

hippocampus which are implicated in reactive aggression. Reactive

aggression is a response to a perceived threat, rather than proactive aggression which is a response in

anticipation of a reward. The limbic system also connects to the cingulate gyrus which is responsible for focusing

attention on emotionally significant events. Also, the limbic system has connections to the prefrontal cortex which

is involved in forward planning and anticipation of reward. The limbic system plays a key role in how an organism

responds to environmental threats and challenges and thus is believed to be the key factor in whether we

respond aggressively or not to an external stimulus.

The hypothalamus is responsible for the regulation of the ANS, which in turn regulates responses to emotional

circumstances. Therefore, damage to this area can result in an inappropriate aggressive response to a perceived

threat. The amygdala is responsible for attaching emotional significance to sensory information. The limbic system

is believed to be hierarchical with signals being passed from the lower systems to the higher systems in the

prefrontal cortex where feelings are monitored and interpreted, which then triggers a physical response. The

prefrontal cortex is crucial for regulating social behaviour and aggressive responses. Damage to the prefrontal

cortex would reduce the inhibition of the amygdala resulting in higher levels of aggression.

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjxiMKc5IDVAhWNYVAKHVMWBfYQjRwIBw&url=http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Limbic_system&psig=AFQjCNG8rSideIUQXcUAfGj1_b3xFqHDPQ&ust=1499847163210794


Date: Page 23



Inconsistent evidence – Albert et al. (1993) claim that despite many

studies showing a positive correlation between testosterone and

aggression, other studies find no such relationship, particularly those

that have compared testosterone levels of aggressive and less

aggressive individuals. In addition, most studies showing a positive correlation have involved small samples of

men within prisons, using either self-report measures of aggression or judgements based solely on the severity of

the crime committed.

Aggression or dominance? – Mazur (1985) suggests we should distinguish aggression from dominance.

Individuals act aggressively when their intent is to inflict injury, whereas they act dominantly if their wish is to

achieve or maintain status over another. Mazur claims that aggression is just one form of dominance behavior.

In non-human animals the influence of testosterone on dominance behavior might be shown in aggressive

behavior. In humans, however, the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely to be expressed in more

varied and subtle ways (e.g. through status-striving behavior).

REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS - Statistics suggest a sharp increase in gun-related crime in the UK, but why does the

presence of guns in the environment lead to increased aggression? Perhaps the presence of a stimulus, such as a

gun or knife, triggers increases in testosterone levels (the gun is seen as a threat), which in turn increases

aggressive behavior, a chain of events that would be predicted by the challenge hypothesis. To test this,

Klinesmith et al. (2006) had male college students provide a saliva sample (to measure testosterone), interact

either with a gun or a child’s toy for 15 minutes, and then provide another saliva sample. Males who interacted

with the gun showed significantly greater increases in testosterone and behaved more aggressively toward

another participant compared to those who played with the child’s toy.

Hormone: Testosterone

Dabbs et al (1987) measured

salivary testosterone in violent

and non-violent criminals. Those

with the highest testosterone

levels had a history of primarily

violent crimes, whereas those

with the lowest levels had

committed only non-violent

crimes. Studies of non-prison

populations have found similar

trends. Lindman et al (1987)

found that young males who

behaved aggressively when drunk

had higher testosterone levels

than those who did not.

Extension: Challenge Hypothesis

Testosterone Limerick


Page 24 Date:



GENDER BIAS - Most studies concerned with testosterone and aggression have involved male participants, but

does testosterone also increase aggression in females? If anything, research suggests that the association

between testosterone and aggression is higher for female than male samples (Archer et al., 2005). A further

study showed that women with higher testosterone levels had higher occupational status, possibly as a result of

being more assertive (Baucom et al., 1985). These studies indicate that women may also respond to challenging

situations with increased testosterone, displaying characteristics such as aggressiveness and dominance.

However, in some circumstances this may be a disadvantage, as high testosterone levels are associated with an

assertive style that hinders the formation of alliances as well as the more subtle froms of competition that occur

in female groups (Archer and Coyne, 2005).


Q1) Briefly outline and evaluate the findings of one research study into genetic factors in aggression. (4marks)

Genetic Aggression AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3

Neural/Hormonal Aggression AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3


Date: Page 25



There is an evolutionary problem faced by men

AO3 = Do men who use these strategies abuse?

Violence and aggression solves this problem

1) Jealousy

AO3 = If this is evolved it should be linked to

reproduction

Violence and aggression solves this problem

2) Infidelity

AO3 = Explains gender differences

AO3 = Social Sensitivity - Determinism

AO3 = But does it really??

Page 26 Date:



An ethological explanation seeks to understand the innate behaviour of

animals (including humans) by studying them in their natural

environment. The focus of an ethological explanation is to try and

account for behaviour in terms of its adaptive value to the specific species. Ethologists believe that by looking at

animal behaviour this can help us to understand human behaviour. For example, a key ethologist from the

attachment topic in Year 1 Psychology is Konrad Lorenz (1966) who used the behaviour of geese to explain

attachment in humans.

Aggression is also seen as providing an adaptive function by ethologists. Aggression is seen in all animal species

and is believed to be an innate behaviour. If a behaviour is innate, evolutionary psychologists propose that the

behaviour must be beneficial to the organism. Aggression as a behaviour can help survival, as aggression can

protect resources such as land and food. Aggression can establish dominance hierarchies, and these are vital to

allow access to resources, such as females.

Lorenz (1966) proposed that aggression in animals is often ritualistic, which he argued is more adaptive than

direct aggression, as symbolic aggression would help ensure the organism was not harmed. If the organism

sustained an injury as part of aggression this could impair their ability to reproduce or even result in death.

Therefore, ritualistic aggression such as ‘teeth baring’ would have the effect of deterring an opponent without

physical harm being caused.

The ethological theory proposes that aggression can be the result of an evolved automatic biological response in

the brain. It is believed that animals have a built-in neural structure (a network of neurons) which, when exposed

to specific stimuli (signs or releasers) such as facial expressions, will cause the release of an automatic behavioural

response.

The inbuilt biological structure or process is called the Innate Releasing Mechanism (INR). The consequential

aggressive behavioural sequence is called the Fixed Action Pattern (FPA). Innate releasing mechanisms are a key

part of the ethological (instinctive) approach to aggression (and other behaviours such as courtship/mating). For

example, when a dog sees a cat running away from them, they have an instinctive response to chase the cat.

When the cat is still the innate releasing mechanism is not activated, but when the cat runs then the INR is

activated and the chasing behaviour of the dog is an example of a fixed action pattern. The dogs desire to chase is

automatic and instinctual in response to a cat or any other small animal running away from it.


Date: Page 27



Tinbergen (1951) undertook an experiment with male sticklebacks. This

species of fish is very territorial and aggressive. In the mating season

they develop a red spot on their underside. Tinbergen observed that at

this time male sticklebacks will attack another male stickleback that

enters their territory. He theorised that the red spot on their underside was acting as an innate releasing

mechanism and when one stickleback observed another stickleback with this red spot they would initiate the

aggressive attack behaviour which is an example of a fixed action pattern. To test this out he presented male

sticklebacks with a wooden model; if the wooden model had a red spot, then the male stickleback would attack.

However, without the red spot the male stickleback would not react, and there was no aggression displayed.

An ethological explanation assumes that behaviour is innate; therefore, it should be uniform across all cultures.

However, Nisbett (1996) found that in a laboratory experiment when South American white males were insulted

they were more likely to respond aggressively than white North American males under the same conditions. This

research demonstrates cultural differences that would be problematic for the ethological explanation to account

for, as there was a high variation in aggressive responses.

There is evidence from the animal kingdom that aggression is not always ritualistic, Goodall (2010) studied

chimpanzee behaviour for over fifty years. As part of her research, she observed groups of chimpanzees that

waged a brutal war against neighbouring groups of chimpanzees, slaughtering all members of the group. Goodall

(2010) referred to this type of gang behaviour as the systematic slaughtering of one group by another stronger

group. This aggression is hard to explain from an ethological standpoint as the risk of injury to the attacking group

is high and thus does not appear to be an adaptive behaviour.

Page 28 Date:



Not all fixed action patterns are fixed. There is some evidence that learning and environmental factors can create

variation within a species. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to discuss modal action patterns rather than

fixed action patterns. Modal action patterns are behaviours that are instinctual such as the desire to chase in dogs

(the prey drive), but that differ from one individual within the species compared to others. For example, some

dogs may chase cats but some dogs do not. The differences in behaviour may be down to training, or may be

down to species differentiation as a result of selective breeding of characteristics.

An evaluation point would be to discuss whether animal research can be extrapolated to humans. However, it is

important not to dismiss animal research entirely, but just to advise that caution is required when making

comparisons between animal and human behaviour.

Date: Page 29




Q1) What are innate releasing mechanisms? [2 marks]

Q2) Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

News correspondents in inner cities have remarked upon how young males frequently carry weapons and engage in threatening behaviour.

Using your knowledge of evolutionary explanations of aggression, account for these high levels of aggression in young males. [4 marks]

Ethological Aggression AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3


Page 30 Date:



AO1 – What do experiments study exactly and what

have they found?

AO3 – What are the methodological strengths and

flaws of experiments?

AO1 – What do correlations study exactly and what

have they found?


flaws of correlations?

AO1 – What do longitudinals study exactly and what

have they found?


flaws of longitudinals?

Meta Analyses

Publications Bias

Date: Page 31



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Dis

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Des

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Page 32 Date:




Q1) Briefly outline the possible role of cognitive priming in the effects of computer games on aggression. [2

marks]

Q2) Briefly explain how cognitive priming in the media might influence aggressive behaviour.[2 marks]

Media Aggression AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

POSSIBLE AO2

AO3

3 x 8 Markers

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3

AO1

AO3


Documents

Date: Page 3 PSY ï: Aggression î ì í ó/ í ô Lutterworth ollege: Psychology Department Resource Developed y: Mrs A Pepper General o Reactive Aggression o Proactive Aggression