ţ˙ - SGGWanimal.sggw.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Animal-Science... · 2018-04-04 · Animal Science Forestry and Wood Technology Horticulture and Landscape Architecture Land Reclamation

Annals of Warsaw University

of Life Sciences– SGGW

Animal ScienceNo 57 (1)

2018

ISSN 1898-8830

1898 8830

ISSN 1898-8830

Agriculture(Agricultural and Forest Engineering)Animal ScienceForestry and Wood TechnologyHorticulture and Landscape ArchitectureLand Reclamation

WARSAW UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES PRESS

166 Nowoursynowska St., 02-787 WarsawPoland, tel. (48 22) 593 55 20e-mail: [email protected]

Editorial BoardMarian Binek Katarzyna BogackaBogdan Brzeziecki Bogdan Klepacki Włodzimierz KlucińskiAnna Kołłajtis-DołowyAndrzej Lenart Małgorzata ŁobockaJózef Mosiej Arkadiusz Orłowski Małgorzata J. RiedelMarek S. SzyndelJacek Wilkowski Janusz Wojdalski Michał Zasada

DistributionAnnals are distributed by the Bookshop of Warsaw University of Life Sciences Press, 166 Nowoursynowska St., Warsaw, Poland.

Agriculture(Agricultural and Forest Engineering)

Animal ScienceForestry and Wood Technology

Horticulture and Landscape ArchitectureLand Reclamation

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences were originally published in 1957 as Zeszyty Naukowe SGGW (Scienti-fi c Fascicles of SGGW). In 1980 the na-me was changed to Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences.The Annals (5 subject series) are publi-shed once or twice a year and will carry pre-viously unpublished papers that are mainly in English, but also in French, German or Russian, followed by a short summary in Polish. Manuscripts for publication should be typewritten and submitted to the Warsaw

University of Life Sciences Press in two copies. Papers submitted for consideration by the Editorial board should not exceed 0.5 of a printed sheet (about 11 pages includ-ing illustrations, and should consist of the following elements: 1) name and surname of the author, 2) title of the paper, 3) abstract (about 20 lines), 4) text of the paper, 5) date when the paper was sent to the Warsaw Uni-versity of Life Sciences Press and mailing address of the author, 6) summary (one page), 7) tables and fi gures with captions.

Annalsof WarsawUniversity

of LifeSciences– SGGWAnimal Science No 57 (1)

Warsaw 2018

Contents

DAMAZIAK K., RIEDEL J., GOZDOW-SKI D., NIEMIEC J., SIENNICKA A., RÓG D. Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract in laying hens feeding on productive results and eggs quality 5

JANUS K., LESIŃSKI G. Birds and bats using buildings as a place of breeding or shelter 19

KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ J., GAŁKA E., GIERDZIEWICZ M. Analysis of genetic structure of Silesian horses from Książ Natio-nal Stud 31

KUROSAD A., PASŁAWSKA U., JANE-CZEK A., PASŁAWSKI R., JONKISZ P., SIKORSKA-KOPYŁOWICZ A., JANK M., GŁOGOWSKI R. Impact of food type on long term consumption kinetics in group--housed domestic cats (Felis catus) 47

ŁUKASIEWICZ M., MATUSZEWSKI A., FLORCZUK KOŁOMYJA P., KAMA-SZEWSKI M., WARDECKI Ł. Selected invasive species of the Polish and European avifaunae 55

PRZYSUCHA T., GOŁĘBIEWSKI M., WNĘK K., SLÓSARZ J., KUNOWSKA--SLÓSARZ M., BALCERAK M. Compa-rison of recording results of purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in Poland 67

ZĄBEK K., KONEFAŁ K., KRYSZCZAK J., GOLAN I., KALIŃSKA A., KRUZIŃSKA B., DAMAZIAK K., BOGDAŃSKA K., MICHALCZUK M. The effect of paper sub-strate type used at the beginning of rearing on foot pad dermatitis (FPD) occurrence and production results of broiler chickens 77

SERIES EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor-in-ChiefAnimal Science series SecretaryAddress of Editorial Offi ce

prof. dr hab. Anna Rekieldr Danuta Dzierżanowska-GóryńWydział Nauk o Zwierzętach SGGWul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa, Poland

EDITORS prof. dr hab. Wanda Olech – statistics editorNatalia Filipczak – English language consultant Agata Cienkusz – Polish language consultant

THEME EDITORS dr hab. Elżbieta Michalska – genetics and animal breedingdr hab. Elżbieta Pezowicz – biology and ecologydr hab. Iwona Kosieradzka – animal nutrition and feedstuffsdr hab. Tadeusz Kaleta – behaviour and welfare of animalprof. dr hab. Ewa Sawosz – biological engineering of animaldr hab. Ewa Skibniewska – welfare of animaldr hab. Justyna Więcek – animal husbandry and production technology

SERIES EDITOR Anna Rekiel

SERIES EDITORIAL ADVISORY COUNCILProf. DSc. Andrzej Chwalibóg (Denmark)Prof. DSc. Konrad Dąbrowski (USA)Prof. DSc. Ondrey Debréceni (Slovakia)Prof. Ewgienij Dobruk (Belarus)Prof. dr hab. Robert J. Eckert (Poland)Prof. Dr Sophie Ermidou-Pollet (Greece)Prof. dr hab. Grażyna Garbaczewska (Poland)Prof. DSc. Luis L. Gosálvez (Spain)Prof. DSc. Adrian Harrison (Denmark)

Prof. dr hab. Jarosław O. Horbańczuk (Poland)Prof. Dr Drago Kompan (Slovenia)Prof. Dr Sándor Kukovics (Hungary)Prof. Dr Stoycho Metodiev (Bulgarian)Prof. DSc. Francois K. Siebrits (RSA) Prof. dr hab. Jacek Skomiał (Poland)Dr hab. Arkadiusz Terman (Poland)Prof. dr hab. Romuald Zabielski (Poland)

The Editorial Board (Offi ce) of “Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Animal Science” informs that the printed version of the journal is the original version.Redakcja „Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Animal Science” informuje, że wersja drukowana czasopisma jest wersją pierwotną (referencyjną).

Covered in: AGRO, Index Copernicus (2014 – 83.35; 2015 – 78.24), CAB Direct, CEON, ARIANTA, ePNP, PBN, POL-INDEX, POLONBazy: AGRO, Index Copernicus (2014 – 83,35; 2015 – 78,24), CAB Direct, CEON – Biblioteka Nauki, ARIANTA, e-Publikacje Nauki Polskiej, PBN, POL-INDEX, POLON

WARSAW UNIVERSITYOF LIFE SCIENCES PRESS

ISSN 1898-8830

EDITORIAL STAFFAnna Dołomisiewicz Print: ZAPOL sp.j., al. Piastów 42, 71-062 Violetta Kaska Szczecin

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGWAnimal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 5–18(Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018)DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.1

Abstract: Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract in laying hens feeding on productive re-sults and eggs quality. This experiment was aimed at determining the potential of extracts from gin-ger and from ginger and thyme for enhancing the production performance of laying hens and eggs quality. A total of 216 laying hens were divided into 3 feeding groups: standard diet, diet with a 0.0032% addition of a ginger extract, and diet with the addition of ginger (0.0016%) and thyme (0.0016%). Fresh eggs were analyzed for: egg weight, yolk weight and yolk weight ratio to egg weight, yolk color, albumen quality, strength and thickness of the eggshell. Boiled eggs were analy-zed for: yolk color, consistency, aroma, and taste. The results demonstrated that hen diet supple-mentation had a benefi cial effect on egg weight, but did not affect egg production rate nor feed conversion ratio. Fresh and hard-boiled eggs of the hens administered diet with a ginger extract addition were characterized by a darker color of the yolk. Both the ginger extract and the ginger + + thyme extract contributed to albumen quality improvement. Considering results obtained in this study, it seems advisable to investigate the feasibility of extending storage time of eggs of the hens fed a diet with various doses of a ginger and thyme extract.

Key words: laying hen, ginger and thyme extract, production results, egg quality

INTRODUCTION

A growing demand for table eggs has led to strong intensification of the sector of laying hens. Unfortunately, a high number of hens in one flock and high stock density per surface area unit of a hen house facilitate the occurrence and spreading of diseases. The elimination of antibiotics, whose use ban has been introduced in many European countries since the 1 January 2006 (Castanon 2007), from a diet for laying hens has resulted in deterioration of hens’ health and lowering their productivity. It has been proved many times that the use of some plants in poultry feeding has a positive effect on their health status as well as may become an alternative to antibiotics, and may boost production results. Olobatoke and Mulugeta (2011) demonstrated that hen diet supplementa-tion with garlic powder improved their production results and albumen qual-ity. They showed, however, that the 5% addition of garlic powder resulted in a strong scent of garlic developed in eggs, which severely reduces the

Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract in laying hens feeding on productive results and eggs quality

KRZYSZTOF DAMAZIAK1, JULIA RIEDEL1, DARIUSZ GOZDOWSKI2, JAN NIEMIEC1, ANNA SIENNICKA1, DANIEL RÓG3

1Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 2Faculty of Agriculture and Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 3General Industrial, Trading and Service Company Bellako Limited

6 K. Damaziak et al.

applicability of this plant in table eggs production. It has been proved earlier that the use of some oil plants, like rape-seed and flaxseed, in diet for laying hens had a negative impact on the odor of eggs (Caston et al. 1994, Lichovniková et al. 2008). In turn, the addition of the extract from garlic and onion with standardized quercetin content to the feed mixture for laying hens was reported to improve the typical aroma and taste of eggs, without causing changes in yolk color nor albu-men consistency (Damaziak et al. 2017). The effect of quercetin extracted from onion on the laying performance and egg quality was investigated by Liu et al. (2013, 2014), who demonstrated that its addition in the dose of 0.4% was improv-ing production results of hens and egg quality, in particular by improving albu-men quality and reducing cholesterol level in yolk.

Due to the presence of biologically--active components, e.g. [6]-gingerol and [6]-sholaol, an extract from ginger (Zin-giber officinale) possesses anti-inflam-matory and antioxidant properties as well as displays anticarcinogenic activity (Akimoto et al. 2015). In turn, the major constituents of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) include: essential oils (borneol, carvacrol, cymene, linalool, thymol), tannin, flavo-noids (apigenin, luteolin), saponins, and triterpene acids. Even a small amount of this herb has a sedative effect, whereas its higher does have stimulating effects (Porte and Godoy 2008, Grigore et al. 2010). Among the biologically-active substances of the discussed plants, Hashe-mi and Davoodi (2011) demonstrated as many as 6 antioxidative, 6 antiviral and 17 bactericidal substances in the compo-sition of ginger as well as 4 antioxidative,

3 antiviral and 5 bactericidal substances in the composition of thyme.

Both ginger and thyme have been investigated as feed additives to diets for laying hens, however the published data are often inconsistent, or refer to some selected production parameters as well as different forms and doses of the prepa-rations used. The application of a thyme oil additive in laying hen feeding was confirmed to improve the feed conver-sion ratio and increase egg production rate and egg weight (Bölükbaşi et al. 2008). These authors demonstrated also that thyme oil was reducing the count of Escherichia coli bacteria in feces. Saki et al. (2014), who supplemented hen diets with a phytogenic additive being a mixture of garlic, pot marigold, fennel, and thyme, showed an increase in egg weight and a decrease in trimethylamine level in yolk, which resulted in egg odor improvement. In turn, thyme added to a diet in the form of powder together with powdered garlic (1 : 1) was shown not to affect laying yield nor egg qual-ity (Mohebbifar and Torki 2010). In contrast, Akbarian et al. (2011) showed that the addition of ginger root powder to laying hen diet in doses of 0.25–0.75% was improving egg production, but had no influence on the feed conversion ratio and egg weight.

To the best of authors’ knowledge, apart from sparse studies addressing the effect of broiler chicken diet supplemen-tation with a ginger and thyme extract (Rahimi et al. 2011, Fakhim et al. 2013), no research has been conducted so far to analyze the effect of this form of these herbs on production traits of other techno-logical groups of poultry, including laying hens, nor on the quality of table eggs. In

Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract... 7

addition, very little is known about the effect of these plants on the sensory traits of eggs. An advantage of the extract over other forms these herbs are applied in feed mixtures is a high concentration of biologically-active components. Note-worthy is that feed additives for laying hens may evoke various effects on sen-sory characteristics of eggs, including particularly products that contain natural flavonoids or essential oils. Supplements should not be perceptible by consumers because odor and flavor in table eggs are important both aesthetically and physi-ologically as they stimulate the secretion of digestive juices.

It may be expected that hen diet sup-plementation with ginger and thyme in the form of extracts will have a more positive effect on production results than the earlier applied forms of these plants. In addition, this supplementation should not deteriorate the quality and sensory traits of eggs. Considering the above, the objective of this study was to analyze the effect of diet supplementation with extracts from ginger and thyme on pro-duction results of laying hens and their egg quality.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Two hundred sixteen ISA Brown laying hens at the age of 16 weeks were obtained from a commercial facility. Hens were kept in three-level battery of furnished cage, that meet the standards of the European Union. Each treatment had 72 laying hens arranged in 6 rep-licates of 12 laying hens. A 16L:8D lighting program and the average room temperature of 18° ±2°C were main-tained during the experiment. Water was

available ad libitum from two nipple drinkers in each cage. Experimental diets were limited to 114 g/hen/day and administered to 240 cm long feeders (20 cm/hen) twice a day (in 57 g por-tions) after switching on the light and at the 8th h of the day.

For easier adaptation, feed provided by the producer was administered for 7 days since hens introduction to cages. Its composition was consistent with that declared by the ISA Management Guide – Cage Production System (Hendrix--Genetics 2014). Since the 17th week of life, the hens were fed experimental feed mixtures in the previously divided groups, i.e.: control diet (C) (no diet supplementation), diet supplemented with 0.0032% ginger extract (G), diet supplemented with 0.0016% ginger and 0.0016% thyme extract (GT). Compo-nents and nutrients of the diets can be found in Table 1. Extracts were provided by the producer (Bellako Limited Com-pany, Warsaw, Poland) in the powdered form, with maltodextrin used as the carrier (starch substance in the form of loose white powder). The content of pure extracts in the supplement was 0.8%. The supplements were premixed with 2 kg of basal diet and next mixed into an appropriate quantity of basal diet to obtain the level of 0.04%. The extracts were standardized for cineol content; its content in the crude extract reached 0.2–0.23%.

Control of laying performance, egg weight and feed intake was started from the 19th week of life, assuming this moment as the 1st week of produc-tion. The mortality rate for laying hens throughout the experimental period was 0% in each group. A weekly production


of eggs was calculated from the number of eggs laid in each of the 7 days of a week in the period from the 1st to the 16th week of production. Because there was no one dead hen during the experiment the hen day and hen housed numbers were the same in each group. Egg weight (±0.1 g)

was controlled once a week. Feed conver-sion ratio (FCR) was computed as kg of feed per 1 kg of egg weight.

Egg quality assessment was conducted in the: 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th and 16th week of the laying period. Thirty eggs from each experimental group (five

TABLE 1. Composition of diets and nutrient content (air-dry basis)

ItemContent

C G GTIngredient (%)

Wheat 33.35 33.31 33.31Maize 30.00 30.00 30.00Soybean meal 15.20 15.20 15.20Sunflower meal 10.00 10.00 10.00Rapeseed meal 2.00 2.00 2.00

Sunflower oil 1.00 1.00 1.00

CaCO3 6.23 6.23 6.23Dicalcium phosphate 1.28 1.28 1.28Ginger suplement1 – 0.04 –Ginger and thyme suplement2 – – 0.04Premix3 0.30 0.30 0.30NaCl 0.24 0.24 0.24NaHCO3 0.18 0.18 0.18Lysine + Methionine 0.22 0.22 0.22

NutrientMetabolizable energy (kcal/kg) 2 731.10 2 731.10 2 731.10Total protein (%) 17.76 17.76 17.76Crude fiber (%) 3.94 3.94 3.94Crude ash (%) 10.65 10.65 10.65Total calcium (%) 2.75 2.75 2.75Available potassium (%) 0.45 0.45 0.45Lysine + Methionine (%) 1.27 1.27 1.27

C – control group (standard diet); G – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger extract); GT – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger and thyme extract). 1, 2The carrier of extract was maltodextrin (content of pure extract in the supplement 0.8%); i.e. extract level in feed was 0.00325 ginger in G group and 0.0016% ginger + 0.0016% thyme in GT group. 3Provided per kg of diet: vit. A 11,500 IU; vit. D3 3,000 IU; vit. E 12 IU; vit. K 3 mg; vit. B1 2 mg; vit. B2 6 mg; vit. B6 3 mg; vit. B12 0.012 mg; biotin 0.04 mg; folic acid 0.6 mg; niacin 20 mg; pantothe-nic acid 10 mg; chromium picolinate 0.5 mg; Cu 10 mg; I 0.30 mg; Fe 65 mg; Mn 120 mg; Se 0.30 mg; Zn 60 mg.


randomly selected from replicate) were collected the same day and placed in a cold store (4°C). Analyses were carried out the next day. The eggs were removed from cold storage immediately before quality assessments to ensure compara-ble egg temperatures. Egg temperature was monitored throughout quality asses-sments and ranged between 6° and 8°C. Shell breaking strength (N) was assessed using the test machine ZWICK (ZWICK type 1120, Germany), with a cylindrical probe 75 mm in diameter. A test speed of 2 mm/s and a trigger force of 0.001 kg were used. Further analyses were car-ried out using the Egg Analyzer device (ORKA Food Technology, USA). This electronic instrument determines egg weight, yolk weight, and yolk color. Yolk color range corresponds to the DSM scale from 1 through 15 units. Haugh units are automatically calculated from the meas-urements made (expressed on a scale of 0 to 130). The achieved data were used to calculate the content (%) of egg yolk in egg weight. Eggshell thickness (μm) was defined using a digimatic micrometer (Mitutoyo Corporation, Japan).

Sensory properties were analyzed using eggs collected in two terms of hens laying period: in the 7th week analyses were conducted for 27 eggs from each experimental group, and in the 15th week for 48 eggs from each experimen-tal group. The different number of eggs in the analytical terms resulted from the difference in the number of panelists able to conduct the assessment. Eggs collected each day were stored at 4°C for 7 days. They were cooked in an automat-ic egg cooker (Egg Boiler FA-5115, TZS First, Austria) and then cooled to a room temperature, shelled and divided into

four equal parts. The sensoric test was performed by employing untrained pan-elists but usual consumers of eggs. All panelists received three coded pieces of egg, each representing a different experimental group. A randomized de-sign allowed the sampling of eggs in any order, however panelists rinsed their mouths with pure water after each bite. Samples of eggs to be assessed were free of any seasonings and salt. During assessment, the panelists were asked to express their opinion in five-point scales, i.e. regarding yolk color and egg consist-ency: 1 – very undesirable, 2 – unde-sirable, 3 – acceptable, 4 – desirable, 5 – highly desirable; and; regarding aroma: 1 – intense undesirable, 2 – perceptible slightly undesirable, 3 – imperceptible, 4 – typical perceptible, 5 – desirable and regarding taste: 1 – bad, 2 – poor, 3 – sat-isfactory, 4 – good, and 5 – very good.

Data concerning egg production rate, egg white and FCR in the entire experimental period were compared with the one-way analysis of variance and Duncan test or Kruskal–Wallis test (in the case of the lack of normality of distribution – based on Shapiro–Wilk test or in the case of variance inequal-ity between experimental groups – based on Levene test). Results of morphologi-cal and sensory analysis of eggs were analyzed with the two-way analysis of variance (diet supplementation and week of laying production) with interaction. Because the interactions between the analyzed factors (diet supplementation and week of laying production) were not significant and, thus, did not affect any of the studied parameters (except yolk weight; P = 0.025), they were not shown in the tables. In addition, the


multivariate differences of the analyzed experimental groups of hens regarding egg quality traits were evaluated with cluster analysis. The square of Euclidean distance was adopted as a measure of distance for standardized data, and the grouping of objects was conducted with the Ward method. Results were depicted in the form of dendrograms. Multivariate differences of the groups were addition-ally assessed with multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and Wilk test. All statistical analyses were carried out in Statistica 12 software, at significance levels of 0.05 and 0.001.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The average weekly egg production rate over the 16-week period of egg produc-tion is shown in Figure 1. Hen diet sup-plementation with extracts from ginger or from ginger and thyme had no effect on the average egg production rate over the entire experimental period (P = 0.223).

The addition of both plant extracts sig-nificantly improved the mean egg weight computed for the entire production period (P = 0.003). No differences were confirmed in mean egg weight between experimental groups of hens (Fig. 2). The most favorable FCR was determined in the case of hens administered a diet with the extract containing additionally thyme (GT), however comparative analysis of all three groups of hens did not confirm significant differences (P = 0.708) in the values of this parameter determined for the entire experimental period (Fig. 3).

The quality analysis of fresh eggs demonstrated a positive effect of the applied plant extracts on yolk color (P = = 0.001) and albumen quality expressed in Haugh units (P < 0.001). Yolks of eggs of the hens from experimental groups were darker, and eggs were character-ized by a better albumen quality espe-cially at the later stage of the egg-laying period (Table 2). The age of hens had a significant effect on all analyzed traits

0

20

40

60

80

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Egg

pro

duct

ion

rate

(%)

Week of egg production

▲ = 86.81% ◊ = 84.78% ● = 85.79%

FIGURE 1. Fitted curves for weekly egg production rate using Yang model

— fi tted curve for egg production rate for group G● observed egg production rate for group GT … fi tted curve for egg production rate for group GT

▲observed egg production rate for group C− − fi tted curve for egg production rate for group C ◊ observed egg production rate for group G


(P < 0.001) except for Haugh units and shell thickness (P = 0.601).

Both the addition of ginger extract and ginger + thyme extract had not effect upon results of the sensory evaluation of eggs, except for yolk color which in consumers’ opinion was the most favora-ble in eggs of hens from group GT (P = = 0.017; Table 3). Scores made by the

panelists demonstrated that the consist-ency of eggs originating from older hens (age 15 weeks old) was more favorable (P = 0.001) compared to eggs from birds at the early stage of the laying period (age 7 weeks old). The remain-ing traits of hard-boiled eggs received similar scores in both terms of analysis (P > 0.05).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Egg

wei

ght

(g)


▲ = 55.81a ◊ = 57.37b ● = 57.06b

FIGURE 2. Egg weight curves of hens production period. a-bEgg weight differed signifi cantly between treatment group at P ≤ 0.05, and ** at P ≤ 0.01

—◊— group G …●… group GT

▲ = 3.96◊ = 3.59● = 2.91

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Feed

cove

rsio

n ra

tio (k

g)


FIGURE 3. Feed conversion ratio (kg/kg egg weight) curves of hens production period. ** Differ sig-nifi cantly between treatment groups at P ≤ 0.01

…●… group GT —◊— group G − −▲− − group C

− −▲− − group C


TABLE 2. Fresh egg quality characteristics

ItemWeek of laying

production

Number ofanalyzed

eggs

Egg morphology characteristics

EW YW YR YCF HUShell

strength (N)

Shell thickness

(mm)C

6th–16th180 55.6 12.9 23.2 4.34a 83.5ab 40.4 0.367

G 180 56.3 13.1 23.3 4.69ab 86.0a 41.0 0.369GT 180 56.6 13.0 23.0 4.46b 86.7b 41.6 0.365

SEM 0.90 0.22 0.40 0.16 1.54 1.61 0.008P-value

Diet supplementation 0.124 0.279 0.354 0.001 < 0.001 0.430 0.671Week of laying production < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.118 < 0.001 0.601

C – control group (standard diet); G – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger extract); GT – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger and thyme extract). EW – eggs weight (g); YW – yolk weight (g); YR – yolk weight ratio to egg weight (%); YCF – yolk color fan; HU – Haugh units of albumen.Values differ signifi cantly between treatment groups at P ≤ 0.05. Means within a column for the same test time (week) with a common superscript differ signifi cantly (Duncan test) between treatment groups (diet supplementation), a-bP ≤ 0.05.

TABLE 3. Hard-boiled egg sensory evaluation and consumer acceptance in a 1–5-point scale

ItemWeek of laying

production

Number ofanalyzed

eggs

Egg sensory characteristics

yolk color1 consistency1 aroma2 taste3

C 7th and 15th

75 3.27a 3.61 3.66 3.96G 75 3.29b 3.69 3.73 3.79GT 75 3.60 ab 3.79 3.75 3.84

SEMWeek 7 0.177 0.190 0.124 0.148Week 15 0.111 0.119 0.117 0.132

P-valueDiet supplementation 0.017 0.600 0.682 0.399

Week of laying production 0.468 0.001 0.675 0.768

C – control group (standard diet); G – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger extract); GT – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger and thyme extract).1Numerical rating scale for yolk color and egg consistency: 1 – very undesirable; 2 – undesirable; 3 – acceptable; 4 – desirable; 5 – high desirable. 2Numerical rating scale for egg aroma: 1 – intense undesirable; 2 – felt slightly undesirable; 3 – imper-ceptible; 4 – typical perceptible; 5 –intense undesirable.3Numerical rating scale for egg taste: 1 – bad; 2 – poor; 3 – satisfactory; 4 – good; 5 – very good.Differ signifi cantly between treatment group for P ≤ 0.05. Means within a column for the same test time (week) with a common superscript differ signifi cantly (Duncan test) between treatment groups (diet supplementation), a-bP ≤ 0.05.


Results based on MANOVA and pair-wise multivariate comparisons for fresh egg quality and hard-boiled egg sensory evaluation and consumer acceptance were presented in Table 4 and in dendro-grams (Figs. 4 and 5). The multivariate comparison of all 7 morphological traits of fresh eggs demonstrates that hen diet supplementation with the ginger extract and with the ginger + thyme extract affected (P < 0.001) the overall quality of eggs. Figure 4 shows explicitly a large distance especially between eggs of hens from groups C and G and these of hens from group GT. In contrast, a simultane-ous comparison of four sensory attributes of hard-boiled eggs made in both evalu-ated terms of the laying period of hens shows no effect (P = 0.100) of the applied plant extracts on the analyzed traits of hard-boiled eggs (Table 4). Never-theless, results of the cluster analysis conducted based on standardized vari-ables demonstrate that eggs of the hens fed a diet with 0.0032% addition of a ginger extract are in other homogenous

FIGURE 4. Dendrogram presenting multivariate similarity of the fresh egg quality depending on diet supplementation, based on cluster analysis (Ward method of agglomeration). Explanations in the text

FIGURE 5. Dendrogram presenting multivariate similarity of the hard-boiled egg sensory evalu-ation and consumer acceptance depending on diet supplementation, based on cluster analysis (Ward method of agglomeration). Explanations in the text

TABLE 4. Results based on MANOVA and pair-wise multivariate comparisons for fresh egg qual-ity and hard-boiled egg sensory evaluation and consumer acceptance

ItemFresh egg

quality

Hard-boiled egg sensory evaluation

and consumer acceptance

F P-value F P-valueDiet supplementation 3.35 < 0.001 1.68 0.100

Week of laying production 15.14 < 0.001 3.10 0.016

F – statistics based on Wilk lambda and P-value based on multivariate analysis of variance were results of Wilk test differ signifi cantly P ≤ 0.05

group than the eggs of hens from groups C and GT (Fig. 5).

The lack of a significant effect of hen diet supplementation with a ginger extract and a ginger + thyme extract con-cerning the egg production rate and FCR obtained in this study is consistent with the findings published earlier by other


authors who applied various forms of the discussed herbs. Bölükbaşi et al. (2008) did not demonstrate any effect of thyme oil, whereas Zhao et al. (2011) – of a gin-ger powder on the improvement of laying performance of hens. It has been demon-strated many times that the addition of an extract from ginger to feed mixtures for laying hens, both in the form of powder (Akbarian et al. 2011, Zhao et al. 2011) and oil (Nasiroleslami and Torki 2010), has no effect on changes in the FCR value. On the contrary, Ghasemi et al. (2010) demonstrated a decreased FCR value in laying hens after the application of the thyme + garlic extract, however it has been confirmed several times that garlic itself has not impact on FCR (Chowd-hury et al. 2002, Damaziak et al. 2017). Earlier, Al-Kassie (2009) reported FCR decrease in broiler chickens administered an extract from pure thyme (200 ppm), which – in authors’ opinion – was caused by the presence of a biologically-active substance – thymol. Also, thymol has been reported to stimulate digestion, including the secretion of amylase from saliva, bile, small intestinal mucosa and development of intestinal villi (Platel and Srinivasan 2004), which has a direct effect on FCR value decrease.

The results demonstrated that the laying hens fed the diet containing the extract of ginger and ginger + thyme had higher egg weight than the control birds. The mechanisms by which the ginger and thyme extracts increased egg weight are not clear. Positive anti-inflamma-tory, antioxidant, bactericidal and diges-tion-stimulating effects of both herbal supplements were reported (Platel and Srinivasan 2004, Hashemi and Davoodi 2011, Akimoto et al. 2015). All of these

have a favorable influence on poultry productivity, which may have partially contributed to the increased egg weight of the laying hens in this study.

The darker color of raw and hard--boiled egg yolks in the case of hens administered feed mixtures with the addition of plant extracts was, probably, due to natural pigments of ginger impart-ing a deep yellow color to this plant such as: curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and 6-dehydrogingerdione (Lijima and Joh 2014, Ajileye et al. 2015). Unfortunate-ly, the available literature provides no information about the effect of thyme on yolk color. However, Zomrawi et al. (2014) did not confirm a significant effect of hen diet supplementation with a ginger powder on yolk color, likewise Ademola et al. (2012) did not demon-strate such an effect upon the addition of powder from ginger and garlic to feed mixtures. It may be speculated that ginger pigments significantly affect yolk color only when this plant is incor-porated into a hen diet in the form of an extract. These results demonstrate also that ginger pigments which are accu-mulated in the yolk, are not degraded during the cooking of eggs.

In this study, fundamental was the positive effect of extracts on egg albu-men quality. This trait is, most of all, affected by the period and conditions of eggs storage and by hen age (Samli et al. 2005). The effect of the plant extracts was observed mainly in the last two terms of analyses, i.e. in the 14th and 16th week of production, when albumen quality usually begins to deteriorate. The antioxidative effect of ginger probably minimizes albumen quality deterioration through lesser lipid and protein oxidation.


Earlier, Yalcin et al. (2006) demonstrated a similar effect after supplementing diets for laying hens with a feed additive of garlic, which is also regarded as a plant with antioxidative properties. The most beneficial effect of supplementation with an extract from ginger and thyme on albumen Haugh units could, in turn, be due to the additional effect of carvacrol being one of the main essential oils of thyme. Denli et al. (2004) observed sig-nificant improvement in quail albumen quality upon bird diet supplementation with black seed characterized by a sig-nificant content of carvacrol. It has been demonstrated several times that the bio-active material of medicinal plants has a strong power to protect magnum and uterus cells and also to increase the level of albumin in laying hens (Denli et al. 2004, Nadia et al. 2008).

Except for the changes in the color of egg yolks, the remaining traits of hard--boiled eggs assessed by the panelists were not affected by the plant extracts. These results are satisfactory because it has been proved many times that the additives of some plants to feed mixtures for laying hens, e.g. rapeseed (Licho-vniková et al. 2008) or linseed (Stearns et al. 1994), may negatively influence the sensory traits of eggs. Motozono et al. (1999) demonstrated also that the 2% addition of garlic to diet for hens caused a perceptible unpleasant aroma. The available literature lacks information about the effect of ginger addition to feed mixtures for hens on the sensory quality of eggs. Some sparse studies concerning the effect of ginger as a feed additive on quality attributes of meat did not confirm such a correlation either (Naveena 2004, Janz et al. 2007). In turn, Tserveni-Gousi

(2001) demonstrated that 2% addition of thyme to feed mixtures for laying hens may prevent the negative effects on the sensory assessment of eggs at the simul-taneous supplementation of bird diet with 10% of linseed.

It is concluded that diet supple-mentation with an extract from ginger (0.0032%) and an extract from ginger (0.0016%) with thyme (0.0016%), in both cases, has a positive effect on egg weight, without reducing the egg production rate of hens. Though insig-nificantly, but a lower value of FCR determined in the hens receiving the extract with thyme suggests that the use of the mixture of these herbs may con-tribute to a reduction of costs of table eggs production. Egg yolks dyed with a natural intensive yellow color and preserving appropriate taste and aroma values as well as consistency are desir-able by direct consumers and by proces-sing plants of table eggs. Undoubtedly, a measurable benefit of applying both analyzed dietary supplements is the improvement of albumen quality in eggs from older hens. In the future, it would be advisable to investigate whether the improvement of albumen quality upon the influence of the analyzed plant extracts could affect the extension of storage time of eggs. It would also be recommended to analyze other doses of the applied preparations.

REFERENCES

ADEMOLA S.G., LAWAL T.E., EGBEWANDE O.O., FARINU G.O. 2012: Influence of dieta-ry mixtures of garlic and ginger on lipid com-position in serum, yolk, performance of pullet growers and laying hens. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 11: 196–201.


AJILEYE B.A., ITEIRE A.K., ARIGI Q.B. 2015: Zingiber officinale (ginger) extract as a histo-logical dye for muscle fibers and cytoplasm. Int. J. Med. Sci. Public Health 4: 1445–1448.

AKBARIAN A., GOLIAN A., AHMAID A.S., MORAVEJ H. 2011: Effects of ginger root (Zingiber officinale) on egg yolk cholesterol, antioxidation status and performance of laying hens. J. Appl. Anim. Res. 39: 19–21.

AKIMOTO M., LIZUKA M., KANEMATSU R., YOSHIDA M., TAKENAGA K. 2015: Anti-cancer effect of ginger extract against pancre-atic cancer cells mainly through reactive oxy-gen species-mediated autotic cell death. PLOS ONE 10: e0126605.

Al-KASSIE G.A.M. 2009: Influence of two plant extracts derived from thyme and cinnamon on broiler performance. Pakistan Vet. J. 29: 169–173.

BÖLÜKBAŞI Ş.C., ERLAN M.K., KANAR Ö. 2008: The effect of feeding thyme, sage and rosemary oil on laying hen performance, cho-lesterol and some proteins ratio of egg yolk and Escherichia coli Mount in feces. Arch. Geflügelk. 72: 231–237.

CASTANON J.I.R. 2007: History of the USA of antibiotic as growth promoters in European poultry feeds. Poult. Sci. 86: 2466–2471.

CASTON L.J., SQUIRES E.J., LESSON S. 1994: Hen performance, egg quality, ant the sensory evaluation of egg from SCWL hens fed dietary flax. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 74: 347–353.

CHOWDHURY S.R., CHOWDHURY S.D., SMITH T.K. 2002: Effects of dietary garlic on cholesterol metabolism in laying hens. Poult. Sci. 81: 1856–1862.

DAMAZIAK K., RIEDEL J., GOZDOWSKI D., NIEMIEC J., SIENNICKA A., RÓG D. 2017: Productive performance and egg quality of laying hens fed diets supplemented with gar-lic and onion extracts. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 26: 337–349.

DENLI M., OKAN F., ULUOCAK A.N. 2004: Effect of dietary black seed (Nigella sativa) extract supplementation on laying performan-ce and egg quality of quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). J. Appl. Anim. Res. 26: 73–76.

FAKHIM R., EBRAHIMNEZHAD Y., SEY-EDABADI H.R., VAHDATPOUR T. 2013: Effect of different concentrations of aqueous extract of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on per-

formance and carcass characteristics of male chickens in wheat-soybean meal based diets. J. Bio. Sci. Biotech. 2: 95–99.

GHASEMI R., ZAREI M., TORKI M. 2010: Adding medicunal herbs including garlic (Al-lium sativum) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) to diet of laying hens and evaluating productive performance and egg quality characteristics. American J. Anim. Vet. Sci. 5: 151–154.

GRIGORE A., PARASCHIV I., COLCERU-MIHUL S., BUBUEANU C., DRAGHICI E., ICHIM M. 2010: Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris L. vo-latile oil obtained by two different methods. Rom. Biotech. Lett. 15: 5436–5443.

HASHEMI S.R., DAVOODI H. 2011: Herbal plants and their derivatives as growth and health promoters in animal nutrition. Vet. Res. Commun. 35: 169–180.

Hendrix-Genetics 2014. Technical Information, Commercial Layers ISA Brown.

JANZ J.A.M., MOREL P.C.H., WILKINSON B.H.P., PURCHAS R.W. 2007: Preliminary investigation of the effects of low-level dietary inclusion of fragrant essential oils and oleo-resins on pig performance and pork quality. Meat. Sci. 75: 350–355.

LICHOVNIKOVÁ M., ZEMAN L., JANDÁSEK J. 2008: The effect of feeding untreated rape-seed and iodine supplement on egg quality. Czech. J. Anim. Sci. 53: 77–82.

LIJIMA Y., JOH A. 2014: Pigment composition responsible for the pale yellow color of ginger (Zingiber officiale) rhizomes. Food Sci. Tech-nol. Res. 20: 971–978.

LIU Y., LI Y., LIU H.N., SUO Y.L., HU L.L., FENG X.A., ZHANG L., JIN F. 2013: Effect of quercetin on performance and egg quality during the laying period of hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 54: 510–514.

LIU H.N., LIU Y., HU L.L., SUO Y.L., ZHANG L., JIN F., FENG X.A., TENG N., LI Y. 2014: Effect of dietary supplementation of quercetin on performance, egg quality, cecal microflora populations, and antioxidant status in laying hens. Poult. Sci. 93: 347–353.

MOHEBBIFAR A., TORKI M. 2010: Effects of adding mixed powder of garlic and thyme to diets included graded levels of rice bran on productive performance of laying hens and


egg quality characteristics. Adv. Environ. Biol. 4: 469–476.

MAHMOUD K., GHARAIBEH S., QATRA-MIZ A. 2006: Effect of garlic (Allium sati-vum) supplementation on egg quality and yolk cholesterol in layer hens. EPC 2006 – 12th European Poultry Conference, Verona, Italy 10–14.09.2006: 83.

MOTOZONO Y., ISHIHARA S.L.N., ARAI N., NAKAHARA R., KOCHI Y., TANAKA S., KAMI A. 1999: Poultry egg with improved flavor and method of producing. United States Patent 5882701.

NADIA L.R., HASSAN R.A., QOTA E.M., FAY-EK H.M. 2008: Effect of natural antioxidant on oxidative stability of eggs and productive and reproductive performance of laying hens. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 7: 134–150.

NASIROLESLAMI M., TORKI M. 2010: Inclu-ding essential oils of fennel (Foeniculum vul-gare) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) to diet and evaluating performance of laying hens, white blood cell count and egg quality charac-teristics. Adv. Environ. Biol. 4: 341–345.

NAVEENA B.M. 2004: The tenderization of buf-falo meat using ginger extract. J. Muscle Foods 15: 235–244.

OLOBATOKE R.Y., MULUGETA S.D. 2011: Effect of dietary garlic powder on layer per-formance, fecal bacterial load, and egg quality. Poult. Sci. 90: 665–670.

PLATEL K., SRINIVASAN K. 2000: Influence of dietary spices and their active principles on pancreatic digestive enzymes in albino rats. Nahrung 44: 42–46.

PORTE A., GODOY R.L.O. 2008: Chemical composition of Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) es-sential oil from the Rio de Janeiro State (Bra-zil). J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 73: 307–310.

RAHIMI S., ZADEH Z.T., TORSHIZI A.K., OMIDBAIGI R., ROKNI H. 2011: Effect of three herbal extracts on growth performance, immune system, blood factors and intestinal selected bacterial population in broiler chic-kens. J. Agr. Sci. Tech. 13: 527–539.

SAKI A.A., ALIARABI H., SIYAR S.A.H., SA-LARI J., HASHEMI M. 2014: Effect of a phy-togenic feed additive on performance, ovarian morphology, serum lipid parameters and egg sensory quality in laying hen. Vet. Res. Forum 5: 287–293.

SAMLI H.E., AGMA A., SENKOYLU N. 2005: Effects of storage time and temperature on egg quality in old laying hens. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 14: 548–553.

STEARNS L.D., PETRY T.A., HOLSTUN J., ZETOCHA D.F. 1994: Potential use of flax-seed in laying hen rations. Proceedings of 55th Flax Institute Meeting (Flaxseed utilization in poultry rations and related nutritional studies), Fargo, North Dakota: 102–105.

TSERVENI-GOUSI A.S. 2001: Sensory evalu-ation of eggs produced by laying hens fed diet containing flaxseed and thymus meal. Arch. Geflügelk. 65: 214–218.

YALCIN S., ONBASILAR E.E., REISLI Z., YALCIN S. 2006: Effect of garlic powder on the performance, egg traits and blood pa-rameters of laying hens. J. Sci. Food Agr. 86: 1336–1339.

ZHAO X., YANG Z.B., YANG W.R., WANG Y., JIANG S.Z., ZHANG G.G. 2011: Effects of ginger root (Zingiber officinale) on laying per-formance and antioxidant status of laying hens and on dietary oxidation stability. Poult. Sci. 90: 1720–1727.

ZOMRAWI W.B., ABDEL-ATII K.A., DOUSA B.M., MOHAMMED K.E., ELAMIN K.M. 2014: Effect of dietary ginger root powder (Zingiber officinale) on layer hens performan-ce, egg cholesterol and serum constituents. Wayamba J. Anim. Sci. 10: 969–974.

Streszczenie: Wpływ ekstraktu z imbiru i imbiru z tymiankiem w żywieniu kur nieśnych na wyniki produkcyjne i jakość jaj. Badania zostały prze-prowadzone w celu zbadania potencjału ekstraktu z imbiru i imbiru z tymiankiem w zwiększa-niu wyników produkcyjnych kur nieśnych oraz morfologicznej i sensorycznej jakości jaj. W su-mie 216 kur niosek ISA Brown utrzymywanych w klatach, w systemie intensywnym przydzielono do 3 grup żywieniowych: dieta standardowa bez suplementacji (C), z dodatkiem 0,0032% eks-traktu z imbiru i imbiru (0,0016%) z tymiankiem (0,0016%). Analiza surowych jaj obejmowała: masę jaja, masę i udział żółtka w masie jaja, bar-wę żółtka, jakość białka oraz wytrzymałość i gru-bość skorupy. Analiza gotowanych jaj obejmowa-ła: kolor żółtka, konsystencję, zapach i smak jaj gotowanych. Uzyskane wyniki wykazały, że su-plementacja diety kur miała korzystny wpływ na


masę jaja, ale nie wpłynęła na wielkość produkcji i wykorzystanie paszy. Surowe i gotowane jaja kur żywionych dietą z dodatkiem ekstraktu z im-biru cechowała ciemniejsza barwa żółtka, która dla jaj gotowanych uzyskała najwyższe noty pa-nelistów. Zarówno ekstrakt z imbiru, jak i imbiru z tymiankiem wpłynęły na poprawę jakości białka jaja. Zasadne są dalsze badania dotyczące moż-liwości wydłużania okresu przechowywania jaj pochodzących od kur żywionych paszą o różnym poziomie ekstraktów imbiru i tymianku.

Słowa kluczowe: kury nioski, ekstrakt z imbiru i tymianku, wyniki produkcyjne, jakość jaj

MS received 12.10.17

MS accepted 31.01.18

Authors’ address: Krzysztof DamaziakZakład Hodowli Drobiu Katedra Szczegółowej Hodowli Zwierząt Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawieul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa Poland e-mail: [email protected]


Abstract: Birds and bats using buildings as a place of breeding or shelter. The presence of birds and bats was analysed in buildings intended for thermal refurbishment. Study material was collected in the years 2012–2016 in 336 build-ings from 11 voivodships. For detailed analyses concerning birds, data from three voivodships were selected: Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Łódzkie and Mazowieckie. To determine differences in the location of bat roosts, buildings from all voivod-ships were compared. Bird nesting places and daytime bat roosts were divided into 22 locations. Regional differences in the occupation of build-ings were analysed. For comparison, the analysed buildings were divided into churches, tenements, public buildings, and residential blocks. Buildings used by birds were also compared with respect to the degree of urbanization of their surroundings. Species-specifi c differences in their preference for occupying buildings of different types were analysed in birds. Birds were found in 78.9% of buildings and bats – in 8.9% of buildings. Amount of 2,250 bird nests in 265 buildings and over 1,000 bats in 30 buildings were inventoried. The bird species most often found in buildings were: the swift Apus apus (40.5%), house sparrow Pas-ser domesticus (31.7%) and jackdaw Corvus monedula (9.9%). Bat species found in buildings included: the common noctule Nyctalus noctula, serotine bat Eptesicus serotinus, lesser horse-shoe bat Rhinolophus hipposideros, pipistrel-les Pipistrellus and long-eared bats Plecotus. The house sparrow most often inhabited buildings in Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship and the swift most often inhabited buildings in Voivodships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie. Birds in Kujawsko-

-Pomorskie Voivodship most often built their nests under roofs and birds from Voivodships Mazo-wieckie and Łódzkie in fl at roof spaces. A total of 31 bat roosts were located in 30 buildings in 5 dif-ferent locations. Bats most often occupied fl at roof spaces and attics and least often occupied crevices behind the gutter.

Key words: birds and bats in buildings, nesting and roosting places

INTRODUCTION

In Europe at least 15 or so bird species permanently or temporarily use build-ings. Some of them like house sparrows Passer domesticus or swifts Apus apus have permanently migrated to towns, and buildings are their main nesting and resting places, though the latter species is also known to live in colonies on rocks or in tree holes (Gory 1997). An inven-tory of avifauna in Warsaw revealed permanent or temporary presence of 247 species, 132 of which were nesting species and 16 species built their nests in buildings (Luniak et al. 2001). Find-ing birds’ nests in buildings is difficult and requires a great deal of experience (Zyskowski and Zielińska 2014). There are many places suitable for nesting and providing concealment from the sight of predators and humans. Birds carefully

Birds and bats using buildings as a place of breeding or shelter

KRZYSZTOF JANUS, GRZEGORZ LESIŃSKIFaculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

20 K. Janus, G. Lesiński

hide their nests by exploiting available cracks in walls or rooms rarely or never used by man. Birds like the wood pigeon Columba palumbus, magpie Pica pica, great tit Parus major, blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus, song thrush Turdus philo-melos or jay Garrulus glandarius, that rarely used buildings as nesting places years ago, now do so more and more frequently. One of the reasons noted for the decreasing number of bird popula-tions that use buildings is renovation and thermal refurbishment of those buildings (Biaduń 2008, Grochowski 2012).

In Poland 26 bat species have been recorded so far (Ciechanowski and Bogdanowicz 2014, Uhrin et al. 2016). Most species are being found in build-ings. Bats use various spaces in buildings for hibernation and reproduction (Ko-walski and Lesiński 2000, Lesiński 2006). Man-made buildings are an impor-tant element in keeping synanthropic bat populations in good condition (Lesiński 2006). Bats use buildings as places for reproduction, hibernation and swarming, and as daily shelters. Searching for bats in various parts of a building is a very difficult task, even for chiropterologists with a lot of experience. Ultrasonic detectors, endoscopes and infrared cam-eras are used to find bats (Kowalski and Lesiński 2000). Flat roof spaces, attics, cellars are checked and wall cracks are inspected with the use of elevators and climbing equipment. Even with such techniques, the probability of detection is only between 50 and 90%. Therefore, it is important to disseminate good practices that should be implemented during any inventory of birds and bats in buildings.

All species of birds and bats are sub-ject to strict or partial legal protection.

In order to directly protect animals, regulations prohibit intentional killing, mutilation and catching. Indirect impact on animals like scaring or disturbing is also prohibited. To protect animals’ habi-tats, there are bans on the destruction or removal of nests and on the intentional prevention of animals from accessing their refuges. Despite these regula-tions, nests are destroyed as a result of renovations and thermal refurbishment. Bat habitats incur similar losses but the occurrence of this phenomenon is hard to assess because of two main reasons. First, there is no legal requirement to make an ornithological and chiroptero-logical inventory before renovation of a building. The second reason is that the existing biological inventories are of poor quality.

The aim of the performed studies was to assess the frequency of occurrence of particular bird and bat species in build-ings.


Studies were carried out in Poland in 11 voivodships: Małopolskie, Wielko-polskie, Mazowieckie, Dolnośląskie, Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Pomorskie, Pod-karpackie, Łódzkie, Lubelskie, Śląskie, and Warmińsko-Mazurskie. Analysed buildings were situated in large (e.g. Łódź, Warsaw), medium-size (e.g. Inowrocław, Sochaczew) and small (e.g. Janikowo, Gniewkowo) towns and in rural areas (e.g. Żakowola Poprzeczna, Brzozowica Duża). Inventoried buildings included: residential blocks, tenements, churches, monasteries, and public buildings like schools, kindergartens, hospitals and city council offices.

Birds and bats using buildings... 21

Study material was collected in the years 2012–2016. In total, the presence of birds and bats was checked in 336 build-ings. The duration of an inventory of birds’ nests and bats’ roosts in a building depended on its physical characteristics (size, condition of building elevations, access to rooms) and was prolonged as the number of difficulties in search-ing increased. The mean time of one inspection was from 40 to 120 min. The number of inspections per single build-ing depended on the number of difficul-ties met while performing that inventory and varied from 1 to 5. Most buildings were inventoried during the breeding season (April through August).

Bird broods were searched for early in the morning, when most of birds show the highest level of activity, using binoculars or a telescope in the case of tall buildings. To find broods of swifts, observations were performed in the evening. In some cases a hydraulic jack was used to check openings and crevices in the elevation. A few buildings were surveyed outside of the bird breeding period. In this case the birds’ species were determined based on nests or other remains confirming brooding had taken place (e.g. the pres-ence of white excrements).

In order to record bats evening obser-vations of the roost departure were performed. In some cases these animals were observed before sunrise during the morning swarming. Observations were supported by using a bat sound detector LunaBat DFD-1. Sounds were recorded by Zoom H1 and analyzed by the Cool Edit Pro 2.1 program to determine species or genus. In a few cases, bats were netted to confirm breeding status or to determine the exact species. Building interiors and

crevices were surveyed using torches and endoscopic cameras. Bat droppings and prey remains (e.g. moth wings) proved the presence of these mammals. Sites in building elevations occupied by bats were checked using a ladder or hydraulic jack and endoscopic cameras.

Bird nesting places and daytime bat roosts were divided into 22 sites: in flat roof space, in the attic, under finishing materials, under the roof, in electricity boxes, under window sills, on gutters, under gutters, in technological open-ings, in cracks, on balconies, in house martin nests, in vents, in the construc-tion elements, in windows, on building elevations, on window sills, in lamp cas-ings, behind LED advertising panels, in chimneys, under air-conditioners, behind outlets.

To determine regional differences in building occupation by birds, 245 select-ed buildings were divided into 2 groups. Buildings from Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship constituted the first group and those from Voivodships Mazo-wieckie and Łódzkie – the second one.To determine differences in the location of bat shelters in buildings, data from all voivodships were compared.

All objects were divided into 4 groups: churches (19), tenements (36), public buildings (114) and residential blocks (167). All basic parameters like percent-age of occupied buildings, species iden-tification, location of nesting sites were compared.

Buildings were also divided into 3 groups with respect to the degree of urbanization: large towns of with popula-tion of ≥ 50,000 inhibitants (236), small towns with population of < 50,000 inhib-itants population (80) and rural areas


(20). All basic parameters listed above were compared.

Statistical analysis of data was car-ried out using the Statistica 13 software. The chi-square test was used to test the differences between species structure in groups (significance level P = 0.05).


Birds were found in 78.9% of buildings and bats in 8.9% buildings. Amount of 2,250 birds’ nests were inventoried in 265 buildings and over 1,000 bats were found in 30 buildings. Fifteen bird spe-cies were found to breed in buildings. The most frequently breeding birds were: the swift Apus apus 40.5%, house sparrow Passer domesticus 31.7% and jackdaw Corvus monedula 9.9%. The least frequently breeding species includ-ed the swallow Hirundo rustica (one clutch), magpie Pica pica (one clutch), song thrush Turdus philomelos (two clutches), and wood pigeon Columba palumbus (two clutches). Bat species noted in buildings included: the common noctule Nyctalus noctula, serotine bat Eptesicus serotinus, lesser horseshoe bat Rhinolophus hipposideros, pipi-strelles Pipistrellus and long-eared bats Plecotus. The serotine bat was the most frequently noted, in 16 buildings, and the least frequently noted was the lesser horseshoe bat – in only one building. Places preferred by birds for nests were: flat roof space (36.8%), cracks under the roof (16.6%) and cracks in the building elevation (15.2%).

Comparative analysis of buildings from group I (Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship) and from group II (Voivod-

ships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie) showed significant differences (χ2 = 92.5; df = 13; P < 0.001) in the occupation of buildings by various species: the house sparrow, swift, jackdaw, house martin Delichon urbicum, rock dove Columba livia f. urbana and starling Sturnus vulgaris (Table 1). Total occupation was 85.4% in group I and 80.2% in group II.

TABLE 1. Percent occupation by selected species in analysed voivodships

SpeciesKujawsko--Pomorskie (N = 622)

Mazowieckie, Łódzkie

(N = 1 206)Passer domesticus 37.3 26.6Apus apus 37.0 47.0Corvus monedula 7.7 12.5Delichon urbicum 10.0 5.0Columba livia f. urbana 2.1 5.6

Sturnus vulgaris 2.6 0.6Others 3.3 2.7

Comparative analysis of groups I and II showed significant differences (χ2 = = 537.2; df = 19; P < 0.001) in different breeding sites of birds (Table 2). Flat roof spaces were most frequently occu-pied by birds in Voivodships Łódzkie and Mazowieckie while cracks under the roof were most frequently occupied in Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship.

Occupation of buildings by particular species differed among three groups of buildings (χ2 = 238.3; df = 28; P < 0.001) distinguished according to the degree of urbanization (Table 3). House spar-rows and tree sparrows were noted most frequently in buildings situated in rural areas. The swift occupied buildings most frequently in small and large towns and


the house martin built its nests most often in buildings in small towns. Total occupation of buildings within large towns, small towns and rural areas was 80.1, 73.8 and 85%, respectively.

TABLE 3. Percent occupation of buildings from different locations by selected species

Species Large town (N = 1 732)

Small town

(N = 418)

Rural areas

(N = 100)Passer domesticus 30.7 30.6 55.0

P. montanus 0.7 3.8 16.0Apus apus 43.5 34.9 12.0Corvus monedula 10.6 7.4 8.0

Phoenicurus ochruros 0.5 0.2 4.0

Delichon urbicum 5.8 11.0 2.0

Columba livia f. urbana

5.9 8.1 0

Others 2.3 4.0 3.0

TABLE 2. Percent occupation of selected breed-ing sites in buildings of analysed voivodships

Location of breeding site

Kujawsko--Pomorskie (N = 620)

Mazowieckie, Łódzkie

(N = 1 157)Flat roof space 16.6 56.8Under finishing materials 11.3 5.4

Under roof 26.0 4.3In cracks 16.8 14.6Under gutter 8.7 2.0On a balcony 0.2 4.4In window 9.7 0.4Others 10.7 12.1

Occupation of breeding sites in buildings differed (χ2 = 510.8; df = 42; P < 0.001) with respect to the degree of urbanization (Table 4). Flat roof space were most frequently occupied in large towns while in rural areas birds preferred to build their nests under finishing mate-rials. Nests under the roof were mostly localised in small towns. Cracks were occupied with similar frequency in all locations.

TABLE 4. Percent of occupation of selected breeding sites in buildings in relation to the de-gree of urbanization

LocationLarge town

(N = 1 696)

Small town

(N = 407)

Rural areas

(N = 98)Flat roof space 43.3 11.8 28.6

Under finishing material

7.2 3.4 13.3

Under roof 9.4 45.9 18.4Under gutter 3.8 0.2 0In a crack 15.0 15.0 15.3

Others 21.3 23.7 24.4

Total occupation and occupation by particular bird species differed (χ2 = 313.1; df = 42; P < 0.001) among different types of buildings: churches (I), tenements, (II) public buildings (III) and residential blocks (IV) – Table 5. House sparrows preferably chose tenements and tree sparrows – public buildings. The swift most often occupied tenements, and least frequently residential blocks. The jackdaw preferred residential blocks and was absent from churches. Total occupation for groups I to IV was: 63.2, 86.1, 67.5 and 86.8%, respectively.


Birds occupied various nesting places in four types of buildings with different intensity (χ2 = 901.0; df = 63; P < 0.001) – Table 6. Flat roof space were most often used in residential blocks and nests under roofs were most often built in ten-ements. Technological openings and the attics were preferred by birds in religious buildings.

Groups of particular bird species were compared among various types of buildings (Table 7), and showed sig-nificant differences (χ2 = 313.1; df = 42; P < 0.001). The house sparrow, swift, jackdaw, house martin and starling most

often occupied residential blocks. Public buildings were preferred by the tree spar-row and rock dove.

Five places were differentiated in buildings occupied by bats. In total, 31 bat shelters were found in 30 build-ings (Table 8). Statistical analysis did not show significant differences in occu-pation of each type of place (χ2 = 20.5; df = 16; P = 0.20).

Three species among those nesting in buildings: the wood pigeon, song thrush and magpie were found incidentally since they do not typically build nests in buildings and their clutches may be con-

TABLE 5. Percent occupation by selected species of various types of buildings

Species Church, monastery (N = 82)

Tenement (N = 239)

Public building (N = 790)

Residential block (N = 1 136)

Passer domesticus 32.9 38.1 30.1 31.4P. montanus 0 0 4.3 0.9Apus apus 47.6 51.0 40.6 37.7Corvus monedula 0.0 6.7 5.4 14.4Phoenicurus ochruros 0 0.4 1.5 0Delichon urbicum 0 0 3.4 10.6Columba livia f. urbana 15.9 1.7 11.9 2.2Others 3.6 2.1 2.8 2.8

TABLE 6. Percent of nesting sites occupied by birds in various types of buildings

Location Church, monastery (N = 84)

Tenement (N = 238)

Public building (N = 762)

Residential block (N = 1 117)

Flat roof space 26.2 0.0 36.0 46.0Under roof 13.1 42.4 27.6 3.8Under gutter 16.7 5.5 3.0 4.7Technological openings 14.3 10.9 3.8 1.1

In crack 4.8 16.0 6.8 21.5On balcony 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.7In attic 15.5 2.1 6.7 0.0Behind outlet 1.2 7.1 3.5 1.0Others 8.2 16.0 12.6 17.2


sidered exceptional there. The remain-ing 12 species most often build nests in buildings. This is a large pool of species considering a lack of building preferen-ces and their relatively low number. For comparison, during the inventory of the whole of Warsaw, 16 species were found nesting in buildings (Luniak et al. 2001). Such a high diversity of species occupy-ing buildings calls for selecting appropri-ate methods of ornithological inventory to ensure the possibility of finding every species. The species most frequently noted were the swift, house sparrow and jackdaw. All are the most common cavity nesters living in towns (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). The swift, con-sidered moderately numerous to numer-ous in the whole country (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003), achieves the highest densities in old town districts, e.g. 60–68 pairs/10 ha in Wrocław or 64 pairs/10 ha

in Leszno (Dyrcz et al. 1991, Bednorz et al. 2000). In Warsaw its numbers are esti-mated at 3 to 6 thousand pairs (Luniak et al. 2001). A moderate increase in the number of this species has recently been noted in Poland (Chylarecki 2013). The house sparrow has the status of common nesting bird (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003), though recently a decrease in its abundance has been recorded in many European towns (Robinson et al. 2005, De Laet and Summers-Smith 2007, Chy-larecki 2013, Węgrzynowicz 2013). The main reason of such a decline is renova-tion and thermal refurbishment of build-ings, which has decreased the number of available nesting sites (Siriwardena et al. 2002, Summers-Smith 2003, Balaji 2014).

Swifts breeding in buildings were more common in Voivodships Mazo-wieckie and Łódzkie and less common

TABLE 7. Percent presence of clutches of particular species in various types of buildings

Type of building Passer

domesticus (N = 714)

Passer montanus (N = 44)

Apus apus

(N = 911)

Corvus monedula (N = 223)

Delichon urbicum

(N = 148)

Columba livia f. urbana (N = 136)

Sturnus vulgaris (N = 27)

Church, monastery 3.8 0 4.3 0 0 9.6 3.7

Tenement 12.7 0 13.4 7.2 0 2.9 0Public building 33.3 77.3 35.2 19.3 18.2 69.1 22.2Residential block 50.1 22.7 47.1 73.5 81.8 18.4 74.1

TABLE 8. Numbers of bat shelters according to places in buildings (N = 31)

Species Attic Crack in the wall

Crack under finishing materials

Crack behind the

outlet

Flat roof space

Plecotus spp. 4 0 0 0 0Rhinolophus hipposideros 1 0 0 0 0Nyctalus noctula 0 0 1 0 2Pipistrellus spp. 0 2 1 0 4Eptesicus serotinus 7 4 2 1 2


in Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship. There are no data for comparisons and literature references report that the swift is most common in Mazury (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). Observed differences may be explained by the fact, that studies in Voivodships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie included two large city agglomerations: Warsaw and Łódź. The swift prefers nesting in old town districts, which prevail in the two voivodships. According to Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk (2003), the jackdaw is distinctly more numerous in the east than in the west of the country. This was also reflected in our studies, in which the jackdaw nested more often in build-ings in Voivodships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie than in those of Kujawsko--Pomorskie Voivodship.

Surprising results were obtained when comparing locations of nesting sites. In Voivodships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie more than half of the nests were located in flat roof space while in Kujawsko--Pomorskie Voivodship it was only 16.6% of nests. This is difficult to explain, more so that the availability of flat roof spaces was similar in both areas. In Kujawsko--Pomorskie Voivodship birds preferred to build nests in cracks under the roof.

Intra- and inter-specific differences were found in the occupation of build-ings in large towns, small towns and in rural areas. The frequency of occupa-tion of buildings by the house sparrow was similar in large and small towns but definitely smaller than in rural areas. The density of the house sparrow in housing estates in the 2000s was 18.5 pairs/10 ha (Węgrzynowicz 2013). In rural areas, the density was 17.4 pairs/10 ha (Dębowski et al. 2015). The tree sparrow was noted

most often in buildings situated in rural areas, which agrees with the literature data (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). The house martin preferred occupation of buildings in medium-size towns. Most probably, this was associated with easy access to small water bodies resulting from habitat preferences of the spe-cies (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). Such water bodies were situated in the outskirts of towns like Janikowo, Opole Lubelskie, Kruszwica, but were not always present in large towns.

An analysis of the selection of nest-ing sites brought about different results depending on the degree of urbaniza-tion. Birds in large towns preferred nesting sites in attics, while those in small towns chose places under the roof. The difference was not related to the availability of nesting places and the reason for such selection was hard to interpret. Comparison of building occupation by various species showed that the house sparrow preferred occu-pation of tenements and the differences in its preference of churches, public buildings and residential blocks were negligible. The tree sparrow was not present in churches and tenements, but occurred mainly in public buildings. The swift almost equally occupied dif-ferent types of buildings and the house martin preferred residential blocks.

Nesting sites most frequently chosen by birds were those in flat roof spaces of residential blocks, under the roof in tene-ments and under the gutter in churches. One may consider that birds choose vari-ous nesting places depending on the type of a building. This is partially related to the availability of places in different objects, for example tenements usually


do not have flat roof spaces. Selection of such places is also species-specific in most common species: the swift, house sparrow and jackdaw. All these species prefer nesting places in flat roof spaces and the swift and house sparrow most often decide to build nests in the upper part of a building and hence select sites under the roof (Šálek et al. 2015).

Preference for buildings as nesting sites differed among species. The house sparrow, swift, jackdaw and house martin most often occupied residential blocks. Nearly half of house sparrows and swifts chose residential blocks, as did most jackdaws, starlings and house martins. This observation confirms the importance of such constructions, which are recently being replaced by modern high-rise residential buildings tightly and precisely finished and devoid of access to flat roof spaces. The tree sparrow and rock dove most often built their nests in public buildings. The occurrence of the rock dove in such buildings may be explained by the fact that public build-ings are less often protected against bird habitation, when compared to residential houses.

The percentage of buildings occupied by bats was lower than given in other studies. For example, systematic checks of 238 buildings on forest clearings in Białowieża Forest in 2002 showed the presence of bats in 38 (16%) buildings (Mazurska and Ruczyński 2005). In another study, a survey of 900 church lofts, suitable for bats, revealed that bats were present in 118 of these church lofts (13%) (Fuszara et al. 1995). A still higher frequency of building occupa-tion (1/3) was noted in 1991 on Kra-kowsko-Wieluńska Upland (Kurzak et

al. 1995) and in the Carpathians in the years 1999–2001 (nearly half of build-ings) (Kozakiewicz 2003). A similar frequency (a half of the objects) of occupied religious buildings was found in the Lublin region (Grzywaczewski et al. 2005). Contrary to the former stud-ies, bats’ presence in the latter objects was also inferred from faeces; the same approach was adopted in our analyses. From among a total of 31 bat roosts, 12 were found in the attics. This finding agrees with other studies and confirms the attractiveness of such places for bats (Kowalski et al. 2001, Ciechanowski et al. 2002, Ciechanowski 2003, Lesiński 2006). The second place occupied by bats was cracks. Cracks in the wall and cracks under finishing materials were occupied 10 times. Other stud-ies confirmed frequent occupation of such roosts (Kowalski and Lesiński 1995, Lesiński 2001). Literature data rarely give any information on roosts in attics of residential blocks (flat roof spaces). We found 8 roosts localised in such attics. These places are even more important because they were occupied by nearly 1,000 bats.

CONCLUSIONS

The species composition and nesting or roosting site preferences in buildings depends on the type of building. These characteristics also differ between areas with different levels or urbanization and between different regions of Poland.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to Geoff Boulton for a linguistic help and Daniel Klich for advices about statistical analyses.


REFERENCES

BALAJI S. 2014: Artificial nest box for house sparrow: An apt method to save the dwindling species in an urban environment. Int. J. Biodi-vers. Conserv. 6: 194–198.

BEDNORZ J., KUPCZYK M., KUŹNIAK S., WINIECKI A. 2000: Ptaki Wielkopolski. Mo-nografia faunistyczna. Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań.

BIADUŃ W. 2008: Spadek liczebności popu-lacji wróbla Passer domesticus w Lublinie.In: P. Indykiewicz, L. Jerzak, T. Barczak (Eds.), Fauna miast. Ochronić różnorodność biotycz-ną w miastach. SAR „Pomorze”, Bydgoszcz: 115–123.

CHYLARECKI P. 2013: Czynniki kształtujące zmiany liczebności pospolitych ptaków Polski w latach 2000–2012. Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa.

CIECHANOWSKI M. 2003: Chiropterofauna Puszczy Darżlubskiej. Nietoperze 4: 45–59.

CIECHANOWSKI M., BOGDANOWICZ W. 2014: Ssaki (Mammalia). In: W. Bogdanowicz, E. Chudzicka, I. Pilipiuk, E. Skibińska (Eds.), Fauna of Poland – characteristics and checklist of species. Vol. IV. Muzeum i Instytut Zoologii PAN, Warszawa: 429–517.

CIECHANOWSKI M., KOZIRÓG L., DURIASZ J., PRZESMYCKA A., ŚWIĄTKOWSKA A., KISICKA J., KASPRZYK K. 2002: Bat fauna of the Iława Lakeland Landscape Park (north-ern Poland). Myotis 40, 33–45.

DĘBOWSKI P., WILNIEWCZYC P., KUBICKI M., PROCHOWSKA K. 2015. Zgrupowania ptaków lęgowych wschodniej części Wzgórz Opoczyńskich. Naturalia 3: 56–77.

DYRCZ A., GRABIŃSKI W., STAWARCZYK T., WITKOWSKI J. 1991: Ptaki Śląska. Mo-nografia faunistyczna. Wydawnictwo Uniwer-sytetu Wrocławskiego, Wrocław.

De LAET J., SUMMERS-SMITH J.D. 2007: The status of the urban house sparrow Passer do-mesticus in north-western Europe: a review. J. Ornithol. 148: 275–278.

FUSZARA E., LESIŃSKI G., KOWALSKI M. 1995: Nietoperze na strychach w centralnej i północnowschodniej Polsce. Biul. CIC 18/19: 19–20.

GORY G. 1997: Swift Apus apus. In: W.J.M. Ha-gemeijer, M.J. Blair (Eds.), The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Their Distribu-

tion and Abundance. T&AD Poyser, London: 426–427.

GROCHOWSKI P. 2012: Zmiany liczebno-ści oknówki Delichon urbicum we Wrocła-wiu. Ptaki Śląska 19: 67–78.

GRZYWACZEWSKI G., CZOCHRA K., FRA-CZEK T., GUSTAW W., KITOWSKI I., PI-SKORSKI M., POTAKIEWICZ G., SZEW-CZYK P., URBAN M. 2005: Stan populacji płomykówki Tyto alba oraz wybranych krę-gowców w obiektach sakralnych Lubelszczy-zny na początku XXI wieku. Kulon 10: 21–32.

KOWALSKI M., LESIŃSKI G. 1995: Skład ga-tunkowy i wybiórczość kryjówek nietoperzy w Puszczy Kampinoskiej. Przegl. Przyr. 6 (2): 99–108.

KOWALSKI M., LESIŃSKI G. (Eds.) 2000: Po-znajemy nietoperze. ABC wiedzy o nietoperzach ich badaniu i ochronie. OTON, Warszawa.

KOWALSKI M., OSTRACH-KOWALSKA A., KRASNODĘBSKI I., SACHANOWICZ K., IGNACZAK M., RUSIN A. 2001: Nietoperze Parków Krajobrazowych: Górznieńsko-Lidz-barskiego i Welskiego. Nietoperze 2: 117–124.

KOZAKIEWICZ K. 2003: Letnie stanowiska nietoperzy na strychach budynków sakralnych w Beskidzie Niskim i Sądeckim oraz na Pogó-rzu Środkowobeskidzkim – kontrole w latach 1999–2001. Studia Chiropterologica 3: 21–30.

KURZAK J., WĘGIEL A., WĘGIEL J. 1995: Nietoperze Chiroptera na strychach kościołów Wyżyny Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej. Przegl. Przyrod. 6 (2): 91–97.

LESIŃSKI G. 2001: Nietoperze Chiroptera Kotli-ny Biebrzańskiej i terenów przyległych. Parki Nar. Rez. Przyr. 20 (2): 51–64.

LESIŃSKI G. 2006: Wpływ antropogenicznych przekształceń krajobrazu na strukturę i funk-cjonowanie zespołów nietoperzy w Polsce. Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa.

LUNIAK M., KOZŁOWSKI P., NOWICKI W., PLIT J. 2001: Atlas Warszawy. Ptaki Warsza-wy 8. PAN IGiPZ, Warszawa.

MAZURSKA K., RUCZYŃSKI I. 2005: Skład gatunkowy i liczebność oraz selektywne zasie-dlanie kryjówek u synantropijnych nietoperzy na polanach Puszczy Białowieskiej. Proc. XIX OKCh, Pokrzywna: 21–22.

ROBINSON R.A., SIRIWARDENA G.M., CRICK H.Q. 2005: Size and trends of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus population in Great Britain. Ibis 147: 552–562.


ŠÁLEK M., RIEGERT J., GRILL S. 2015: House Sparrows Passer domesticus and Tree Spar-rows Passer montanus: fine-scale distribution, population densities, and habitat selection in a Central European city. Acta Ornithol. 50: 221–232.

SIRIWARDENA G.M., ROBINSON R.A., CRICK H.Q.P. 2002: Status and population trends of the House Sparrow Passer domesti-cus in Great Britain. In: H.Q.P. Crick, R.A. Robinson, G.F. Appleton, N.A. Clark, A.D. Rickard (Eds.), Investigation into the causes of the decline of Starlings and House Sparrows in Great Britain. BTO, Thetford: 33–51.

SUMMERS-SMITH J.D. 2003: The decline of the House Sparrow: a review. Br. Birds 96: 439–446.

TOMIAŁOJĆ L., STAWARCZYK T. 2003: The avifauna of Poland. Distribution, numbers and trends. PTPP “pro Natura”, Wrocław.

UHRIN M., HÜTTMEIR U., KIPSON M., ES-TÓK P., SACHANOWICZ K., BÜCS S., KARAPANDŽA B., PAUNOVIĆ M., PRE-SETNIK P., BASHTA A.T., MAXINOVÁ E., LEHOTSKÁ B., LEHOTSKÝ R., BARTI L., CSÖSZ I., SZODORAY-PARADI F., DOMBI I., GÖRFÖL T., BOLDOGH S.A., JÉRE C., POCORA I., BENDA P. 2016: Status of Savi’s pipistrelle Hypsugo savii (Chiroptera) and ran-ge expansion in Central and south-eastern Eu-rope: a review. Mammal Rev. 46: 1–16.

WĘGRZYNOWICZ A. 2013: Changes in the House Sparrow Passer domesticus population in cities and towns of Poland in 1960–2010. Ornis Polonica 54: 225–236

ZYSKOWSKI D., ZIELIŃSKA D. 2014: Prze-wodnik do inwentaryzacji oraz ochrony pta-ków i nietoperzy związanych z budynkami. Federacja Zielonych GAJA, Szczecin.

Streszczenie: Ptaki i nietoperze wykorzystujące budynki jako miejsce lęgów i schronienia. Prze-analizowano występowanie ptaków i nietoperzy w budynkach przeznaczonych do termomoder-nizacji. Materiał został zebrany na 336 budyn-kach w latach 2012–2016 w 11 województwach, a do szczegółowej analizy ptaków wybrano dane z trzech województw: kujawsko-pomorskiego, łódzkiego i mazowieckiego. Porównanie kryjó-wek dziennych nietoperzy dotyczyło wszystkich województw. Miejsca lęgowe ptaków oraz kry-jówek dziennych nietoperzy zostały podzielone

na 22 lokalizacje. Wykonano analizę różnic re-gionalnych w zasiedleniu obiektów. Wykonano porównanie zasiedlenia obiektów z podziałem na ich charakter: kościoły, kamienice, budynki uży-teczności publicznej, budynki typu blok miesz-kalny. Wykonano również porównanie budynków wykorzystywanych przez zwierzęta ze względu na stopień zurbanizowania ich lokalizacji. Po-równano preferencje gatunkowe ptaków do za-siedlania budynków o różnym charakterze. Ptaki stwierdzono na 78,9% budynków. Nietoperze stwierdzono na 8,9% budynków. Zinwentaryzo-wano 2250 gniazd ptaków występujących na 265 budynkach i ponad 1000 nietoperzy znalezionych w 30 budynkach. Najczęściej stwierdzanymi ga-tunkami ptaków były jerzyk Apus apus 40,5%, wróbel Passer domesticus 31,7% i kawka Corvus monedula 9,9%. Gatunki nietoperzy wykryte na budynkach to: borowiec wielki Nyctalus noctula, mroczek późny Eptesicus serotinus, podkowiec mały Rhinolophus hipposideros, karliki Pipistrel-lus i gacki Plecotus. Wróbel najczęściej zasiedlał obiekty w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim (37,3%), a jerzyk obiekty w województwach ma-zowieckim i łódzkim (47,0%). W województwie kujawsko-pomorskim ptaki najczęściej budowały gniazda pod dachem (26,0%), a w województwach mazowieckim i łódzkim w stropodachu (56,8%). Wyróżniono pięć lokalizacji, w których łącznie stwierdzono 31 kryjówek nietoperzy znajdują-cych się na 30 budynkach. Nietoperze najczęściej zajmowały strych i stropodach (20), a najrzadziej szczelinę za spustem (1).

Słowa kluczowe: ptaki i nietoperze w budynkach, miejsca lęgowe i schronienia



Authors’ address:Krzysztof JanusZakład ZoologiiKatedra Biologii Środowiska ZwierzątWydział Nauk o Zwierzętach Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawieul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 WarszawaPolande-mail: [email protected]


Analysis of genetic structure of Silesian horses from Książ National Stud

JOANNA KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ1, EWELINA GAŁKA1, MACIEJ GIERDZIEWICZ2

1Faculty of Animal Science, University of Agriculture in Krakow 2 Faculty of Electronical Engineering, Automatics Computer Science and Biomedical Engineering,AGH University of Science and Technology

Abstract: Analysis of genetic structure of Silesian horses from Książ National Stud. The aim of the study was to analyze the genetic composition of Silesian horses bred in Książ National Stud ba-sing on their pedigrees and to try to answer the following question: is the subdivision of Silesian horse population really necessary to prevent lo-cal horse breed? As the material 72 pedigrees of brood mares and stallions, born between 1991 and 2009 were used. On average, 93.1% of animals were inbred, there were 96.55% inbred stallions and 90.70% inbred mares. The mean inbreeding coeffi cient for all horses was 2.3%, for inbred horses it reached 2.5%. There were more inbred mares (39) than stallions (28). All 72 Silesian horses from Książ State Stud were related with the average relationship coeffi cient of 8.5%. The total and effective number of founders were 458 and 163, respectively. The total and effective number of ancestors were 64 and 22, respectively. Among the founding breeds Thoroughbred horses predominated, the next were Oldenburg and Sile-sian horses, whereas among ancestors there were much more Silesian horses than Thorougbreds. All in all, the genetic diversity of the Silesian hor-ses from Książ National Stud was satisfactory, ho-wever its monitoring is required because of both upward inbreeding and 100% related animals. Be-cause the population of Silesian horses is small, less than 2,000 animals and sligtly over 1,000 ani-mals included in conservation programme, the ar-tifi cal subdivision of this population as proposed

in the new breeding programme, which would re-sult in creation of 2 subpopulations: old-type and new-type Silesian horses, is not recommended. For maintaining genetic diversity, it could be also possible to carefully import of semen or stallions of similar breeds, i.e. German Alt-Oldenburger horses or German Heavy Warmblood horses. The plan should also include the matings recommen-ded within the population of all available Silesian horses of both types. The authors consider intro-ducing such a program essential. It should be also clearly stated in the plan how large proportion of the Silesian mares population could be each year mated to Thoroughbred stallions. Division into two types implies that some fraction of new-type Silesian horses and their progeny would not be re-garded as potential parents of individuals for the conservation programme.

Key words: inbreeding, relationship, founder, an-cestor, Silesian horse breed

INTRODUCTION

The origin of Silesian horses can be traced back to 19th and the beginning of 20th century. Before that time, Sile-sian region was not considered as that of highly developed horse breeding. Formation of Silesian horses is closely related to National Studs. The State Stud

32 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz

in Lubiąż was settled in 1817 and moved afterwards to Książ in 1939. The second State Stud was formed in Koźle in 1877 (Lawin 2004a, Tomczyk-Wrona 2014b). Primarily stallions of draft breeds from Belgium, England and France were imported to Koźle, but then breeding was targeted at importation of old-type Oldenburg horses and horses from Ostfriesland (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014b). Lawin (2004a) reports that proportion of those stallions reached 40% of all stallions used in Silesian area in years 1917–1938. Therefore it is believed that those stallions had major impact on creating Silesian horse breed after World War II. After WW II, the majority of the population had gone, especially the most valuable horses and the Ministry of Agriculture issued the decision to settle State Studs in Koźle and Książ. In those places Silesian horses, old-type Old-enburg horses and other stallions were gathered. State Studs with mares were arranged in Strzelce Opolskie (1950), Wojanów (1951) and Strzegom (1955) (Lawin 2004b). In next years 20 old--type Oldenburg stallions, which set up breeding lines, some of which still exist today, were imported from Germany and Denmark (Lawin 2004b, Tomczyk--Wrona 2014b). Later on, the aim of the breeding program was to create a multi-purpose horse breed. Stallions Diebitsch, Rittmeister, Holdek, Firley and Ulan were chosen as the best, to reach this aim (Walkowicz 2009, Tomczyk-Wrona 2014b).

Next, an attempt was made to breed Silesian mares to stallions of warmblood breeds such as Thoroughbred or Malo-polska. Therefore National Studs bred also purebred Silesian horses called old-

-type Silesians (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, b). New requirements for horse candi-dates to entry Silesian horse studbook were published in 1996 and updated in 2014 (Wójcik et al. 2014). Only Silesian, old-type Oldenburg and Thoroughbred ancestors can occur in a horse pedigree. With this breeding policy the opportuni-ty both to breed the modern warmblood sport horse and to keep and protect the old-type, traditional Silesian coach horse appeared (Cześnik 1999, Tomczyk--Wrona 2014a).

In 1997 and 1998 National Studs in Strzegom and Strzelce Opolskie were liquidated and most of stud mares were moved to Książ (Rajca-Pisz 2005). Although Książ National Stud in has been operating since 1947, only since 1997 it has been breeding Silesian horses, as the last national stud, which cooperates with many private breeders. According to the latest breeding program for Silesian horses (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, Wójcik et al. 2014), the main breeding goal is to keep the population in purebred and to protect local breed (old-type Silesian horses). The part of the population can be used to obtain sport horses through crossbreeding to Thoroughbred horses. With this specific purpose, the Silesian horse breed has been divided in two branches with different requirements for a horse to enter the studbook. At present the active population is composed of slightly more than 1,600 mares and about 230–250 stallions, from which about 56% mares are included in the Genetic Resources Conservation Programme (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, Wójcik et al. 2014), which tends to establish two, more or less separated, subpopulations of Silesian horses. Because of the above-

Analysis of genetic structure... 33

-mentioned conditions and the relatively small population size, which is still lead-ing to the increase in relationship and inbreeding levels (Walkowicz 2009) and also because of the implementation of the above-mentioned conservation programme for Silesian horses, which termed the Książ National Stud as the valuable breeding center influencing the whole Silesian horse population (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, b, Instytut Zo-otechniki PIB 2017), the aim of the study was to analyze the state of the art in Silesian horse breeding, basing on the genetic structure of Silesian horses from Książ National Stud assessed from genealogical data, and to try to answer the following question: Is the subdivi-sion of Silesian horse population really necessary in order to prevent that local horse breed? It should be stressed that in the above-mentioned conservation pro-gramme (Instytut Zootechniki 2017) it is assumed that the genetic material should be exchanged with the foreign breeders.


As the material 72 pedigrees of Silesian horses born in 1991–2009, which were qualified as breeding horses in 2013 or earlier, were analyzed. For the pedigrees of Silesian horses obtained in this way the contribution of ancestors actually existing in a horse pedigree, i.e. equiva-lent of complete generations (ECG), according to Maignel et al. (1996) was calculated.

Based on data from pedigrees of 72 horses classified in the active popula-tion, inbreeding coefficients (FX) were estimated for the whole examined popu-lation, for stallions and brood mares,

as well as means for all and for inbred animals. The values of mean kinship coefficients (RXY) were estimated for all pairs of individuals, for pairs within sex (for male and female group separately) and between males and females. The RXY coefficients were computed using the algorithm proposed by Tier (1990) with recursive modification (Gierdzie-wicz and Kania-Gierdziewicz 2007). The relationship coefficients obtained by tabular method were transformed into classic relationship coefficients (Kania--Gierdziewicz 2008).

The total number of founders and ancestors and also the effective number of founders (fe) and ancestors (fa) were analyzed for the reference population including 72 horses from Książ National Stud, using Lacy’s method (1989, 1995) with modification accounting for “bot-tleneck effect”, made by Boichard et al. (1996, 1997). The effective number of founders is always higher than the effec-tive number of ancestors. The bigger the difference, the bigger the “bottle-neck effect” leading to the loss of genes (Kania-Gierdziewicz 2006).

The effective number of founders (fe) and the effective number of ancestors (fa) were estimated as follows:

The effective number of founders (Lacy 1989) was:

21

1e f

kk

fq

where:fe – the effective number of founders;f – the number of founders;qk – the probability of gene origin from

k-th founder;


and the effective number of ancestors (Boichard et al. 1996, 1997) was com-puted as:

21

1a f

kk

fp

where:fa – the effective number of ancestors;f – the number of ancestors;pk – the marginal contribution of k-th

ancestor.


Inbreeding and relationship

The extended pedigrees of 72 Silesian horses had the equivalent of complete generations – ECG (Maignel et al. 1996) ranging from 5.57 to 8.45, with mean value of 7.27. However, the Silesian mares had more complete pedigrees than stallions (Table 1).

On average, over 93% Silesian horses from the examined reference popula-tion were inbred. In the examined herd there were more inbred stallions than mares (96.6 vs. 90.7%). In the whole analyzed population Silesian mares were more inbred (over 2.5%), than stallions (almost 1.8%). While mean level of FX for whole reference population reached 2.3%, mean values of inbreeding coef-ficients for inbred individuals was on average 2.5%. The inbred Silesian mares had higher level of FX, reaching about 3%, while in the inbred group of Silesian stallions the mean FX value did not exceed 2%. Maximum inbreeding value for Silesian stallions was almost three times lower than for Silesian mares (Table 1).

TABLE 1. The mean inbreeding (FX) and relation-ship (RXY) coeffi cients for Silesian horses from Książ National Stud

ItemSex

male femaleNumber of animals in active population 29 43

Number of animals in pedigrees 560 803

Mean ECG 7.21 7.32Range of ECG 5.93–8.36 5.57–8.45Number of inbred animals 28 39

Mean FX – all animals 0.0178 0.0265Mean FX – inbred animals 0.0184 0.0293

Maximum FX value 0.0464 0.1260

ItemPairs

male female mixed*Number of pairs 406 903 1 247Number of related pairs 406 903 1 247Mean RXY – all pairs 0.0774 0.0974 0.0784Mean RXY – related pairs 0.0774 0.0974 0.0784Maximum RXY value 0.5305 0.5419 0.5981

* male × female pairs.

All animals (100%), in the examined population were related, regardless of the comparison applied. The average relationship coefficient in the whole ref-erence population was 8.5%. The high-est mean RXY value was between Silesian mares (almost 10%). In the remaining groups (between stallions and between stallions and mares) these values were almost at the same level: 7.7 and 7.8%, respectively. The maximum relationship values were high, exceeding 50% for all groups, but for male-female pairs it could be much more disadvantageous and lead to serious problems in design-ing mating plans (Table 1). It should be pointed out that dividing the small Sile-sian horse population into two smaller


subgroups, assumed in Breeding Pro-gramme (Wójcik et al. 2014), will only make the matters worse.

The mean inbreeding coefficients for inbred Silesian stallions and mares from the ancestor group and from the reference population, depending on the year of birth, are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. In the ancestor group (Fig. 1) the mean inbreeding coefficients of stallions oscillated between 2 and 3% in the con-secutive birth periods, however those of mares increased rapidly in last birth period (1991–2001), reaching over 7%. The average inbreeding coefficients for examined Silesian horses (Fig. 2) were slightly lower for stallions (up to 2%) than for older males in all birth periods and for mares they were much lower than in female ancestor group and decreased slightly from over 3% for females born before 2000 year to 2.8% for the young-est mares probably because they had less ancestors of Silesian origin due to occurence of Thoroughbred ancestors (as fathers).

In the group of 67 inbred Silesian horses from the active population most were born in years 2000–2009. Only 12 individuals were born earlier, from 1991 to 1999. In the inbred group 13 individuals had FX smaller than 1%: 7 stallions and 6 mares. Inbreeding coef-ficient ranging from 1 to 3.5% was found in 39 horses (18 stallions and 21 mares). There were 15 horses with inbreeding coefficients higher than 3.5% (3 stallions and 12 mares). In this group five mares were progeny of one Silesian stallion and two other Silesian stallions had two inbred daughters each. The highest FX in this group, over 12.5%, was that of the Silesian mare born in 2009.

0,015

0,018

0,021

0,024

0,027

0,03

0,033

up to 2000 2001–2005 2006–2010

mean

Fx

birth period

maresstallions

FIGURE 2. Mean inbreeding coeffi cients (FX) for mares and stallions from examined herd over birth periods

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

up to 1960 1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2001

mean

Fx

birth period

maresstallions

FIGURE 1. Mean inbreeding coeffi cients (FX) for mares and stallions from ancestor group

From the 24 sires of the group of inbred Silesian horses only four sires had FX = 0 and five sires near zero and they produced 21 out of 67 inbred animals (over 31%). Three sires had inbreeding coefficients lower than 0.5% and one slightly above this value and all four sired 17 inbred animals (more than 25%). Among those four sires there was one Silesian stallion with 10 inbred progeny. The remaining 11 sires had FX values ranging from 1% to over 4.5% and produced 29 out of 67 inbred animals (over 43%).

The 67 inbred Silesian horses had 46 mothers. Only four of those mothers had FX = 0 and seven near zero and they all gave 18 inbred progeny (about 27%).


Next 12 mares, the mothers of 16 inbred Silesian horses, had inbreeding coef-ficients from about 0.1% to near 1%, but only three had FX lower than 0.5%. The remaining 23 mothers had FX values between 1% and more than 8% and produced 33 out of 67 inbred horses (over 49%).

Walkowicz (2009) analyzed inbreed-ing level in the modern population of 849 Silesian horses and obtained FX values slightly lower than in presented study, 1.26 and 2.32% for all and for inbred Silesian horses, respectively, but the maximum value of inbreeding coef-ficient in their study was higher than for Silesian horses from Książ State Stud (18.35 vs. 12.6%). The percent of inbred animals in their study was also much lower, reaching 54%, because of lack of pedigree information for some horses (Walkowicz 2009). The pedigrees in the presented study were more complete and, consequently, much higher percent of inbred animals was detected.

Bokor et al. (2013) investigated the pedigrees of Thoroughbred horses with racing career in Hungary and obtained similar proportion of inbred animals in the population (94.94%) but a higher level of inbreeding coefficient (aver-age 9.58%) compared to the presented study. However, in Bokor’s research over 56% horses in the population had FX value higher than 10% compared to only two mares in the examined Sile-sian horse group. Hungarian Thorough-bred population had also more complete pedigrees than Silesian horses (average ECG = 15.64). In the previous research of Cunningham et al. (2001) the Brit-ish population of Thoroughbred horses achieved mean inbreeding coefficient

value of about 13.9%, which was sig-nificantly higher than that of Silesian horses.

The above-mentioned authors (Bokor et al. 2013) also estimated average RXY for Thoroughbred horses by generation and the calculated mean exceeded 10% from reference population (generation 0) till 24th generation back. For generations 0–5 (used routinely by breeders) the aver-age relatedness mean values were close or higher than 20%. The authors pointed out that the increase of the inbreeding level began because of lack of impor-tation. In comparison to the presented study about Silesian horses, the results for Hungarian Thoroughbreds were higher, which means that inbreeding for the examined population should not be considered at present as a problem.

Zechner et al. (2002) analyzed pedi-grees of 565 Lipizzan horses from eight European studs. The inbreeding coef-ficients ranged from 8.6% to over 14% between studs, whereas the mean inbreed-ing coefficient for all units reached 10.8%. So the Lipizzan horses were also more inbred than the examined Silesian horses, which lead to decrease in genetic variability in Lipizzan horses. The above mentioned authors found that the popu-lation subdivision (male or female lines), in order to preserve gene pool variability, does not necessarily lead to maintenance of such variability. Álvarez at al. (2010) assessed genetic variability in the endan-gered Mallorquí horse and obtained average FX values of 2.5% for the whole population and 4.7% for the reference population (animals born between 2005 and 2007). The results were slightly higher than for Silesian horses, but were calculated from less complete pedigrees


(ECG = 1.8 and ECG = 2.4, respective-ly) than in our study. The RXY coefficients for Mallorquí horses, over 10% for the whole and over 11% for the reference population, were also higher than those for Silesian horses. Álvarez at al. (2010) found that, in order to prevent gene pool variability of the Mallorquí horses, their breeders should not exclude black horses and, especially, heterozygous chestnut horses from stock population.

Recently Kania-Gierdziewicz et al. (2015) examined the pedigrees of the American Quarter horses and found FX and RXY values almost similar to or slight-ly lower than those for Silesian horses, whereas the percent of inbred and related Silesian horses were higher than for Amer-ican Quarter horses. Duru (2017) analyzed pedigrees of 23,668 Turkish Arab horses and found two or four times higher mean inbreeding coefficient values for all and inbred animals and also the maximum FX values, for almost the same percent of inbred horses, than in our study. The RXY

values obtained by the above mentioned author were similar to or slightly higher than for Silesian horses.

Siderits et al. (2013) investigated pedigrees of 2,364 German Paint Horses and found much lower FX values and also much lower percentage of inbred animals than those for Silesian horses in this study.

Pinheiro et al. (2013) analyzed pedi-grees of 653 horses of the endangered Sorraia breed and obtained the mean inbreeding coefficient value of about 0.27 and average relatedness of over 0.46, which were much higher than those obtained for Silesian horses.

Pjontek et al. (2012) examined genetic variability from pedigrees of four endan-

gered Slovak breeds and obtained mean inbreeding coefficients ranging from over 2.5% for Slovak Sport Ponys to over 6% for Hucul horses. Slovak Lip-izzan horses and Shagya Arabians had the mean FX within the above range. All those FX values were higher than in Silesian horses in the present study, but the ECG values obtained for Sile-sian horses were similar to those from the cited paper. The relationship coef-ficient values reported by Pjontek et al. (2012) were similar (Hucul horses, Slovak Sport Pony) or slightly smaller (Lipizzan horses, Shagya Arabians) than for Silesian horses. According to those results, the authors expected inversion of inbreeding trend for Hucul horses and Slovak Sport Ponies in the next genera-tions and recommended monitoring of mating.

Olsen et al. (2010) analyzed pedigrees of two endangered Norwegian horse breeds and estimated that, for the refer-ence population of 1,535 Døle horses, the mean FX value was 11.8% and for 1,050 Nordland/Lyngen horses – 12.8%. The ECG values were 10.5 and 7.2 for Døle and Nordland/Lyngen horses, respectively. The authors found the con-siderable loss of heterozygosity in Nor-dland/Lyngen horse breed and slightly higher genetic variance in the Døle breed due to cross-breeding in the past, and recommended, for both breeds, optimal contribution selection without additional cross-breeding.

Bhatnagar et al. (2011) analyzed pedi-grees of 1,659 North American Norwe-gian Fjord horses and obtained higher FX values for much lower percentage of inbred animals than in present study. The authors stated that, even though the


inbreeding values for American Norwe-gian Fjord horses seem to be not very high, the reduction in genetic variabil-ity is still possible due to overall small population size.

Hasler et al. (2011) examined genetic variability of Franches-Montagnes horse breed and achieved high mean FX value (over 5%) for ECG = 7.8, i.e. similar to that in presented study. Those authors (Hasler et al. 2011) also obtained higher relationship coefficients for indigenous Swiss horse breed and emphasized that maintenance of genetic variability within a small, endangered population is possible and could be achieved via mating optimization by using pedigree information (relationship) and also per-formance data.

Sevinga et al. (2004) analyzed inbreed-ing level and its possible influence on retained placenta in Friesian mares. For Friesian foals born in 1999–2000 the inbreeding coefficient ranged from 15.6 to 15.7%. The authors concluded that the increase of inbreeding level gener-ates problems with retained placenta in mares. Similar fertility problems have been reported by Silesian horse breed-ers from Książ National Stud (personal communication).

FOUNDERS AND ANCESTORS

The total and effective number of founders and ancestors of the examined Silesian horses are in Table 2.

For the 72 individuals from the ref-erence population the total number of 458 founders and 64 ancestors were found. The effective number of found-ers (fe) was 163, whereas the effective number of ancestors (fa) was 22 and was

TABLE 2. Total number of ancestors and found-ers, effective number of founders (fe) and effective number of ancestors (fa) for reference population from Książ National Stud

Parameter ValueNumber of animals in reference population 72

Number of animals in pedigrees 1 363Mean ECG 7.27Total number of

founders 458ancestors 64

Effective number offounders (fe) 163ancestors (fa) 22

Explaining 50% of gene poolfounders 59ancestors 8

Explaining 90% of gene poolfounders 231ancestors 33

about seven times smaller than fe. The gene pool of the reference population is steadily narrowing down, because 50% of genetic variability was explained by only 8 ancestors, whereas 90% – by about 50% of all ancestors (Table 2). The value of fa/fe (0.35) is strongly below 1 and indicates the presence of the “bot-tleneck effect”, i.e. the downward trend in the level of genetic diversity. Because most mares from Książ National Stud, which is called the Silesian horses breed-ing center, are considered as the genetic reserve of the Silesian breed, such situa-tion seems to be very harmful to the Stud and also could be troublesome for the whole Silesian horse population.

Table 3 shows breed and sex composi-tion of the groups of 458 founders and 64 ancestors. In the group of founders about 60% were mares. Almost 33% of


them were Thoroughbreds. The Silesian and Oldenburg female founders consti-tuted about 17 and 16% of all female founders, respectively. Seven other minor breeds were also reported in the group of founder mares with the superiority of the Trakehner breed. In the group of 182 founder stallions, the Thoroughbred horses prevailed as well (over 30% of all male founders). Another most popular breeds in the male founder group were Silesian and Oldenburg breeds, over 16% and more than 22% of all founder stallions, respectively. Also male found-ers from Trakehner breed (about 4% of all stallions-founders) and three other breeds were shown. However, signifi-cant number of founders (over 26%) had missing information about their breed. Most of these horses were born at the beginning of 20th century or even earlier, at the end of 19th century (Table 3). The total number of 64 ancestors included about 47% of mares and 53% stallions. The Silesian breed dominated in this group, because almost all female ances-tors belonged to this breed and 59% of male ancestors as well. Oldenburg and Thoroughbred stallions were also in the group of male ancestors. Distribution of sex among founders indicates that mares constituted the majority (60% of all founders), whereas the ancestor group was dominated by stallions (53% of all ancestors) – Table 3.

The Thoroughbred horses were one of the horse breeds that strongly influenced the origin of Silesian breed (founders) but has a little impact on the current Silesian horse population (ancestors), as it has been shown in Table 3. Thus, creat-ing two subpopulations according to the breeding programme for Silesian horses

TABLE 3. Breed and sex of founders and ances-tors of the reference population

BreedNumber of Breed

contribution (%)mares stallions

Founders (N = 458) 275 182 ×

Thoroughbred 86 57 31.22Arabian horse 0 1 0.22Silesian horse 48 30 17.03Oldenburg horse 44 41 18.56Holsteiner horse 0 1 0.22Trakehner/East--Prussian horse 9 7 3.49

Wielkopolski horse 3 1 0.87

Friesian horse 3 0 0.66Ostfriesen horse 1 0 0.22Anglo-Norman horse 1 0 0.22

Half-blood Anglo-Arabian 1 0 0.22

Warmblood horse 2 0 0.44

Without breed designation 78 44 26.64

Ancestors (N = 64) 30 34 ×

Thoroughbred 0 5 7.81Silesian horse 29 20 76.56Oldenburg horse 0 8 12.50

seems to be unnecessary or even harm-ful for the population. The alternative way of maintaining the genetic diversity of a whole population, very important for Silesian breed, is probably to look for phenotypically similar horse breed of possibly similar origin, as for exam-ple the Alt-Oldenburger in Germany (http://www.ostfriesen-alt-oldenburger.de). In the pedigrees of some stallions of this breed we found, to some extent,


the same ancestors (Oldenburg or Ost-friesen stallions) as in the pedigrees of Silesian horses. The possibility of taking advantage of such breeding has also been mentioned in the conservation pro-gramme of Silesian horse breed (Instytut Zootechniki PIB 2017). And it should be pointed out that Eckermann, a grey stallion of German Heavy Warmblood breed, which is in one-half of Silesian breed, has been recently used for mating in Książ National Stud.

Cunningham et al. (2001) obtained, for the reference population of 211 Thor-oughbred horses, 158 founders (85 stal-lions and 73 mares). The value of fe in their work was 28.15. To explain 78% genetic diversity, the joint contribution of 30 founders was needed. Therefore, the British Thoroughbred population was much less varied than the Silesian horses in the present study. In recent research on Thoroughbreds from Hungary Bokor et el. (2013), found that the total number of founders was 1,062 and the fe reached 42, which was a lower value than for the examined Silesian horses. Noteworthy is that 232 founders (all born before 1793) were responsible for 88.58% of diversity in the reference population gene pool. The total and the effective number of ancestors were 908 and 15.32, respec-tively. Only six ancestors explained 50% of the genetic diversity of the Hungar-ian Thoroughbreds, which was slightly lower than in the Silesian horses.

For Lipizzan horses from European studs investigated by Zechner et al. (2002) the fe was on average 48.2 and ranged from over 39 in Piber stud to almost 56 in Fagaras stud, whereas the fa for all studs exceeded 26 with the range from 12.5 for Djakovo stud to 18.8 in Piber

and Szilvásvárad studs. Those results were lower than in this study, although they were conducted on greater number of individuals. The authors (Zechner et al. 2002) also found that over 52% of genetic variability of Lipizzan horses originated from so-called baroque horses, which in most cases were of Italian and Spanish origin. Among other founder breeds there were Arabian horses (21% of gene contribution), Lipizzan horses (10%), Frederiksborg horses (8%), Kladruby horses, Thoroughbreds and Shagya Arabians. It was quite similar to the examined Silesian horses, since their founders were also of different breeds, with, however, Thoroughbreds, Silesian and Oldenburg horses predominating. The above-mentioned authors concluded that exchanging stallions between Lipiz-zan studs according to relationship coef-ficients calculated from the joint pedigree file should be taken into consideration in mating plans.

The total number of founders for four Slovak horse breeds examined by Pjontek et al. (2012) and the effective number of founders for Hucul horses, Lippizan horses, Shagya Arabians and Slovak Sport Ponys, respectively. Those results were close to or lower than those in the presented study. The authors rec-ommended use for mating stallions with optimal contribution for the genetic man-agement of those Slovak horse breeds.

Recently Kania-Gierdziewicz et al. (2015), who examined pedigrees of the American Quarter horses, obtained simi-lar values of the fe and fa (121 and 26, respectively). The number of ancestors explaining 50 and 90% of the genetic pool was found to be 10 and 39 ances-tors, respectively, which was slightly


more than in the presented study. Duru (2017) analyzed Turkish Arab horse population and, for reference population of 14,838 animals, obtained the fe and fa values of 40 and 22, respectively. Those values were similar to our findings, but they were calculated for a much bigger population and indicated that Turkish Arab population had lower genetic diver-sity than the examined Silesian horses.

In the work of Siderits et al. (2013), for German Paint Horse population, much higher fe and fa values (from two to 10 times higher) were found than in Silesian horses. The authors concluded that the genetic variability of the German Paint Horse population was kept at a sat-isfactory high level.

Pinheiro et al. (2013) found for endan-gered Sorraia horse population very low values of fe and fa (7.46 and 4, respec-tively). Additionally, only 2 ancestors explaining 50% of the Sorraia breed gene pool. The authors concluded that Sorraia horse breed is still in the brink of extinction and required the introduction of an efficient conservation plan.

Bhatnagar et al. (2011), for fe and fa in North American Norwegian Fjord horses found the values of 96 and 30, respec-tively. The authors pointed out that the effective number of founders and ances-tors and also the fa/fe were low, thus the reduction of the genetic variability is possible.

Teengen et al. (2009) examined the contribution of other breeds to the recent Trakehner horse population and found that over 22% of genes came from Thor-oughbred horses and almost 12% of gene pool originated from Anglo-Arabian horses. The authors found also increas-ing rate of inbreeding and relationship in

the examined Trakehner population and recommended bettering of monitoring system.

Hamann and Distl (2008) calculated the effective number of founders (fe) and ancestors (fa) for Hanoverian horses, which were higher than in present study. They also examined the average contri-bution of various breeds to the genetic pool of Hanoverian horses and found that the breeds with the highest contri-bution (except Hanoverians with 49.1%) were Thoroughbred horses (34.8%), and then Trakehner horses (7.9%), Arabians, Holsteiner warmblood horses and Old-enburg horses. The above mentioned authors found the large random loss of founder alleles due to the fact that only 15 stallions (from famous sire lines) had about 35% of gene contribution to exam-ined breed.

Olsen et al. (2010) examined genetic variation in two native Norwegian horse breeds and found that in Døle breed the most influenced ancestor (stallion) had the gene contribution about 22% and in Nordland/Lyngen population the top ancestor (stallion) had the contribution value over 26%. The authors suggested that in both populations the loss of genetic diversity appeared because of low number of animals and high level of relationship and inbreeding.

Toro et al. (2011) summarized the find-ings about the different ways to measure of genetic diversity is small livestock populations in order to conserve animal genetic resources. They concluded that the maintenance of genetic variability is the most important in all cases, but the most useful tools for measuring genetic variability could be the rate of inbreed-ing and coancestry or even the effective


population size, all basing on pedigree information. On the other hand the effec-tive population size would be useful for indicating changes in longer time periods, and the effective number of founders and ancestors – for estimating recent changes in gene pool taking place as a result of current breeding decisions (Kania-Gierdziewicz 2006).

CONCLUSIONS

Summing up all the above results, genetic variability of Silesian horses from Książ National Stud is still on the satisfactory level, which was confirmed by high values of the effective number of founders and relatively small values of individual contributions of founders and ancestors in the genetic pool in com-parison to the small number of examined horses. However, the relatively low value of the effective number of ancestors and the fact that 100% individuals were re-lated to each other and 90% individuals were inbred in the Książ National Stud, which is treated as a breeding center for Silesian horses, suggest that now the downward tendency in genetic variabil-ity exists. Because the whole population of Silesian horses is very limited in size – in general less than 2,000 animals and slightly above 1,000 individuals included in the conservation programme (Tomczyk-Wrona 2017), which may be insufficient to maintain genetic diversity, artifical subdivision of this population, as it is proposed in the new breeding programme, which would result in creation of two subpopulations: old-type and new-type Silesian horses, is not recommended. We suggest one thing that certainly could be necessary – namely,

introducing different ways for breed-ing value estimation for the two types of Silesian horses depending on their kind of use, but without subdividing the whole population, and also more clari-fication of the Herdbook requirements, which should be written clearly in the newly introduced breeding programme (Wójcik et al. 2014). Specifying the old-type Silesian horse as having less Thoroughbred ancestors in the pedigree (up to two ancestors only in the third generation back) for mares and with less restrictive conditions for stallions and the new-type Silesian horse with more Thoroughbred ancestors (in some cases it could be one-half Silesian and one-half Thoroughbred) seems to be highly insuf-ficient, because in the latter case the gen-erations, in which those ancestors occur are also very important. In our opinion, for maintaining genetic diversity of Sile-sian horses, it could be also possible to introduce a well thought-out importation of semen or stallions of similar breeds, i.e. German Alt-Oldenburger horses or German Heavy Warmblood horses (last year one of the stallions of the latter breed was mated to the mares from the Książ National Stud), because these breeds have to some extent the same ancestors as the Silesian horses. The plan should include, as suggestions for the breed-ers, the matings recommended within the population of all available Silesian horses regardless of their type – old or new. It should be also clearly stated in the plan how large proportion of the Silesian mares population could be each year mated to Thoroughbred stallions. Division into two such types implies that some fraction of new-type Silesian horses and their progeny would not be


regarded as potential parents of individu-als that would fulfill the conditions for the conservation programme. Yet such a possibility would allow some Silesian horses of the new-type, especially those with more than 75% Silesian breed con-tribution, to serve as a sort of the initial group in the conservation programme. Mating them to old-type Silesian horses would give, in the next one or two generations, the progeny eligible to enter the main conservation programme, broadening therefore the gene pool of the Silesian breed. The authors consider introducing such a program essential. Analogous solutions, concerning various livestock breeds for which procedures of protection have been initiated because of small population size and low genetic variability, appear frequently in literature (Olsen et al. 2010, Bhatnagar et al. 2011, Pinheiro et al. 2013). The point is not to give up protecting or improvement of the breed but to gain control of what is hap-pening to the population as a whole and to direct breeders’ efforts not only towards advantages for the breeders themselves but, primarily, towards the preservation of the breed. Such a procedure could facilliate the management of the whole Silesian horse breed and should be prof-itable for breeders and also beneficial for breed resources protection.

REFERENCES

ÁLVAREZ I., ROYO L.J., PÉREZ-PARDAL L., FERNÁNDEZ I., PAYERAS L., GOYACHE F. 2010: Assessing losses of genetic variabil-ity in the endangered Mallorquí horse. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 55 (10): 456–462.

BHATNAGAR A.S., EAST C.M., SPLAN R.K. 2011: Genetic variability of the Norwegian Fjord horse in North America. Anim. Genet. Res. 49: 43–49.

BOICHARD D., MAIGNEL L., VERRIER E. 1996: Analyse gẻnẻalogique des races bo-vines laitiẻres françaises. INRA Prod. Anim. 5: 323–335.

BOICHARD D., MAIGNEL L., VERRIER E. 1997: The value of using probabilities of gene origin to measure genetic variability in a popu-lation. Genet. Sel. Evol. 29: 5–23.

BOKOR Á., JÓNÁS D., DUCRO B., NAGY I., BOKOR J., SZABARI M. 2013: Pedigree analysis of the Hungarian Thoroughbred popu-lation. Livest. Sci. 151: 1–10.

CUNNINGHAM E.P., DOOLEY J.J., SPLAN R.K., BRADLEY D.G. 2001: Microsatellite diversity, pedigree relatedness and contribu-tions of founder lineages to thoroughbred hors-es. Anim. Genet. 32: 360–364.

CZEŚNIK B. 1999: Ślązaki czy Oldenburgi? Koń Polski 12: 12–14.

DURU S. 2017: Pedigree analysis of the Turkish Arab horse population: structure, inbreeding and genetic variability. Anim. 11 (9): 1449–1456.

GIERDZIEWICZ M., KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ J. 2007: A study of efficiency of recursive algo-rithm for estimating relationship coefficients. Acta Sci. Pol.-Zoot. 6: 29–36.

HAMANN H., DISTL O. 2008: Genetic variabil-ity in Hanoverian warmblood horses using ped-igree analysis. J. Anim. Sci. 86: 1503–1513.

HASLER H., FLURY C., MENET S., HAASE B., LEEB T., SIMIANER H., PONCET P.A., RIEDER S. 2011: Genetic diversity in an in-digenous horse breed – implications for mating strategies and the control of future inbreeding. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 128: 394–406.

Instytut Zotechniki PIB 2017: Program ochro-ny zasobów genetycznych koni rasy śląskiej. Retrieved form http://www.bioroznorodnosc.izoo.krakow.pl/konie/programy-ochrony [ac-cess: 25.05.2017].

KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ J. 2006: Analiza struk-tury genetycznej – udział założycieli w puli ge-nów populacji. Wiad. Zoot. 45 (2): 27–34.

KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ J. 2008: Metody sza-cowania spokrewnienia i inbredu stosowane w analizie struktury genetycznej populacji. Wiad. Zoot. 46 (3): 29–41.

KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ J., GIERDZIEWICZ M., STANKOWSKA-ŻOŁĄDŹ E. 2015: Ana-liza struktury genetycznej koni rasy American Quarter. Roczn. Nauk. PTZ 11 (3): 9–21.


LACY R.C. 1989: Analysis of founder represen-tation in pedigrees: Founder Equivalents and Founder Genome Equivalents. Zoo Biol. 8: 111–123.

LACY R.C. 1995: Clarification of genetic terms and their use in the management of captive populations. Zoo Biol. 14: 565–578.

LAWIN J. 2004a: Konie śląskie. Part 1. Historia powstania rasy. Koński Targ 2: 24–25.

LAWIN J. 2004b: Konie śląskie. Part 4. Historia powstania rasy. Koński Targ 5: 23–25.

MAIGNEL L., BOICHARD D., VERRIER E. 1996: Genetic variability of French dairy breeds estimated from pedigree information. Interbull Bull. 14: 49–54.

OLSEN H.F., KLEMETSDAL G., RUANE J., HELFJORD T. 2010: Pedigree structure and genetic variation in the two endangered Nor-wegian horse breeds: Døle and Nordland/Lyn-gen. Acta Agric. Scand., Section A 60: 13–22.

PINHEIRO M., KJÖLLERSTRÖM H.J., OOM M.M. 2013: Genetic diversity and demographic structure of the endangered Sorraia horse breed assessed through pedigree analysis. Livest. Sci. 152: 1–10.

PJONTEK J., KADLEČÍK O., KASARDA R., HORNÝ M. 2012: Pedigree analysis in four Slovak endangered horse breeds. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 57 (2): 54–64.

RAJCA-PISZ I. 2005: Stado Ogierów Książ. Ofi-cyna Wydawnicza Volumen, Warszawa.

SEVINGA M., VRIJENHOEK T., HESSELINK J.W., BARKEMA H.W., GROEN A.F. 2004: Effect of inbreeding on the incidence of re-tained placenta in Friesian horses. J. Anim. Sci. 82: 982–986.

SIDERITS M., BAUMUNG R., FUERST-WALTL B. 2013: Pedigree analysis in the German Paint Horse: Genetic variability and the influence of pedigree quality. Livest. Sci. 151: 152–157.

TEEGEN R., EDEL C., THALLER G. 2009: Pop-ulation structure of the Trakehner Horse breed. Anim. 3 (1): 6–15.

TIER B. 1990: Computing inbreeding coefficients quickly. Genet. Sel. Evol. 22: 419–430.

TOMCZYK-WRONA I. 2014a: Charakterystyka ogierów śląskich, dopuszczonych do krycia klaczy uczestniczących w programie ochro-ny zasobów genetycznych koni rasy śląskiej. Wiad. Zoot. 52 (1): 38–46.

TOMCZYK-WRONA I. 2014b: Frekwencja ro-dów męskich ogierów śląskich dopuszczonych do krycia klaczy uczestniczących w Programie ochrony zasobów genetycznych koni rasy ślą-skiej. Wiad. Zoot. 52 (2): 25–35.

TOMCZYK-WRONA I. 2017: Ochrona zasobów genetycznych koni ex situ. Wiad. Zoot. 55 (3): 120–128.

TORO M.A., MEUWISSEN T.H.E., FERNÁN-DEZ J., SHAAT I., MÄKI-TANILA A. 2011: Assessing the genetic diversity in small farm animal populations. Anim. 5 (11): 1669–1683.

WALKOWICZ E. 2009: Ocena zinbredowania współczesnej populacji koni śląskich. Zesz. Nauk. Uniw. Przyrod. Wrocław, Biol. i Hod. Zw. 58 (572): 159–170.

WÓJCIK K., HELON P., KAPICA B., LAWIN J., MÜLLER D., PECKIEL P., WYSZOMIRSKI M. 2014: Program hodowli koni rasy śląskiej. Wydawnictwo Polskiego Związku Hodowców Koni, Warszawa. Retrieved from http://pzhk.pl/wp-content/uploads/pr_hodow_slas-2015_03_27.pdf.

ZECHNER P., SÖLKNER J., BODO I., DRUML T., BAUMUNG R., ACHMANN R., MARTI E., HABE F., BREM G. 2002: Analysis of di-versity and population structure in the Lipizzan horse breed based on pedigree information. Li-vest. Prod. Sci. 77: 137–146.

Streszczenie: Analiza struktury genetycznej po-pulacji koni śląskich ze Stada Ogierów Książ. Ce-lem pracy była analiza struktury genetycznej koni rasy śląskiej hodowanych w Stadzie Ogierów Książ na podstawie danych rodowodowych oraz wypracowanie odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy słusz-ny jest założony w programie hodowlanym koni rasy śląskiej podział na stary i nowy typ konia śląskiego z osobnymi wymogami dotyczącymi wpisu do ksiąg. Materiałem badawczym była gru-pa 72 koni rodowodowych, zakwalifikowanych jako hodowlane (populacja aktywna). Populację referencyjną do analiz stanowiły 72 konie nale-żące do populacji aktywnej urodzone w latach 1991–2009. Udział osobników zinbredowanych w populacji aktywnej wynosił 93,1%, przy czym więcej było zinbredowanych ogierów niż klaczy. Średnie zinbredowanie dla wszystkich koni wyno-siło 2,3%, a w grupie koni zinbredowanych było równe 2,5%. Bardziej zinbredowane były klacze


niż ogiery. Wszystkie badane 72 konie śląskie były ze sobą spokrewnione, a średni współczyn-nik spokrewnienia dla nich wyniósł 8,5%. Ogólna liczba założycieli wyniosła 458, zaś przodków – 64. Efektywna liczba założycieli wynosiła 163, a przodków – 22. Wśród ras założycielskich prze-ważała pełna krew angielska, a następnie konie oldenburskie i śląskie. Wśród przodków występo-wały przeważnie konie śląskie, a udział koni peł-nej krwi był niewielki. Ogólnie można stwierdzić, że zmienność genetyczna wśród koni śląskich ze Stada Ogierów Książ pozostaje jeszcze na zado-walająco dobrym poziomie, ale wymaga monito-rowania ze względu na tendencję do wzrostu inbre-du przy jednoczesnym spokrewnieniu wszystkich osobników. Ze względu na małą liczebność po-pulacji koni śląskich (poniżej 2000 osobników, w tym nieco ponad 1000 osobników w programie ochrony zasobów genetycznych rasy) wprowa-dzenie bardziej restrykcyjnego podziału na 2 sub-populacje koni starego i nowego typu będzie dla rasy bardzo niekorzystne. Aby utrzymać zmien-ność genetyczną koni śląskich na zadowalającym poziomie, korzystne byłoby również posłużenie się reproduktorami ras mających te same korzenie co rasa śląska, np. Oldenburgami w starym typie czy końmi rasy ciężkiej gorącokrwistej niemiec-kiej. Wprowadzenie indywidualnego planu koja-rzeń w obrębie całej populacji koni śląskich jest, według autorów niezbędne. Plan taki powinien ja-sno określić, jaka część populacji klaczy śląskich corocznie mogłaby być ewentualnie krzyżowana z ogierami pełnej krwi angielskiej. Powinien on

uwzględniać, jako sugestie dla hodowców, moż-liwości kojarzeń w obrębie całej dostępnej popu-lacji koni śląskich bez podziałów na stary i nowy typ. Podział taki powoduje, że pewna część koni śląskich nowego typu i ich potomstwo nie jest brana pod uwagę jako ewentualni rodzice koni, które będą spełniały warunki programu ochrony. Na przykład pozwoliłoby to wykorzystać konie śląskie nowego typu, u których udział genów rasy śląskiej jest większy niż 75%, i które stworzyłyby „grupę wstępną programu ochrony”. Ich kojarze-nie z końmi starego typu mogłyby dać potomstwo (dzieci, wnuki), które spełniałyby w przyszłości warunki programu ochrony, powiększając tym sa-mym dostępną pulę genów.

Słowa kluczowe: inbred, pokrewieństwo, założy-ciel, przodek, konie śląskie



Authors’ address:Joanna Kania-GierdziewiczKatedra Genetyki i Metod Doskonalenia ZwierzątWydział Hodowli i Biologii ZwierzątUniwersytet Rolniczy w Krakowieal. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 KrakówPolande-mail: [email protected]


Impact of food type on long term consumption kinetics in group-housed domestic cats (Felis catus)

AGNIESZKA KUROSAD1, URSZULA PASŁAWSKA1, AGNIESZKA JANECZEK2, ROBERT PASŁAWSKI4, PAWEŁ JONKISZ1, AGNIESZKA SIKORSKA-KOPYŁOWICZ1, MICHAŁ JANK5, ROBERT GŁOGOWSKI3

1Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences2Veterinary Clinic “Cztery Łapy i Ty”3Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW4Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University5Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Impact of food type on long term con-sumption kinetics in group-housed domestic cats (Felis catus). The aim of the current research was to assess the impact of the type of dry food on the long term acceptance in cats, expressed as con-sumption curves. A group of 14 adult neutered do-mestic cats were subsequently offered three types of products: economy, medium and premium. The consumption of food has been carefully monito-red each day of the experiment, which enabled the drawing of the precise consumption curve. The average daily consumption showed differences be-tween feeding periods (98.33, 61.17 and 55.04% for premium, medium and economy diet type, respectively). In all groups the monotony effect has been observed, but the relative stability of the consumption has been observed only in cats fed with the premium type of food. The attractiveness of the economy type of food was distinctively low, resulting in a regularly waved consumption curve. It can be concluded, that the prolonged offering of a particular type of complete dry pet food within the limits of metabolizable energy requirements may potentially lead to adverse consequences for cats. The food consumption level that supplies the minimal daily energy amount can likely result in imbalanced macronutrient intake.

Key words: cat, consumption, pet food, accepta-bility, colony

INTRODUCTION

Feeding a group of domestic cats (Felis catus) housed together in a shelter, cattery or in an experimental facility is of a par-ticular importance, because the type of the food has to be carefully selected to cover the requirements of all group members. Generally, high quality commercial foods providing balanced macronutrients and of high-digestibility are recommended (Bradshaw and Cook 2006). Cats are strict carnivores, relying on nutrients present in animal tissues to fulfill their specific and unique nutritional requirements. Although they have adjusted to commercial diets, limitations of substituting animal-origin nutrients with plant-origin in foods formulated for cats are being generally realized (Zoran 2002).

Currently a tremendous interest in identifying the ideal macronutrient pro-file to maximize health and longevity in cats is being observed (Hewson-Hughes et al. 2011). However, nutritional recom-mendations are based on minimal intake

48 A. Kurosad et al.

data rather than optimal, as the optimal intake is harder to measure due to sub-stantial difficulties in measuring health and longevity outcomes (Villaverde and Fascetti 2014).

According to Bradshaw (2006), cats are equipped with flexible behavioral strategies, based on experience, aiming at achieving a balanced diet regardless of available types of food. Hewson-Hughes et al. (2011) described mechanisms of strong dietary macronutrient regulation in cats, towards a target profile high in protein and fat. It has to be noted, that domestication led to a modification of cats’ way of life and feeding. Currently available commercial cat foods contain various amounts of carbohydrates for technical and economic reasons (Salaun et al. 2017).

Metabolic adaptation was previously demonstrated in cats chronically exposed to high-fat or high-carbohydrate diets, but it was suggested that studies exceed-ing 14 days may be required to show effects of restricted macronutrient intake (Gooding et al. 2014).

The current study, therefore, aimed at assessing the effects of prolonged offer-ing of three different types of commercial dry foods on the consumption kinetics in group-housed cats.


Animals and housing

The research was conducted on 14 neutered adult domestic cats of mixed gender, between 3 to 8 years of age, in good health and physical condition (average body weight 4 kg). The cats were housed as a colony in a stable room temperature with controlled humidity

and light cycle (Serisier et al. 2013). All animals had access only to single food source, i.e. supplied by caretakers.

Diets

Before and during the experiment all animals were fed dry expanded diets in amounts covering the daily metaboliz-able energy requirements of spayed cat, i.e. 313.6 × (body weight)0.67 kJ (Gross et al. 2010, Mitsuhashi et al. 2011), complying to 100% consumption of the daily ration.

According to descriptions given by Crane et al. (2010), the types of pet foods used in the study can be defined as: generic with low price set as their prima-ry selling point (economy), private label with varying ingredient selection and quality (medium) and specialty products with emphasized superior ingredients and nutritional adequacy (premium). Basic analytical constituents and the percentage of metabolizable energy (% ME) supplied by the particular type of cat food are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1. Analytical constituents of cat food types as declared on the labels

Chemical analysis Premium Medium Economy

Protein (% DM) 32 35 32Fat (% DM) 15 11 8Fibre (% DM) 4.4 7 2Ash (% DM) 6.9 7 6ME (MJ/100 g DM) 1.49 1.34 1.37

Major fee materials, as listed on the labels of the products, were the follow-ing:

economy – cereals, meat and meat derived products, plant proteinaceous

•

Impact of food type... 49

extracts, vegetables, oils and fats, minerals;medium – meat and meat derived products, plant proteinaceous extracts, cereals, oils and fats, yeast;premium – dried chicken meat, rice, animal fat, maize, maize gluten meal, lignocellulose, hydrolyzed animal protein, LIP, wheat, beet pulp, yeast, minerals.

Experimental procedures

In three consecutive 31-day periods dif-ferent type of food was served to all the cats in the colony according to the follow-ing sequence: (1) medium, (2) economy

•

•

TABLE 2. Calculated* percentage of metaboliz-able energy in 100 g of DM derived from macro-nutrients in foods

% ME Premium Medium EconomyProtein (P) 31 38 34Fat (F) 36 30 21Carbohy-drates (C) 33 32 45

P : F : C 1 : 1.2 : 1.1 1.3 : 1 : 1.1 1.6 : 1 : 1.3*On the basis of information labeled by producers.

and (3) premium. To avoid the possible competition and hierarchy effects, indi-vidually calculated amount of food was always served in a sufficient number of bowls for the group (Ramos et al. 2013). Drinking water was constantly available. During the experiment, daily food con-sumption was continuously recorded and pooled to express the overall average for the colony, which was considered an ex-perimental unit throughout the study. On the basis of the calculated data the daily food consumption kinetics curves were constructed for all subsequent periods of controlled feeding.


Evaluation of consumption curves for premium, medium, and economy cat food revealed relative stability of the former. For medium and economy type the acceptance showed temporary fluc-tuations (the figure). In the case of the medium type, the consumption fluc-tuation was regular, and occurred every 3–4 days. On the other hand, feeding cats with the economy product led to

premium medium

economy

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

Food

con

sum

ptio

n (%

)

Days

FIGURE. Consumption kinetics of three different types of cat food during 31-day observation periods


more frequent variations in food intake (approximately every other day).

On the first day of offering the medium type diet, the cats almost completely refused it, showing clearly a neophobic reaction to the food. On the second day the acceptance increased to approxi-mately 55% of the offered amount. On day 4 the consumed amount was only ±30%, followed by the increase to 65 on day 5. Onwards, from 7th to 31st days of observation, the observed range of con-sumption of the medium type food was between 55 and 80%.

Similarly, on the first day of serv-ing the economy diet, the acceptance dropped to 10%. Then, from day 2 to day 6 it increased and ranged between 40 and 50%. The peaks of consumption of this diet (80%) were observed on days 11 and 16. Afterwards, it started to decline until 30% on day 31.

From the beginning of feeding the colony with the premium type of food, the acceptance was substantially higher than that for two other products. The most notable fluctuation was found on day 3 with acceptance of 70% followed by an increase to about 90% on day 4 and than another slight decrease on day 5 (the figure). From day 6 of the obser-vation period, the premium type of food was consumed in 100% until the end of the experiment.

We speculate, that the initial low acceptance of medium and economy types of foods, can be attributed to the neophobic behavior, affected most likely by the flavour (Bradshaw 1986, Bradshaw et al. 1996). It was previously reported, that in a switchback design study, the animals presented with no choice refuse new food (Aldrich and

Koppel 2015). Hewson-Hughes et al. (2016) demonstrated that in the short term, organoleptic properties may over-ride the dietary selection in cats, but with experience the macronutrient regulation prevails. This effect can be the plausible explanation of the consumption fluctua-tions observed for medium and economy type of foods in the current study. Similar results of prolonged commercial dry food consumption kinetics were described for young cats by Bermingham et al. (2013). Towards the end of a 28-day long obser-vation period, the daily intake tended gradually to decrease. Moreover, sig-nificant differences in the average food intake were reported in cats fed moderate or high-protein diets for 8 weeks, but the tendency of time-dependent decreasing consumption was observable irrespective of the protein content (Wei et al. 2011).

The differences between average daily consumption of particular types of foods calculated for the whole observa-tion period were distinct, namely 98.33 ±5.96%, 61.17 ±13.91% and 55.04 ±17.83% for premium, medium and economy diet type, respectively. Further, after the re-calculation of ingested food amount (in grams) into caloric intake it turned out that an average daily energy intake was 350, 196 and 180 kcal ME, for premium, medium and economy type, respectively. This indicates, that the consumption of the premium food deliv-ered approximately double energetic load to animals as compared to medium and economy products. The plausible explanation for the limited acceptance of high-carbohydrate economy diet in the current study is the ceiling for carbohy-drate consumption in cats that constrains them to deficits in protein and fat intake


(Hewson-Hughes et al. 2011). There are reports, however, that over time, the carbohydrate ceiling is higher if cats are more adapted to the diet (Farrow et al. 2013), but the present results do not sup-port the adaptive tendency for the econ-omy diet. We observed noticeably low attractiveness of the economy type food, which resulted in a regularly waved con-sumption curve, with the intake increase occurring most likely due to inefficient supply of metabolizable energy. Conse-quently, distinct differences in macro-nutrients content between products assessed in the study (Table 2) may lead to potential unbalanced dietary intake in cats, during longitudinal offering.

One explanation for the fluctuations, both at the beginning of premium food feeding period and from day 6 to the end of periods of medium and economy type foods offering can be a monotony effect, affecting the palatability of repeatedly served food. Cats may show growing aversion toward products that have formed a significant part of their diet in the past (Bradshaw 2006).

The apparent stability of the food con-sumption has been observed for the pre-mium type, and the instinct of looking for new food was either not activated, or weak due to apparently low risk of mal-nutrition (Thorne 1982).

Additionally, the premium type product supplied almost twofold more metabolizable energy, compared to medium and economy types. Consider-ing that the taste of the commercial dry cats food relies mostly on the fat and protein contents, in line with the sparing manufacturing practice, it seems likely that products containing the breakpoint amount of fat (medium and economy

type) presented generally low attractive-ness for cats, and resulted consumption barely covering their minimal energy requirements.

CONCLUSIONS

The prolonged observation of food acceptance in colony cats fed quantities of restricted energy content may help reveal substantial information on the macronutrient intake regulation of com-mercially available products.

Particular types of complete dry pet food offered within the limits of metabo-lizable energy requirements may render ineffective or lead to imbalanced macro-nutrient intake in adult neutered cats.

Acknowledgements

There is no conflict of interest to disclose in this work.

REFERENCES

ALDRICH G.C., KOPPEL K. 2015: Pet food palatability evaluation: a review of standard assay techniques and interpretation of results with a primary focus on limitations. Animals 5: 43–55.

BRADSHAW J.W.S. 1986: Mere exposure redu-ces cats’ neophobia to unfamiliar food. Anim. Behav. 34: 613–614.

BRADSHAW J.W.S. 2006: The evolutionary basis for the feeding behavior of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus). J. Nutr. 136: 1927–1931.

BRADSHAW J.W.S., COOK S.E. 1996: Patterns of pet cat behavior at feeding occasions. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 47: 61–74.

BRADSHAW J.W.S., GOODWIN D., LE-GRAND-DEFRÉTIN V., NOTT H.M.R. 1996: Food selection by the domestic cat, an obliga-te carnivore. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 144A: 205–209.


BERMINGHAM E.N., WEIDGRAAF K., HEK-MAN M., ROY N.C., TAVENDALE M.H., THOMAS D.G. 2013: Seasonal and age effects on energy requirements in domestic short-hair cats (Felis catus) in a temperate environment. J. Anim. Phys. Anim. Nutr. 97: 522–530.

CRANE S.W., COWELL C.S., STOUT N.P., MOSER E.A., MILLICAN J., ROMANO Jr P., CRANE S.E. 2010: Commercial pet foods. In: M.S. Hand, C.D. Thatcher, R.L. Remillard, P. Roudebush (Eds.), Small animal clinical nu-trition. 5th edn. MMI, Topeka: 157–190.

FARROW H.A., RAND J.S., MORTON J.M., O’LEARY C.A., SUNVOLD G.D. 2013: Ef-fect of dietary carbohydrate, fat, and protein on postprandial glycemia and energy intake in cats. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 27: 1121–1135.

GOODING M.A., FLICKINGER E.A., ATKIN-SON J.L., DUNCAN I.J.H., SHOVELLER A.K. 2014: Effects of high-fat and high-car-bohydrate diets on fat and carbohydrate oxi-dation and plasma metabolites in healthy cats. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 98: 596–607.

GROSS K.L., YAMKA R.M., KHOO C., FRIE-SEN K.G., JEWELL D.E., SCHOENHERR W.D., DEBRAEKELEER J., ZICKER S.C. 2010: Macronutrients. In: M.S. Hand, C.D. Thatcher, R.L. Remillard, P. Roudebush (Eds.), Small animal clinical nutrition. 5th edn. MMI, Topeka: 49–105.

HEWSON-HUGHES A.K., HEWSON-HUGES V.L., MILLER A.T., HALL S.R., SIMPSON S.J., RAUBENHEIMER D. 2011: Geometric analysis of macronutrient selection in the adult domestic cat, Felis catus. J. Exp. Biol. 214: 1039–1051.

HEWSON-HUGHES A.K., COLYER A., SIMP-SON S.J., RAUBENHEIMER D. 2016: Balan-cing macronutrient intake in a mammalian car-nivore: disentangling the influences of flavour and nutrition. R. Soc. Open Sci. 3 (6): 160081. DOI 10.1098/rsos.160081.

MITSUHASHI Y., CHAMBERLIN A.J., BI-GLEY K.E., BAUER J.E. 2011: Maintenance energy requirement determination of cats after spaying. Brit. J. Nutr. 106 (1): 135–138.

RAMOS D., RECHE-JUNIOR A., FRAGOSO P.L., PALME R., YANASSE N.K., GOUVĘA V.R., BECK A., MILLS D.S. 2013: Are cats (Felis catus) form multi-cat households more stressed? Evidence from assessment of fecal

glucocorticoid metabolite analysis. Physiol. Behav. 122: 72–75.

SALAUN F., BLANCHARD G., Le PAIH L., ROBERT F., NICERON C. 2017: Impact of macronutrient composition and palatability in wet diets on food selection in cats. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 101: 320–328.

SERISIER S., FEUGIER A., VENET C., BIO-URGE V., GERMAN A.J. 2013: Faster growth rate in ad libitum fed cats: a risk factor predic-ting the likelihood of becoming overweight du-ring adulthood. J. Nutr. Sci. 2: 1–8.

THORNE C.J. 1982: Feeding behaviour in the cat – recent advances. J. Small Anim. Pract. 23: 555–562.

VILLAVERDE C., FASCETTI A.J. 2014: Ma-cronutrients in feline health. Vet. Clin. Small Anim. 44: 699–717.

WEI A., FASCETTI A.J., LIU K.J., VILLAVER-DE C., GREEN A.S., MANZANILLA E.G., HAVEL P.J., RAMSEY J.J. 2011: Influence of a high-protein diet on energy balance in obese cats allowed ad libitum access to food. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 95: 359–367.

ZORAN D.L. 2002: The carnivore connection to nutrition in cats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 221: 1559–1567.

Streszczenie: Wpływ typu karmy na długookre-sową kinetykę konsumpcji u kotów domowych (Felis catus) utrzymywanych w kolonii. Celem doświadczenia było określenie wpływu typu podawanej suchej karmy pełnoporcjowej na długookresowe wskaźniki akceptacji określane dla utrzymywanych grupowo kotów domowych. Grupa 14 dorosłych, kastrowanych kotów otrzy-mywała kolejno karmę typu medium, economy i premium w okresach trwających 31 dni. Spoży-cie było ściśle kontrolowane każdego dnia trwa-nia eksperymentu, co pozwoliło na wykreślenie dokładnych krzywych. Zaobserwowano istot-ne różnice wartości średniego współczynnika konsumpcji między poszczególnymi okresami żywienia (98,33; 61,17 i 55,04% odpowiednio dla karmy typu premium, medium i economy). We wszystkich okresach zaobserwowano efekt monotonii, relatywnie stabilny poziom akcep-tacji zanotowano jedynie w okresie podawania karmy typu premium. Atrakcyjność karmy typu economy była wyraźnie mniejsza w porówna-niu do pozostałych. Zaobserwowano znaczące


fluktuacje przebiegu krzywej konsumpcji tego produktu. Można stwierdzić, że długotrwałe po-dawanie kotom jednego typu karmy w ilości za-pewniającej pokrycie dziennego zapotrzebowa-nia na energię metaboliczną potencjalnie może mieć niepożądane konsekwencje. Regularne pobieranie taniej karmy pełnoporcjowej w ilości zapewniającej pokrycie jedynie minimalnego zapotrzebowania energetycznego może spowo-dować zaburzenie właściwego bilansu podaży podstawowych składników odżywczych.

Słowa kluczowe: kot, spożycie, karma dla zwie-rząt, akceptacja, kolonia

MS received 03.01.18MS accepted 22.02.18

Authors’ address:Robert GłogowskiZakład Hodowli Zwierząt Futerkowych Towarzyszących i KoniKatedra Szczegółowej Hodowli ZwierzątWydział Nauk o Zwierzętach Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawieul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 WarszawaPolande-mail: [email protected]


Selected invasive species of the Polish and European avifaunae

MONIKA ŁUKASIEWICZ1, ARKADIUSZ MATUSZEWSKI1, PATRYCJA FLORCZUK KOŁOMYJA1, MACIEJ KAMASZEWSKI1, ŁUKASZ WARDECKI 2

1Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW2The Warsaw Ringing Group “Tridactylus”

Abstract: Selected invasive species of the Polish and European avifaunae. The present paper de-fi nes the potentially invasive and invasive non--native species of Polish avifauna that constitute a potential threat to the biodiversity and the eco-systems. The work describes two pieces of legi-slation currently in force in Poland that deal with the issue of invasive bird species. At the national level the issue is regulated by Art. 120 of the Na-ture Conservation Act from 2004, which prohibits the relocation of the listed species and their intro-duction into the natural environment. At the EU level, the relevant legal act currently in force is the Regulation (EU) 1143/2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species. An overview of non-native and invasive species is included, which takes ac-count of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis), the Egyptian Goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus), and the Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis). In addi-tion to the species included in the national law, mention is also made of potentially invasive non--native species, namely the Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata) and the exotic Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri). Using members of Anseri-formes as examples, the paper discusses concerns regarding brood parasitism and hybridization of birds. Measures undertaken to control invasive species are mainly limited to monitoring, but they also include trapping and eradication via shooting in certain cases.

Key words: birds, non-native species, invasive species

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity is the variability among the entirety of Earth’s living organisms within its individual terrestrial, fresh-water and saltwater ecosystems, as well as its ecological complexes (Convention on Biological Diversity 1992). Any dis-cussion of such biodiversity cannot fail to touch upon the two important notions of non-native (alien) species and invasive species. Non-native species are species (or sub-species taxa), gametes, seeds, spores or eggs that extend beyond their natural range. These may establish small reproducing populations, but they may also fail to adapt to the new conditions and die out (Convention on Biological Diversity 1992). Therefore, it is not always possible to assess whether or not an alien species is likely to pose a threat to biodiversity in a given environment. The definition of invasive species dif-fers from that of non-native species. According to Garcia-Berthou (2007), an invasive species is a non-native species that poses a threat to biodiversity and ecosystems. This threat results partially from the very high adaptability of some non-native species, which allows them

56 M. Łukasiewicz et al.

to thrive in their new environments (Al-caraz et al. 2005). Such species are also able to reproduce and proliferate at a fast rate, and are often generalist in nature, i.e. not specialized in regards to their diet (Andrzejewska et al. 2011). Invasive species not only colonize the habitats of native species and outcompete them, but also disrupt food cycles. Invasive species of animals are certain or likely to eventu-ally affect the fauna and flora of a given ecosystem through competition for food or nesting, predation, ecosystem altera-tion, and transmission of disease. They may also spawn interspecific crossings (Gurevitch and Padilla 2004). According to Caughley and Gunn (1996), invasive species are responsible for 40% of animal and plant species extinctions.

There is also another definition of invasive species used within ornitho-logy. Within the scope of this second definition, invasive species are ones that appear periodically in large numbers in areas where they are naturally absent or scarce. This phenomenon is referred to as irruption (Jędrzejewski 2000). It is usually associated with species--specific population fluctuations, e.g. within migration pathways. At irregular intervals, larger groups of individuals begin to migrate in search of food, usu-ally when the food is in short supply and lacks variety (Newton 2006).

LEGISLATION

There are two principal pieces of leg-islation concerning invasive species in Poland, and their scope includes invasive species of birds. At the national level the issue is regulated by Art. 120 of the Nature Conservation Act, which pro-

hibits the relocation of the listed species and their introduction into the natural environment. The Annex to the Regula-tion of the Minister of the Environment of 9 September 2011 defines plants and animals of non-native species that could pose a threat to native species or natural habitats if released into the natural envi-ronment. This list includes the following species of birds: the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis), the Egyptian Goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus), and the Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis). Fifty-two species of plants and animals are listed in total. At the EU level, the relevant legal act currently in force is the Regulation (EU) 1143/2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species. 3 August 2016 saw the entry into force of Com-mission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2016/1141 adopting a list of invasive alien species of Union concern pursu-ant to Regulation (EU) 1143/2014. The implementing regulation lists 37 species of invasive non-native birds, including the African Sacred Ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus), the Ruddy Duck, and the House Crow (Corvus splendens). The Committee on invasive alien species has accepted a proposal to extend the list and include 12 additional species of plants and animals of European Union concern, such as the Egyptian Goose. The amended list is valid as of 2 August 2017. Of note is the inclusion of the Ruddy Duck and the Egyptian Goose in both of these legal acts.

REVIEW OF SPECIES

The Red Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) is one example of a species that irrupts

Selected invasive species... 57

within the Polish territory. In Poland, the Red Crossbill’s main nesting habitat is the mountains, and its prevalence is correlated with the abundance of spruce seeds that the bird feeds upon. In lowland areas these birds appear sporadically, but usually in large numbers. Newton (2008) links this with migrations spurred by food shortages. From the boreal zone, which is the main area of occurrence, the birds move to southwest Europe. This type of irruptive migration was observed within the Kalisz region from 2002 to 2003, with a total of 731 individuals counted across the months (Wilżak 2012). Other species observed to undergo irruptive migra-tions include the Bohemian Waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus) and the Common Redpoll (Acanthis flammea) (Jankowiak et al. 2013), both highly specialized. The Common Redpoll feeds on birch (Betula sp.) and spruce (Picea sp.) seeds, while the Bohemian Waxwing favours rowan-berries (Sorbus sp.). Whenever seeds or fruit become scarce in the birds’ breed-ing areas (Scandinavia and Northern Europe), numerous individuals proceed to migrate in search of new food sup-plies. Mass arrivals of the Common Redpoll were recorded in the North Podlachian Lowland region from 2005 to 2006 and from 2007 to 2008 (Lindén et al. 2011) as well as in the western and central-eastern parts of Poland (Bednorz et al. 2000). Bohemian Waxwing irrup-tions were detected not only in Poland but in other European countries as well, including Germany, Switzerland (Posse and Volet 2005) and the Czech Republic (Schröpfer et al. 2010).

The Ruddy Duck is a duck species native to North America. Of note is the inclusion of both the Ruddy Duck and

the Egyptian Goose (described below) in the two legal acts. The bird was intro-duced to the UK in 1948 to be bred in captivity (Hughes 1998). Accidental escape of captive birds has resulted in them rapidly acclimatizing to European conditions, which in turn resulted in an increase of the active breeding popula-tion (currently numbering approx. 5,000 individuals). In the UK, the bird was first observed to breed in the wild as early as in 1960 (Hughes 1998). Regular broods were subsequently noted in Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Spain, Iceland, and Sweden (Hughes et al. 2004, Drake 2009). The presence of the invasive Ruddy Duck has become a threat to the White-headed Duck (Oxyura leuco-cephala) native to the Mediterranean, mainly due to the potential hybridization between the two species and due to com-petition for breeding sites and food. In order to protect the White-headed Duck, a Ruddy Duck control and eradication program was implemented in Spain, Portugal, and other counties (Hughes et al. 2004). As of yet, the Ruddy duck does not pose a material threat to other species of Anseriformes in Poland, as there have been only individual sight-ings of the duck, and even those have been scarce. This is not entirely the case with the Egyptian Goose. The first brood of the goose in Poland was discovered in 2007 around the Odra river, within the Powiats (Counties) Raciborski and Wodzisławski. The geese in question had escaped from a mini zoo. Betleja and Rojek (Komisja Faunistyczna 2009) have already recorded three pairs and their offspring in the ponds of Upper Silesia in 2008. The natural range of the Egyptian Goose is the majority of Africa.


A free-roaming population of the goose has persisted in the UK for 200 years, descended from birds which escaped from private breeders (Holloway 1996). A similar scenario occurred in the Nether-lands, where the population of the Ruddy Duck has reached over 10,000 as a result of uncontrolled escapes (Arens and Rebling 2007). More than 2,600 pairs also regularly nest in Germany. This group partially consists of birds that migrated from the Netherlands, and some of them have also escaped from German breeding farms. There is also a significant population in Belgium, numbering at approx. 1,000 individuals (Bauer and Woog 2008). Broods have also been found in many other countries, such as Switzerland, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main threats resulting from an invasion of this species are its potential to hybridize with other Anseri-formes (Banks et al. 2008a), its strong territoriality and aggressive behavior towards native species (Pieterse and Tamis 2005), and its status as a potential vector of the avian influenza virus (Gyi-mesi and Lensink 2010).

The Canada Goose is another invasive species of avifauna. Its assorted sub-species inhabit a multitude of different regions of North America (Fabricius and Norgren 1987). The United Kingdom was the first country to introduce the Canada Goose in Europe, doing so as early as 1665. The species was initially introduced to royal gardens and parks as an ornamental bird (Kirby 1999). It is continually bred for this purpose to this day. The birds have been increas-ingly encountered in the wild throughout the years. The species was introduced to Sweden for a similar reason but the

goose came to be adopted as a game bird. This tradition has also spread to other countries, including Germany, Norway, Finland, and Denmark. However, in spite of the hunting, deliberate introductions and escapes from breeding farms and zoos have led to the rapid increase in the number of Canada Geese in the wild. At present, the largest number of free-living individuals is found in Sweden. Accord-ing to Nilsson (2006), the population was calculated to be 43,000 specimens in 2005. Populations in the UK and Sweden are among the largest and constitute the major foci from which the species has spread across Europe (the two European populations are considered to be com-pletely separate from each other). It is believed that the populations living in Scandinavia (mainly in Sweden) gave rise to populations in Poland by way of migration. The Polish populations also include escapees from zoos and orna-mental bird breeding farms. The species has not been intentionally introduced to Poland. The first Polish observations of the Canada Goose date back to 1935. The geese have been found to annually winter in the waters of the Elbląg Bay. However, the species has been mostly encountered at the Gdańsk Bay and in the vicinity of Włocławek. The brooding female and assisting male were detected in Gdańsk –– Oliwa in 2004, however the nest was destroyed by predator (Sikora et al. 2007) The first brood was confirmed in Gdańsk in 2005, and the number of breeding birds increased in 2007 (Głowaciński and Solarz 2011). A 2008 brood observed around Lake Somińskie was unusual in that it is thought to have been a result of crossbreeding with the native Greylag Goose (Anser anser). This may be indic-


ative of one of the dangers that the rising population of the Canada Goose poses in Poland. The Canada Goose in considered to be one of the 100 most dangerous non--native species in Europe. It, alongside the Greylag Goose and the Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens), has been observed to engage in interspecific brood parasit-ism (Kampe-Persson and Lerner 2007), which involves laying eggs in the nests of other goose species. The hatchlings recognize the foster parent as a member of their own species. It is very likely that such birds will interbreed upon reach-ing maturity, creating hybrids. Greylag Goose × Barnacle Goose hybrids are commonly found in Germany (Gebhardt 1996) and Sweden (Söderholm 2005).

Apart from the aforementioned spe-cies, which are included in the national law, also worth mentioning are the potentially invasive non-native species. This designation refers to species that are currently unable to function and multiply without human intervention, but whose populations may spike drastically given suitable conditions (such as the progres-sive warming of Poland’s climate). An example is Mandarin Duck (Aix galeri-culata), an escapee from private breeding farms and zoos. A fairly numerous group of these birds has established itself in the Łazienki Park in Warsaw. Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk (2003) report that the first broods were recorded in the Park in 2001, and the birds make new breeding attempts annually, with varying results. As of yet, the birds cannot be considered to have fully adapted to the environmen-tal conditions, as account must be made for humans feeding the birds and other factors. The Mandarin Duck is a species of bird belonging to the Anatidae family,

originally endemic to the Amur basin, Japan, Manchuria, and eastern China. It has been bred in Europe since the 18th century as an ornamental species, while free-living escapees are considered to be an invasive species. At present, little is known about the impact of intro-ducing Mandarins on native species and their habitats. Escaped Mandarins have been observed to destroy nests and eggs of other bird species, and further research would be beneficial to determine the impact of Mandarin Ducks artificially introduced into the environment on the native species and their habitats (Blair et al 2000, Banks et al. 2008b, van Kleunen and Lemaire 2014). The Mandarin is con-sidered to be a protected species under the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Spe-cies, but only under the LC designation (“least concern”).

There are many barriers to interspe-cific hybridization in the wild, which encompass both pre- and post-zygotic barriers. These include geographical, ecological, and behavioral barriers, as well as anatomical barriers that prevent the egg cell of the female of one species from binding with the sperm of a male from another species (Prager and Wilson 1975). The Mandarin Duck is consid-ered to be the only duck species unable to crossbreed with other species belong-ing to the Anatidae family. Hypotheses to explain this fact are predominantly centered around the different chromo-some numbers between different species of the family. However, research to date indicates that hybridization between individuals with different chromosome counts can occur. The Indian Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), whose diploid


chromosome number is 7 (the lowest value currently recorded in mammals), hybridizes readily with the Chinese Muntjac (Muntjacus reevesi) despite the latter’s diploid chromosome count of 2n = 46. Therefore, in light of current knowledge about the molecular mecha-nisms of Mandarin Duck hybridization, it can be safely assumed that this species does crossbreed with other members of the Anatidae family, though very rarely. In addition, the Mandarin’s capacity to hybridize has been confirmed by the results of crosses carried out by some scientific teams, including Ackermann 1898, Gray 1958, Hopkinson 1926, Leverkühn 1890, Prestwich 1960, Salva-dori 1895, all of which crossed a female Mallard with a male Mandarin Duck (McCarthy 2006). Members of this spe-cies are able to crossbreed with four other species of ducks in captivity, while in the UK the Mandarin seems to be dominant over the closely related Carolina Duck (Aix sponsa). However, hybridization of these two species has seldom been recorded (Blair et al. 2000). Previous studies employing phylogenetic analy-sis have shown that the Mandarin and the Muscovy Duck (Cairina moschata) belong to a single phylogenetic clade. As such, they may exhibit considerable genetic similarity and possess the capac-ity to hybridize. Membership to the same clade has been demonstrated on the basis of multiple sequence analyses, includ-ing: an analysis of a region of mtDNA spanning a region of cytochrome b (Sraml et al. 1996), of the D-loop region (Donne-Goussé et al. 2002), the COI gene also present in the mitochondrial genetic material (Jin et al. 2012), the ND2 gene (Mitochondrially Encoded

NADH: Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase Core Subunit 2) (Liu et al. 2014), and the complete sequence of the mitochon-drial DNA (Liu et al. 2014, Zhang et al. 2017). These studies have also indicated that the Mandarin Duck and the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) fall into separate phylogenetic clades and are separated by several phylogenetic nodes, the exact number of which depends on the sequences analyzed and the method of phylogenetic tree construction (Sraml et al. 1996, Donne-Goussé et al. 2002, Jin et al. 2012, Liu et al. 2014, Zhang et al. 2017). The different phylogenetic posi-tion of the two species may contribute to them being unable to hybridize (Donne--Goussé et al. 2002).

Also indicative of the considerable evolutionary distance between the two species are the results of the research conducted by Prager and Wilson (1975) that compared the immunological dis-tance (i.e. the measure of the degree of reactions between antigens and antibod-ies, used to determine the evolutionary distance between the two studied groups of animals) between different bird spe-cies. These studies have shown that the albumin immunological distance between the Mallard and the Mandarin Duck is 8 units, while the transferrin immunological distance is 16. When comparing the Mallard and the Muscovy Duck, the values were 9 and 21 for albu-min and transferrin, respectively.

There are also recorded attempts to create a Mandarin Duck × Mallard hybrid in Poland, however, no informa-tion is available on whether this venture was successful (Banks et al. 2008b).

Another exotic species increasingly being encountered in the wild is the Rose-


-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri). While this species is rare in Poland, the number of Rose-ringed Parakeet sight-ings has been increasing year-to-year. The bird is most commonly encountered along the western border of Poland, but individual specimens have also been found at the Świętokrzyskie Mountains (Wachecki and Lewczuk 2013). Addi-tionally, in January 2016 five individuals were identified around the Gałczyński district in Nysa – something of a curi-osity to the Polish avifaunistic commis-sion. So far, the relatively cold climate of Poland has been a significant factor in limiting population growth. Consequent-ly, while the birds are capable of surviv-ing the winter, they fail to breed due to the longer length of the cold season. That is not the case in other European countries. Butler (2003) reports that the Rose-ringed Parakeet has been found in 24 countries, though the size of the popu-lation differs from case to case. In some countries only individual (and in many cases non-breeding) specimens (e.g. in Romania and Bulgaria), while in other countries populations of over 10,000 have been found. The largest European populations have been found in the UK – more than 30,000 individuals, Ger-many – more than 10,960 individuals, Belgium – approx. 10,800 individuals, and in the Netherlands – approx. 10,100 individuals. In addition, the bird occurs in fairly large numbers in Greece, Spain, Italy, France, bringing the total popula-tion count in Europe to 90,000 (Pârâu et al. 2016). It is also interesting to note that some authors offer 1885 as the date of the first instance of Rose-ringed Parakeets breeding in the wild in Britain (Braun and Wink 2013). This issue is conten-

tious and subject to a certain measure of uncertainty, as others have reported that the first recorded brood originated in 1996 (Butler 2003). The introduction of the Parakeet was spurred in some part by the interest from zoo owners, but the most significant driver was private owners eager to keep the exotic animal as a pet. The Green Parakeet proved to be very intelligent, easily domesticated, able to perform various tricks and imitate single words. Black market activity and inattention on the part of the owners led to the uncontrolled escape of the birds to the environment and subsequent rapid adaptation. Invasive species are a sub-ject of research across multiple Euro-pean countries. One such study aimed to determine the relationship between the Parakeet and the breeding population of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Belgium (Strubbe and Matthysen 2007). The study showed that the non-native species negatively impacts the Nuthatch population by limiting the number of available nesting sites – both the Rose--ringed Parakeet and the Eurasian Nut-hatch favor large diameter tree cavities, which are usually made by woodpeckers. The conflict emerges during nest selec-tion. The Parakeet proceeds to search for a breeding location in early February and claims most of the available cavities early. The Nuthatch begins the search between March and April.

Another study, conducted by Czajka et al. (2011), showed no negative impact of the Parakeet on the breeding popula-tion of the Common Starling (Strunus vulgaris) within Germany. The findings indicated that the species have different nesting preferences. Parrots choose cavi-ties located on higher parts of trees and


favor older trees with large trunk dia-meters. The Starling, in contrast, prefers small cavities with narrow entrances, located at the lower parts of young trees. Similarly, the Belgian team’s observa-tions of the Rose-ringed Parakeet’s bilateral relationships with the European Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis) and the Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) (Strubbe and Matthysen 2007) failed to indicate any negative impact of the Parakeet’s presence on the breed-ing success of the two woodpecker spe-cies. Despite the Parakeets claiming the available nesting sites earlier on (mainly cavities made by the two species of wood-peckers), the woodpeckers bred at the species-typical time. Whenever there was a shortage of cavities, the woodpeckers excavated new ones. However, refering to Reuven et al. (2016) Rose-ringed Pare-keet had a negative impact on indigenous Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops) due to its aggressive behavior during takeover of cavities. Another study focused on the Greater Noctule Bat (Nyctalus lasiopter-us), whose small population occupied the tree cavities in a park in Seville (Spain) during its breeding season (Hernández--Brito et al. 2014). The study established that the Rose-ringed Parakeet completely dominated the bat population, displacing it from the cavities and thus necessitating a marked relocation of the bat’s nesting sites.

SUMMARY

We live in a rapidly changing world, wherein human activity and the broadly defined environmental changes are caus-ing numerous populations of plants and animals to decline. At times, human

inattention causes species that may pose a threat to the local avifauna to escape into the environment. For this reason, it is crucial that we possess a tool that will allow us to understand and control these phenomena. Keeping track of the wildlife is critical to the effectiveness of any and all conservation measures. Additionally, a solid understanding of ecological pro-cesses is an indispensable in terms of pre-dicting the effects of political actions.

When invasive species are concerned, educating the society on the impact of invasive on the local avifauna is well--warranted. Such educational measures should contribute to better security in aviaries and fowl yards where captive bird species are kept. Monitoring is one of the main methods through which the ecological relationships between native species and invasive/potentially invasive species can be more effectively under-stood. Monitoring may be understood as one of the essential prerequisites for the implementation of biological resource management strategies. The entire deci-sion-making process for nature conser-vation is based on information obtained from monitoring activities (species, behavior, habitat types, etc.). The con-cept of monitoring is currently under-going a shift. Beforehand, past occur-rences in a given system (e.g. population growth or decline) were the focal point – currently, the focus is placed on pre-dicting future developments and analyz-ing the obtained data with the target state in mind. As such, the ability to make informed decisions in regard to resource management and target resource control is directly related to proper monitoring. Intervention control measures are used in countries where invasive species cause


significant declines in populations of native species – such measures include trapping or shooting programs.

REFERENCES

ALCARAZ C., VILA-GISPERT A., GARCIA--BERTHOU E. 2005: Profiling invasive fish species: the importance of phylogeny and hu-man use. Divers. Distrib. 11 (4): 289–298.

ANDRZEJEWSKA L., KAJAK A.,WASILEW-SKA L. 2011: Jakie warunki decydują o sukce-sie gatunków inwazyjnych? In: Z. Głowaciński (Ed.), Gatunki obce w faunie Polski. II. Zagad-nienia problemowe i syntezy. Wydawnictwo Instytutu Ochrony Przyrody PAN w Krakowie, Kraków: 640–665.

ARENS H., REBLING H. 2007: Nil- und Rost-ganse-farbenprachtige Exoten bruten erfolg-reich in Deutschland. Der Falke 54: 264–269.

BANKS A.N., WRIGHT L.J., MacLEAN I.M.D., HANN C., REHFISCH M. 2008a: Review of the status of introduced non-native waterbird species in the area of the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement: 2007 update. British Trust for Ornithology, Norfolk: 63.

BANKS A.N., WRIGHT L.J., MacLEAN I.M.D., HANN C., REHFISCH M.M. 2008b: Man-darin Aix galericulata. In: BTO Research Re-port 489: Review of the status of introduced non-native waterbird species in the area of the African-Eurasian waterbird agreement, 2007 update. British Trust for Ornithology, Norfolk: 75–77.

BAUER H.G., WOOG F. 2008: Nichtheimische Vogelarten (Neozoen) in Deutschland, Ten Auftreten, Bestande und Status. Vogelwarte 46: 157–194.

BEDNORZ J., KUPCZYK M., KUŹNIAK S., WINIECKI A. 2000: Ptaki Wielkopolski. Mo-nografia faunistyczna. Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań.

BLAIR M.J., McKAY H., MUSGROVE A.J., REHFISCH M.M. 2000: Mandarin Aix galeri-culata. In: BTO Research Report 229: Review of the status of introduced non-native waterbird species in the agreement area of the African-

-Eurasian waterbird agreement. British Trust for Ornithology, Norfolk: 45–47.

BRAUN M., WINK M. 2013: Nestling develop-ment of ring-necked parakeets (Psittacula kra-meri) in a nest box population. Open Ornithol. J. 6: 9–24.

BUTLER C. 2003: Population Biology of the In-troduced Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula kra-meri in the UK. University of Oxford Depart-ment of Zoology, Oxford.

CAUGHLEY G., GUNN A. 1996: Conserva-tion biology in theory and practice. Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts, USA.

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 2016/1141 adopting a list of invasive alien species of Union concern pursuant to Regula-tion (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European Par-liament and of the Council. Official Journal of the EU L 189/4 from 14.07.2016.

Convention on Biological Diversity. United Na-tions, Rio de Janeiro 1992.

CZAJKA C., BRAUN M.P., WINK M. 2011: Resource use by non-native ring-necked para-keets (Psittacula krameri) and native starlings (Strunus vulgaris) in Central Europe. Open Or-nithol. J. 4: 17–22.

DONNE-GOUSSÉ C., LAUDET V., HÄNNI C. 2002: A molecular phylogeny of anseriformes based on mitochondrial DNA analysis. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 23: 339–356.

DRAKE J.A. (Ed.) 2009: Handbook of alien spe-cies in Europe. DAISIE project. Invading Na-ture. Invasion Ecology 3. Springer, the Nether-lands.

FABRICIUS E., NORGREN H. 1987: Lär känna Kanadagĺsen. Svenska Jägareförbundet, Stock-holm.

GARCIA-BERTHOU E. 2007: The characteris-tics of invasive fishes: what has been learned so far? J. Fish Biol. 71: 33–35.

GEBHARDT H. 1996: Ecological and economic consequences of introductions of exotic wild-life (birds and mammals) in Germany. Wildl. Biol. 2: 205–211.

GŁOWACIŃSKI Z., SOLARZ W. 2011: Bran-ta canadensis (Linnaeus, 1758) – bernikla kanadyjska. In: Z. Głowaciński, H. Okarma, J. Pawłowski, W. Solarz (Eds.), Gatunki obce


w faunie Polski. I. Przegląd i ocena stanu. Wydawnictwo Instytutu Ochrony Przyrody PAN w Krakowie, Kraków: 429–433.

GUREVITCH J., PADILLA D.K. 2004: Are in-vasive species a major cause of extensions? Trends Ecol. Evol. 19 (9): 470–474.

GYIMESI A., LENSINK R. 2010: Risk analysis of the Egyptian Goose in the Netherlands. Bu-reau Waardenburgbv/Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, Invasive Alien Spe-cies Team.

HERNÁNDEZ-BRITO D., CARRETE M., POPA-LISSEANU A.G., IBAŃEZ C., TELLA J.L. 2014: Crowding in the city: losing and winning competitors of an invasive bird. PLOS ONE 9: e100593.

HOLLOWAY S. 1996: The Historical Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland 1875––1900. T&AD Poyser. Academic Press, Lon-don.

HUGHES B. 1998: Ruddy duck. BWP Update 2 (3): 159–171.

HUGHES B., ROBINSON J.A., GREEN A.J., LI Z.W.D., MUNDKUR T. (Comp.) 2004: Interna-tional Single Species Action Plan for the White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala. The Wild-fowl and Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, UK.

JANKOWIAK Ł., POLAKOWSKI M., KUŁA-KOWSKI T., ŚWIĘTOCHOWSKI P., TU-MIEL T., BRONISZEWSKA M. 2013: Zmia-ny liczebności wybranych gatunków ptaków w okresie pozalęgowym w centralnej części Niziny Północnopodlaskiej w latach 2000––2011. Ornis Pol. 54: 77 – 95.

JĘDRZEJEWSKI M. 2000: Zimownie ptaków lądowych w dolinach wybranych rzek środko-wo-wschodniej Polski w dekadzie 1984–1993. Kulon 5: 3–37.

JIN S.D., HOQUE M.R., SEO D.W., KIM I.K., JO C., PAEK W.K., LEE J.H. 2012: Phylogene-tic relationships among dabbling duck species in Korea using COI gene variations in mtDNA. J. Poult. Sci. 49: 163–170.

KAMPE-PERSSON H., LERNER H. 2007: Oc-currence of hybrid geese in Sweden – a conse-rvation problem? Ornis Svecica 17: 154–186.

KIRBY J.S. 1999: Canada Goose Branta canaden-sis, Introduced: United Kingdom. In: J. Madsen, G. Cracknell, T. Fox (Eds.), Goose populations of the western Palearctic: A review of status

and distribution. Wetlands International Publi-shing Wetlands International, Wageningen, The Netherlands. National Environmental Research Institute, Rönde, Denmark, 48: 228–234.

Komisja Faunistyczna 2009: Rzadkie ptaki ob-serwowane w Polsce w roku 2008. Raport 25. Notatki Ornitologiczne 50: 111–142.

LINDÉN A., LEHIKOINEN A., HOKKANEN T., VÄISÄNEN R. 2011: Modelling irruptions and population. Dynamics of the great spotted woodpecker – joint effects of density and cone crops. Oikos 12: 1065–1075.

LIU G., ZHOU L., LI B., ZHANG L. 2014: The complete mitochondrial genome of Aix gale-riculata and Tadorna ferruginea: Bearings on their phylogenetic position in the Anseriformes. PLOS ONE 9 (11): e109701. doi:10.1371/jour-nal.pone.0109701.

McCARTHY E.M. 2006: Cross Accounts (Swans, Geese, and Ducks). In: Handbook of Avian Hy-brids of the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 67–68.

NEWTON I. 2006: Advances in the study of irrup-tive migration. Ardea 94: 433–460.

NEWTON I. 2008: The migration ecology of birds. Academic Press, London.

NILSSON L. 2006: Internationella sjöfågelräknin-garna i Sverige 2005/2006 [International water-fowl counts in Sweden 2005/2006]. Department of Ecology, University of Lund, Lund.

PÂRÂU L.G., STRUBBE D., MORI E., MEN-CHETTI M., ANCILLOTTO L., Van KLEU-NEN A., WHITE R.L., LUNA A., HER-NÁNDEZ-BRITO D., Le LOUARN M., CLERGEAU P., ALBAYRAK T., FRANZ D., BRAUN M.P., SCHROEDER J., WINK M. 2016: Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri Populations and Numbers in Europe: A Com-plete Overview. Open Ornithol. J. 9: 1–13.

PIETERSE S., TAMIS W. 2005: Exoten in de Nederlandse avifauna: integratie of concurren-tie? Het Vogeljaar 53 (1): 3–10.

POSSE B., VOLET B. 2005: L’invasion 2004––2005 des jaseurs boréaux Bombycilla garrulus en suisse. Nos Oiseaux 52: 195–212.

PRAGER E.M., WILSON A.C. 1975: Slow evo-lutionary loss of the potential for interspecific hybridization in brids: a manifestation of slow regulatory evolution. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 72 (1): 200–204.


Regulation (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species. Official Journal of the EU L 317/35 from 04.11.2014.

REUVEN Y., ZDUNIAK P., ŻMIHORSKI M. 2016: Invasive ring-necked parakeet negati-vely affects indigenous Eurasian hoopoe. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 53: 281–287.

Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 9 września 2011 r. w sprawie listy roślin i zwie-rząt gatunków obcych, które w przypadku uwolnienia do środowiska przyrodniczego mogą zagrozić gatunkom rodzimym lub siedli-skom przyrodniczym. Dz.U. 2011 nr 210, poz. 1260.

SCHRÖPFER L., HUDEC K., VAÈKAØ J. 2010: Irruption of the Bohemian Waxwing (Bomby-cilla garrulus) in the Czech Republic in winter 2008/09. Sylvia 46: 23–40.

SIKORA A., ROHDE Z., GROMADZKI M., NEUBAUER G., CHYLARECKI P. (Eds.) 2007: Atlas rozmieszczenia ptaków lęgowych Polski 1985–2004. Bogucki Wydawnictwo Na-ukowe, Poznań.

SÖDERHOLM S. 2005: Blandkull mellan grågås Anser anser och kanadagås Branta canaden-sis: Boparasitism eller kullsammanslagning? [Mixed brood of Greylag Goose Anser anser and Canada Goose Branta canadensis: Nest parasitism or brood amalgamation?]. Ornis Svecica 15: 48 –51.

SRAML M.,CHROSTIDIS L., EASTEAL S., HORN P., COLLET C. 1996: Molecular rela-tionships within australasian waterfowl (Anse-riformes). Aust. J. Zool. 44: 47–58.

STRUBBE D., MATTHYSEN E. 2007: Invasive ring-necked parakeets Psittacula krameri in Belgium: habitat selection and impact on na-tive birds. Ecography 30: 578–588.

TOMIAŁOJĆ L., STAWARCZYK T. 2003: Awifauna Polski. Rozmieszczenie, liczebność i zmiany. PTPP „pro Natura”, Wrocław.

Ustawa z dnia 16 kwietnia 2004 r. o ochronie przyrody [Nature Conservation Act]. Dz.U. 2004 nr 92, poz. 880.

Van KLEUNEN A., LEMAIRE A. 2014: A risk assessment of Mandarin Duck (Aix galericula-ta) in the Netherlands. Sovon-report 2014/15.

Sovon Dutch Centre for Field Ornithology, Nijmegen.

WACHECKI M., LEWCZUK D. 2013: First re-cord of the Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains. Ku-lon 18: 151–153.

WILŻAK T. 2012: Naloty krzyżodzioba świerko-wego Loxia curvirostra w okolicach Kalisza w latach 2002 i 2003. Ptaki Wielkopolski 1: 139–148.

ZHANG Q., WANG Y., CHEN R., LIU B., KAN X. 2017: The complete mitochondrial geno-me of Anas crecca (Anseriformes: Anatidae). Mitochondrial DANN Part B 2 (1): 352–353. doi:10.1080/23802359.2017.1339216.

Streszczenie: Wybrane inwazyjne gatunki ptaków awifauny Polski i Europy. W pracy zdefiniowano gatunki obce potencjalnie inwazyjne oraz inwa-zyjne ptaków awifauny Polski w odniesieniu do Europy stanowiące potencjalne zagrożenie dla bioróżnorodności i ekosystemów. Przybliżono dwa akty prawne obowiązujące w Polsce doty-czące gatunków inwazyjnych ptaków. Na szcze-blu krajowym jest to art. 120 ustawy o ochronie przyrody z 2004 r. mówiący o zakazie przemiesz-czania i wprowadzania wymienionych gatunków do środowiska przyrodniczego. Na szczeblu unij-nym obowiązuje rozporządzenie Parlamentu Eu-ropejskiego i Rady UE 1143/2014 w sprawie za-pobiegania wprowadzania i rozprzestrzeniania się inwazyjnych gatunków obcych i zarządzania nimi. Dokonano przeglądu gatunków obcych i inwazyj-nych, tym samym scharakteryzowano berniklę ka-nadyjską (Branta canadensis), gęsiówkę egipską (Alopochen aegyptiacus) i sterniczkę jamajską (Oxycura jamaicensis). Ponadto oprócz gatunków, które są ujęte w prawie krajowym, wspomniano o obcych gatunkach potencjalnie inwazyjnych. Za przykład wymieniono kaczkę mandarynkę (Aix galericulata) i egzotyczny gatunek ptaka – papu-gę aleksandrettę obrożną (Psittacula krameri). Na przykładzie blaszkodziobych omówiono zagro-żenia wynikające z pasożytnictwa lęgowego oraz hybrydyzacji różnych gatunków ptaków. Działa-nia podejmowane w przypadku kontroli gatunków inwazyjnych to przede wszystkim monitoring, a w pewnych przypadkach odłów oraz odstrzał.

Słowa kluczowe: ptaki, gatunki obce, gatunki in-wazyjne


Authors’ address:Arkadiusz Matuszewski Katedra Szczegółowej Hodowli ZwierzątWydział Nauk o ZwierzętachSzkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawieul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 WarszawaPolande-mail: [email protected]


Comparison of recording results of purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in Poland

TOMASZ PRZYSUCHA, MARCIN GOŁĘBIEWSKI, KAROLINA WNĘK, JAN SLÓSARZ, MAŁGORZATA KUNOWSKA-SLÓSARZ, MAREK BALCERAKFaculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Comparison of recording results of purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in Poland. The aim of the study was to compare purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in re-spect to their compliance with the breeding goals and standards adopted by the Polish Associa-tion of Breeders and Producers of Beef Cattle (PABPBC). The study was based on data for the years 2002–2015 from the PABPBC and for the years 1996–2001 from the National Center of Animal Breeding (NCAB). The properties that were evaluated were the average weight of cows (kg), average body weight of calves after birth (kg), average daily weight gain of calves from birth to 210 days (g), average body weight of calves at 210 days (kg) and average milk yield of cows (kg). The average body weight of cows did not differ from the breeding goal for either purebred or crossbred Limousine cows. Purebred cows were always heavier than crossbred cows, but the weight difference was almost 100 kg in 1999 and in 2006, only 20 kg. Body weight after birth for purebred and crossbred bull calves was comparable. Purebred Limousine calves consi-stently had higher daily weight gain than cross-bred calves. The average milk yield of pure-bred and crossbred Limousine cows was about 2,000 kg, and did not change signifi cantly in any year.

Key words: beef cattle, Limousine, beef cattle re-cording

INTRODUCTION

In Poland, there are currently 14 regis-tered beef breeds which are recorded and evaluated in terms of their breeding value. Herd books and records are kept by the Polish Association of Breeders and Producers of Beef Cattle (PABPBC). The PABPBC breeding goals for the Limousine breed are maintaining high slaughter parameters, good weight, and easy calving courses as well as maintain-ing and improving the daily weight gain of calves as an indicator of maternal milk production. The goal for adult cows is a body weight of 600–650 kg with a height of 135 cm to the sacrum, and for bulls – a body weight of 1,100 kg with a height of 145 cm to the sacrum. In the national breeding program for Limousine cattle, the breeding standards entered in the introductory part of the book include the following: the minimum weight gain from birth to 210th day of life should be 850 g, and the minimum weight after the first calving should be 480 kg. The share of purebred and crossbred Lim-ousine cattle in the national beef cattle population is dominant and in 2013 constituted 81.2%. The aim of this study

68 T. Przysucha et al.

is to compare selected recorded results of purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle with respect to their compliance to the breeding goals and standards adopted by the PABPBC.


Recorded results for purebred and cross-bred Limousine cattle in Poland were analyzed in this study. A comparison in respect to their compliance to the breed-ing goals and standards adopted by the PABPBC was made. The study was based on data for the years 2002–2015 from the PABPBC and for the years 1996–2001 from the National Center of Animal Breeding (NCAB). The data set included: N – number of animals tested, min – mini-mum values of the studied traits, max – maximum values of the studied traits, AVG – average values of the studied traits, SD – standard deviation. The studied traits were weight of cows (kg), body weight of calves after birth (kg), daily weight gain from birth to 210th day of life (g), body weight of calves at 210th day of life (kg), milk yield (kg), the annual distribution of calving of cows and heifers, the distribu-tion of the population according to the lactation number.

The standardized animal body weight for a given day in an animal’s life was calculated according to the following formula:

MCS = [(MCB – MCU) / WW] × WS + + MCU

where:MCS – standardized animal body weight

(kg); MCB – average body weight of the ani-

mal on the weighing day (kg);

MCU – birth body weight, measured within 48 h post-partum (kg);

WW – average age of the animal when weighed (days);

WS – standardized age of the animal.

The average daily weight gain of the animal from birth to 210th day of life was calculated according to the formula:

PDMC = (MCC – MCP) × 1,000 / / (WK – WP)

where: PDMC – increase in daily body weight (g); MCC – final body weight of the animal

on the weighing day (kg); MCP – initial body weight of the ani-

mal on the weighing day (kg); WK – age of the animal on the final

weighing day (days); WP – age of the animal on the initial

weighing day (days).

Milk yield in beef cows is expressed in kg of milk in conversion to calf’s body weight, according the formula:

WMM210 = McOds × 1,700 / calf age

where:WMM210 – amount of milk which

was used during the 210--day lactation by calf of the initial birth weight of 35 kg, which consumed 10 kg milk daily during the first 3 months, and 8–9 kg during 4–8 months;

McOds – actual weight of the calf at weaning (kg);

calf age – actual age of the calf at the time of weaning (days).

Comparison of recording results... 69


The average body weight of purebred and crossbred cows is shown in Figure 1. The optimum weight of a cow depends mainly on the cattle production system (Fitzhugh 1978, Nogalski et al. 2000, MacNeil 2003, Funston and Deutscher 2004, Drennan 2008). The genotype and weight of mother cows are always given as two of many factors responsible for the normal growth and development of calves. Many studies have shown that the weight of the cow has a significant impact on calf birth weight, as well as calves’ daily weight gain during rearing (Przysucha et al. 2002). Therefore, the weight of a cow in adulthood is an impor-tant aspect to be considered in breeding programs (Funston and Deutscher 2004). According to the breeding goal given by the PABPBC, the body weight of adult

Limousine cows should be 600–650 kg. According to breeding standards, the minimum weight after the first calving is 480 kg.

The results given in Figure 1 show that the average body weight of cows did not differ from the breeding goal for either purebred or crossbred Limousine cows. Purebred cows were always heavier than crossbred cows, but the weight differ-ence was almost 100 kg in 1999 and only 20 kg in 2006.

Figures 2 and 3 present the average body weight of purebred and crossbred calves after birth. Many authors have shown that calf body weight at birth has a significant effect on calf body weight at weaning at the age of 210 days. Calves with the highest body weight at birth also typically have the highest body weight at the end of rearing (Przysucha et al. 2002, Przysucha et al. 2005). Nogalski et al.

1999–2004: all cows; 2005–2006: cows after the fi rst calving.FIGURE 1. Average cow body weight (kg)


(2000) reported a greater mortal rate of small, less vital calves. They also noticed that the mothers of dead calves had been significantly lighter and in worse condi-tion during pregnancy, and consequently created worse conditions for the develop-ment of the fetus, and were less prepared to make effort in delivery.

Figure 2 shows that since 2007, cross-bred heifers were heavier than purebred ones. In 2015, the difference in weight

was about 1.5 kg. The body weight after birth of purebred and crossbred bull calves was comparable. Bull calves, shown in Figure 3, were about 2–3 kg heavier than heifer calves in both popu-lations. The significant effect of calf sex on birth weight is broadly described and proved by many authors. Differences in the body weight of bulls and heifers have been found to be between 1 and 5 kg, depending on the study (Bellows et

FIGURE 2. Average calf body weight at birth – heifer calves (kg)

FIGURE 3. Average calf body weight at birth – bull calves (kg)


al. 1987, Ríha et al. 2001, Jakubec et al. 2003, Choroszy et al. 2011).

The average daily weight gain of pure-bred and crossbred calves up to the age of 210 days is shown in Figures 4 and 5. It should be emphasized that the aver-age daily weight gain of calves increased considerably in the last years of analysis.

The presented data show that the calves had high body weight gain during rear-ing: 900–1,010 g respectively for heif-ers and 970–1,100 g for bulls. Purebred Limousine calves consistently had higher daily weight gain than crossbred calves.

It should be noted that Figure 5 shows that since 2002, bulls exceeded a daily

FIGURE 4. Average daily weight gain from birth up to the age of 210 days – heifer calves (g)

FIGURE 5. Average daily weight gain from birth up to the age of 210 days – bull calves (g)


weight gain of 1,000 g. This amount of weight gain means that after a short period (about 1 month) of supplemen-tary fattening, bulls with a body weight of approx. 300 kg previously eliminated from breeding can be sold for export at a good price. The weight gain set out in

the breeding standards is considerably higher for bull calves than heifer calves. This is to ensure that after weaning, with proper nutrition, bull calves obtain the required body weight for mating at the age of 15 months (Przysucha et al. 2002). In Poland calves’ mortality is significantly

FIGURE 6. Average body weight of heifer calves at the age of 210 days (kg)

FIGURE 7. Average body weight of bull calves at the age of 210 days (kg)


lower than in France. Limousine calves are also characterized by rapid growth and development, and vitality (Przysucha et al. 2002). In a study by Pogorzelska et al. (1998), the daily weight gain of Lim-ousine bull calves from birth to weaning was more than 1,000 g, and at the age of 3–4 months, these calves had a body weight of approx. 170 kg.

The average body weight of purebred calves at the age of 210 days is presented in Figures 6 and 7. Body weight at this time was nearly always higher for pure-bred animals. From 2012, the weight of purebred heifers exceeded 250 kg and the weight of bulls exceeded 270 kg. This means that according to breed-ing standards, body weight at weaning for both heifer and bull calves were at a medium level. The average weight of bull calves was approx. 20 kg higher than the average weight of heifer calves of the

same age in both purebred and crossbred populations.

The milk yield of suckler cows is one of the most important factors affecting the growth rate of calf weaning weight. According to Minick et al. (2001), Quin-tans et al. (2010) and Cortés-Lacruz et al. (2017) suckler cows’ dairy performance is responsible for 60% of daily calves’ growth during that period. Many stud-ies indicate that the highest milk yield is provided by Simmental cows, the aver-age milk yield by Limousine cows, and the lowest by Hereford (Gregory et al. 1995, Quintans et al. 2010, Silva et al. 2015). Figure 8 shows the average milk yield of cows over the analyzed years. As can be seen, the average milk yield of purebred and crossbred Limousine cows were about 2,000 kg and did not change significantly in any year. In 2005 the significant drop in milk perform-

FIGURE 8. Average milk yield (kg)


ance of suckler cows was noticed, which was can be explained by forage short-age caused by poor weather conditions and lack of water. However, the data should be approached with great caution because milk yield is calculated based on the weight gain of calves, and as we know, calves in a herd may approach the udders of cows other than their mothers or may be fed by the breeder. For this reason, from 2010, evaluation of this feature was ceased.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained from our study indicated changes in Limousine popula-tion in Poland until 2008. The number of purebred cows overwhelmed number of the crossbreeds. Study reviled that average cow’s body weight significantly decreased for both purebred and cross-bred females. However opposite trend in calf body weight was stated. Together with the heavier birth weight the body weight of calves at the age of 210 days was also increased. Also, the season of calving had the influence on calved growth rate. The better beef cattle daily growth gain could be explained by more advantageous distribution of cows calv-ing in recent years.

REFERENCES

BELLOWS R.A., SHORT G.P., KITTO G.P., STAIGMILLER R.B., MacNEIL M.D. 1987: Influence of sire, sex of fetus and type of pre-gnancy on conceptus development. Therioge-nology 34: 941–954.

CHOROSZY Z., CHOROSZY B., ŁOPIEŃSKA M., GRODZKI G. 2011: Analiza parametrów wzrostu cieląt rasy Limousine, Charolaise, He-reford w stadach hodowlanych objętych kon-

trolą użytkowości. Rocz. Nauk. Zoot. 38 (2): 137–147.

CORTÉS-LACRUZ X., CASASÚS I., REVILLA R., SANZ A., BLANCO M., VILLALBA D. 2017: The milk yield of dams and its relation to direct and maternal genetic components of weaning weight in beef cattle. Livestock Sci. 202: 143–149.

DRENNAN M., Mc GEE M., KEANE M.G. 2008: The value of muscular and skeletal scores in the live animal and carcass classification scores as indicators of carcass composition in cattle. Animal 2 (5): 752–760.

FITZHUGH H.A. 1978: Animal size and efficien-cy, with special reference to the breeding fema-le. Anim. Prod. 27: 393–401.

FUNSTON R.N., DEUTSCHER G.H. 2004: Com-parison of target breeding weight and breeding date for replacement beef heifers and effects on subsequent reproduction and calf performance. J. Anim. Sci. 82: 3094–3099.

GREGORY K.E., CUNDIFF L.V., KOCH R.M. 1995: Genotypic and phenotypic (co)variances for production traits of intact male populations of purebred and composite beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 2227–2234.

JAKUBEC V., SCHLOTE W., RIHA J., MAJ-ZLIK I. 2003: Comparision of growth traits of eight beef cattle breeds in Czech Republic. Ar-chiv. fur Tirerzucht. 46: 143–153.

MacNEIL M.D. 2003: Genetic evaluation of an index of birth weight and yearling weight to improve efficiency of beef production. J. Anim. Sci. 81: 2425–2433

MINICK J.A., BUCHANAN D.S., RUPERT S.D. 2001: Milk production of crossbred of high and low milk EPD Angus and Hereford bulls. J. Anim. Sci. 79: 1386–1393.

NOGALSKI Z., KLUPCZYŃSKI J., MICIŃSKI J. 2000: Przebieg porodu, wielkość i żywot-ność cieląt w zależności od wymiarów ciała krów. Rocz. Nauk. Zoot. 27 (3): 43–57.

POGORZELSKA J., ROMANOWSKI A., PU-CHAJDA Z. 1998: Analiza użytkowania roz-płodowego i rozwój importowanego z Francji bydła limousine i charolaise. Zesz. Nauk. AR Wrocław 19 (336): 143–148.

PRZYSUCHA T., GRODZKI H., BRZOZOWSKI P., ZDZIARSKI K. 2005: Wpływ wybranych czynników na przebieg porodów krów rasy Limousine. Med. Wet. 61 (9): 1036–1038.


PRZYSUCHA T., GRODZKI H., CHARŁAMPO-WICZ A., ZDZIARSKI K. 2002: The effect of selected factors on growth rate of Limousine calves. Anim. Sci. Pap. Rep. 20 [Suppl. 1]: 221–228.

QUINTANS G., BANCHERO G., CARRI-QUIRY M., LOPEZ-MAZZ C., BALDI F. 2010: Effect of body condition and suckling re-striction with and without presence of the calf on cow and calf performance. Anim. Prod. Sci. 50: 931–938.

RÍHA J., JAKUBEC V., GOLDA J., MAJZLÍK I. 2001: Comparison of preweaning growth traits of six beef cattle breeds in Czech Republic. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 46: 152–158.

SILVA L.N., GASPARINO E., TORRES JÚNIOR R.A.A., EUCLIDES FILHO K., SILVA L.O.C., ALENCAR M.M., SOUZA JÚNIOR M.D., BATTISTELLI J.V.F., SILVA S.C.C. 2015: Re-peatability and genotypic correlations of repro-ductive and productive traits of crossbred beef cattle dams. Genet. Mol. Res. 14: 5310–5319.

Streszczenie: Porównanie wyników oceny użyt-kowości czystorasowej i mieszańcowej populacji bydła limousine w Polsce. Celem pracy było po-równanie wybranych wyników oceny użytkowo-ści czystorasowej i mieszańcowej populacji rasy limousine w odniesieniu do ich zgodności z celem hodowlanym i standardami rasowymi przyjętymi przez Polski Związek Hodowców i Producen-tów Bydła Mięsnego (PZHiPBM). Przedmiotem analiz były wyniki oceny użytkowości francu-skiej rasy bydła mięsnego limousine w Polsce z lat 2002–2015 i Krajowego Centrum Hodowli Zwierząt z lat 1996–2001. Oceniane cechy to:

średnie masy ciała krów (kg), średnie masy cia-ła cieląt po urodzeniu (kg), średnie przyrosty do-bowe masy ciała do wieku 210 dni (g), średnie masy ciała cieląt w wieku 210 dni (kg) i średnia mleczność krów (kg). Przeciętne masy ciała za-równo krów czystorasowych, jak i mieszańców nie odbiegały od przyjętych standardów dla obu genotypów. Krowy czystorasowe były cięższe od mieszańcowych we wszystkich latach oceny, ale różnica prawie 100 kg w 1999 roku zmniejszyła się do 20 kg w 2006 roku. Masy ciała cieląt po urodzeniu były zbliżone w obu porównywanych populacjach. Cielęta czystorasowe miały zawsze większe przyrosty dobowe masy ciała od mieszań-cowych. Średnia mleczność krów czystorasowych i mieszańców wynosiła ok. 2000 kg i nie ulegała znaczącym zmianom w kolejnych latach oceny.

Słowa kluczowe: bydło mięsne, limousine, ocena użytkowości



Authors’ address:Marcin GołębiewskiKatedra Szczegółowej Hodowli ZwierzątWydział Nauk o Zwierzętach Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawieul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa Polande-mail: [email protected]


The effect of paper substrate type used at the beginning of rearing on foot pad dermatitis (FPD) occurrence and production results of broiler chickens

KATARZYNA ZĄBEK, KATARZYNA KONEFAŁ, JUSTYNA KRYSZCZAK, IZABELA GOLAN, ALEKSANDRA KALIŃSKA, BRYGIDA KRUZIŃSKA, KRZYSZTOF DAMAZIAK, KATARZYNA BOGDAŃSKA, MONIKA MICHALCZUKFaculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: The effect of paper substrate type used at the beginning of rearing on foot pad derma-titis (FPD) occurrence and production results of broiler chickens. The objective of the study was to estimate infl uence of different paper type as addi-tional substrate in broiler chickens rearing on foot pad quality. Animals used in experiments were 320 Ross 308 chickens divided into groups accor-ding to substrate type: control group – chickens reared on litter with paper produced from paper pulp, and experimental group – chickens reared on litter with paper produced from paper pulp with cellulose addition. Production results were controlled during rearing period (in 21st, 35th, 42nd days). Foot pad quality was visually defi -ned 5 days before slaughter. Effect of substrate type used during fi rst days of life on occurrence of foot pad skin injuries and production results in chicken broilers was observed. Chickens from experimental group achieved higher production results (higher body weight, better herd health) and foot pad dermatitis appeared less frequently.

Key words: broiler chicken, type of substrate, foot pad dermatitis, production results

INTRODUCTION

Foot pad dermatitis (FPD) is a condition that causes necrotic lesions on the plantar

surface of the footpads in growing broil-ers and turkeys. This condition not only causes downgrades and condemnations of saleable chicken paws, the portion of the leg below the spur, but is also an animal welfare concern in both the United States and in Europe (Shepard and Fairchild 2010). Frequency of foot pad dermatitis in broiler chickens, its reasons, consequences and possibility of reducing foot pad dermatitis are still subjects of surveys (Jankowski et al. 2012, Świątkiewicz et al. 2017). High quality of foot pad is important accord-ing to poultry welfare, production costs, food safety and quality (Shepherd and Fairchild 2010). Researchers described several factors influencing FPD forma-tion, e.g. watering system, season time and humidity connected with it, stocking density, nutritional deficiencies and type, depth, humidity and pH of litter (Jones et al. 2005, Nagaraj et al. 2007, Meluzzi et al. 2008, Hashimoto et al. 2011, Michal-czuk et al. 2014). Previous studies were focused on high quality of chicken paws. Therefore, avoiding FPD and high level

78 K. Ząbek et al.

of birds welfare should be the main goal for breeders if they want to achieve satisfying production results. According to that fact, Polish export of chicken feet to Asian countries is rapidly increasing. Last year 30,000 t were sold (doubled amount according to data from 2009) and our main recipient is Hong Kong. Then chicken feet are sent to China, Vietnam, Thailand, Korea, Malaysia and Philippines.

Types of litter for growing broilers available in the market have different structure, absorbency and hygienic qual-ity. In Poland straw, chips and sawdust are the most common litters. Paper addi-tion at the beginning of rearing ensures extra feed source for chickens, but also stimulates faster feeding and shortens time from hatching to first feeding. This process is crucial for proper digestive system functioning and has significant effect for further production results.

Using paper substrate as additional litter in broiler chickens is a common practical solution, therefore the aim of the study was to evaluate effect of sub-strate composition on incidence of FPD and production results.


Ross 308 chickens were used in conduct-ed experiment. During the 1st rearing period (till 5th day) chickens were kept on paper substrate placed on wheat straw litter. Control group (C) was kept on paper pulp (grey paper) and experimen-tal group (E) was reared on paper pulp with cellulose addition (green paper). Properties of green and grey paper are presented in Table 1. In both groups, stock density in a pen reached 11 birds per

1 m2 of the experimental RZD – SGGW (Wilanów – Obory) farm. Starting from the first day, weekly measurements were made of microclimate conditions in the facility the birds were reared in, includ-ing: in-house temperature, air relative humidity and concentration of gases (CO2, NH3 and H2S). The chickens were reared until the age of 42 days, and fed in a three-period according to recom-mendations of the Aviagen company (starter 1–21 day, grower 22–35 day, and finisher 36–42 day). Table 2 presents the nutritive value of feed used in the study. One day old chickens were individually weighted. Body weight, feed intake, mor-tality and culling level were provided in 21st, 35th, 42nd day. Obtained data was used to calculate feed conversion ratio (FCR, kg/kg), level of animal culling and mortality. Foot pad quality was visually defined 5 days before slaughter according to five-steps scale (Butterworth 2009). Foot pads were assigned, according to five-steps scale (0–4), where 0 is foot pad with no damage and 4 is foot pad with damages leading to deformations. Figure 1 presents characteristic stages of foot pad dermatitis.

Obtained results were analyzed statis-tically using Student’s test distribution for independent samples by means of the SPSS 21 software.

TABLE 1. Comparison of grey and green paper properties

Specification Green paper Grey paperWeight (g/m2) 43.6 40Humidity (%) 4.2 > 5Water absorbance (%) 13.2 30Stretching force (N/m) 343 200

The effect of paper substrate type... 79

TABLE 2. Composition and nutritional value of feeding by type of feed

SpecificationFeed composition (%)

Starter Grower FinisherWheat 34 45 44Maize 23 17.20 20Soybean meal (46) 31 29 26.2Wheat bran 1.0 – –Soybean oil 3.5 5.0 5.20Limestone Ca39 1.4 0.60 0.2Premix 6.0 4.0 4.0

Nutritional valueME (MJ/kg) 12.70 13.15 13.40Crude protein (%) 22.00 19.50 18.40Crude fiber (%) 3.10 3.90 3.80Crude fat (%) 4.10 4.90 5.50Crude ash (%) 5.20 5.00 4.30

FIGURE 1. Foot pad damages in chicken broilers ranked in fi ve-steps scale (0–4) used in the experi-ment


Obtained results suggest that paper used in experimental group had higher quality and was better additional feed source for chickens at the beginning of rearing and also influenced higher production results at the end of rearing. At the end of rearing period broiler chickens from experimental group achieved higher (P < 0.001) average body weight (2,670 g) than birds from control group (2,299 g) – Figure 2. Culling and mortality rates were lower in group that during 1st rearing period

had green paper (with cellulose addi-tion) on wheat straw litter.

Rearing environment (litter type in first days of rearing) did not influence value of FCR. However, quality of litter type had influence on broilers mortality and culling levels (Table 3).

Chickens from control group reared with grey paper on wheat straw litter had the worst condition of foot pad. Share of 25% of these chickens were ranked with 3 (23%) and 4 (2%). None of them was classified as 0 (Table 4). Almost half of chickens from experimental group (48%) were ranked with the lowest foot

80 K. Ząbek et al.

pad damage step and 6% did not struggle with FPD problem.

Deep litter is the most common main-tenance system in Poland. Type and qual-ity of used litter is an important issue. Paper can be used as additional substrate at the beginning of rearing because of its effects on production results and foot pad quality.

Bilgili et al. (2009) suggest that usage of different litter type does not influ-ence production results. However, their

analysis showed that litter type effects on foot pad quality. The best litter type, according to foot pad quality, was door filler and mortar sand, the worst were pine shavings, chipped pine and chopped straw. Higher quality of paper used in experimental group at the beginning of rearing influenced higher final body weight and better herd health. Feed placed on the better quality paper and improved locomotion of chickens from this group most likely had direct influ-ence on easier access to feed and higher feed intake during the most important and crucial days for further growth.

Litter quality, including its tempera-ture, effects on farm zoohygienic condi-tions during first days of life, Berg and Algers (2004) analysis points out that floor heating system positively influ-ences foot pad quality. Stocking density is one of the most crucial rearing factors effecting production results and foot pad quality. Sirri et al. (2007) showed that decreased stocking density under 30 kg of live weight per 1 m2 allowed

TABLE 3. Performance of broiler chickens

Group FCR (kg/kg)

Mortality (%)

Culling (%)

C 1.74 1.87 3.75E 1.73 1.25 2.50

TABLE 4. The incidence of foot pad damages in fi ve-steps scale (%)

Group Scoring0 1 2 3 4

C 0 17 58 23 2E 6 48 42 4 0

FIGURE 2. Effects of used different paper substrate on body weight of broiler chickens (g)

The effect of paper substrate type... 81

to achieve improvement in production results and foot pad dermatitis score. Foot pad dermatitis causes injuries in foot pad that results in inflammation in that area. This disease occurs in chicken broiler but also in turkeys. Studies car-ried out by Mayne et al. (2007) showed that turkeys maintained on wet litter had lower body weight and felt walking dis-comfort. After 15 days from transferring on dry litter symptoms of FPD almost disappeared. In addition to its type and quality, the height of litter layer is also very important. Shepherd et al. (2017) revealed in their research that using 7.6 cm height of fresh chips ensured the best litter humidity and allowed to decrease occurrence of FPD.

Due to the lower water absorption and higher stretching force of green paper (Table 1), it remains on litter for a longer period of time and improves quality of the substrate. Green paper influenced on faster access to the feed, which results in higher final body weight of the chickens and better health of the herd. Microcli-mate conditions were monitored during rearing period, however no statysti-cal differences were observed in gases amounts in the building.

CONCLUSIONS

Effect of substrate type used during first days of life on production results and occurrence of FPD in chicken broilers was observed. Chickens from experimental group were reared on spe-cial paper with cellulose addition and achieved higher final body weight and better health, and foot pad dermatitis appeared less frequently. Foot pad dam-

ages ranked as rate 3 and 4 were less frequent in experimental group in which paper with cellulose was used.

It is important to consider further studies, because foot pads were assessed only during the last week of rearing. The positive effect of paper with cellu-lose addition should be verified also in combination with other litter types than wheat straw.

REFERENCESBERG C., ALGERS B. 2004: The effect of floor

heating and feed protein level on the incidence of foot pad dermatitis in turkeys poults. EAAP – 55th Annual Meeting of the European Asso-ciation of Animal Production L. 4.101.

BILGILI S.F., HESS J.B., BLAKE J.P., Mac-KLIN K.S., SAENMAHAYAK B., SIBLEY J.L. 2009: Influence of bedding material on footpad dermatitis in broiler chickens. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 18: 583–589.

BUTTERWORTH A. 2009: Animal welfare in-dicators and their use in society. In: H. Smul-ders, B. Algers (Eds.), Welfare of production animals: assessment and management of risks. Food Safety Assurance and Veterinary Public Health Series 5. Wageningen Academic Publi-sher, Wageningen: 371–389.

JANKOWSKI J., ZDUŃCZYK Z., LICHTORO-WICZ L., JUSKIEWICZ J. 2012: Effect of different levels of dietary sodium chloride on gastrointestinal tract response, tibia mineraliza-tion, and footpad dermatitis incidence in young turkeys. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 21: 856–867.

JONES T.A., DONNELY C.A., DAWKINS M.S. 2005: Environmental and management factors affecting the welfare of chickens on commer-cial farms in United Kingdom and Denmark stocked at five densities. Poult. Sci. 84: 1155––1165.

HASHIMOTO S., YAMAZAKI K., OBI T., TA-KASE K. 2011: Footpad Dermatitis in Broiler Chickens in Japan. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 73 (3): 293–297.

MAYNE R.K., ELSE R.W., HOCKING P.M. 2007: High litter moisture alone is sufficient

82 K. Ząbek et al.

to cause footpad dermatitis in growing turkeys. Br. Poult. Sci. 48: 538–545.

MELUZZI A., FABBRI C., FOLEGATTI E., SIR-RI F. 2008: Survey of chicken rearing condi-tions in Italy: Effects of litter quality and stock-ing density on productivity, foot dermatitis and carcase injuries. Br. Poult. Sci. 49: 257–264.

MICHALCZUK M., DAMAZIAK K., PIE-TRZAK D., ŻBIKOWSKI A., BEREBECKA E. 2014: Wpływ systemu ogrzewania na wy-niki produkcyjne oraz jakość poduszki stopy kurcząt brojlerów. ZPPNR 79: 59–66.

NAGARAJ M., WILSON C.A.P., SAENMA-HAYAK B., HESS J.B., BILGILI S.F. 2007: Efficacy of a litter amendment to reduce podo-dermatitis in broiler chickens. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 16: 255–261.

SHEPHERD E.M., FAIRCHILD B.D. 2010: Footpad dermatitis in poultry. Poult. Sci. 89: 2043–2051.

SHEPHERD E.M., FAIRCHILD B.D., RITZ C.W. 2017: Alternative bedding materials and litter depth impact litter moisture and footpad dermatitis. J. Appl. Poult. Res. pfx024. doi.org/10.3382/japr/pfx024.

SIRRI F., MINELLI G., FOLEGATTI E., LOL-LI S., MELUZZI A. 2007: Foot dermatitis and productive traits in broiler chickens kept with different stocking densities, litter types and light regimen. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 6 [Suppl. 1]: 734–736.

ŚWIATKIEWICZ S., ARCZEWSKA-WLO-SEK A., JÓZEFIAK D. 2017: The nutrition of poultry as a factor affecting litter quality and foot pad dermatitis – an updated review. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 101: 14–20.

Streszczenie: Wpływ rodzaju papierowego pod-łoża użytego w pierwszych dniach życia na czę-stotliwość występowania schorzeń poduszki stopy (FPD) i wyniki produkcyjne kurcząt brojlerów. Celem doświadczenia była ocena wpływu za-

stosowania różnego rodzaju papieru jako dodat-kowego podłoża dla kurcząt brojlerów na jakość skóry podeszwy stopy. Badania przeprowadzono na 320 kurczętach Ross 308, podzielonych na gru-py w zależności od użytego materiału: kontrolną – kurczęta odchowywano na ściółce wyścielonej papierem wytworzonym z pulpy makulaturowej, oraz doświadczalną – kurczęta utrzymywano na ściółce z papierem, którego składem była pulpa makulaturowa z dodatkiem celulozy. W czasie odchowu kontrolowano wyniki produkcyjne stad (w 21., 35., 42. dniu i na koniec odchowu). Na 5 dni przed ubojem u wszystkich ptaków przepro-wadzono wizualną ocenę jakości skóry podeszwy stóp. Wykazano wpływ użytego materiału wyście-lającego ściółkę w początkowym okresie życia na występowanie uszkodzeń skóry podeszwy stóp i wyniki produkcyjne kurcząt brojlerów. W gru-pie doświadczalnej uzyskano poprawę wyników produkcyjnych (większą masę ciała, lepszą zdro-wotność stada) oraz rzadsze występowanie obja-wów zapalenia skóry poduszki stopy (ang. foot pad dermatitis).

Słowa kluczowe: brojlery kurze, rodzaj podłoża, zapalenie skóry podeszwy stopy, wyniki produk-cyjne


Authors’ address:Monika MichalczukZakład Hodowli DrobiuKatedra Szczegółowej Hodowli ZwierzątWydział Nauk o Zwierzętach Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawieul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 WarszawaPolande-mail: [email protected]

Annals of Warsaw University

of Life Sciences– SGGW

Animal ScienceNo 57 (1)

2018

ISSN 1898-8830

1898 8830

ISSN 1898-8830

Documents

ţ˙ - SGGWanimal.sggw.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Animal-Science... · 2018-04-04 · Animal Science Forestry and Wood Technology Horticulture and Landscape Architecture Land Reclamation