Inclusive Architecture for Autism By Kimberly Lynch

Cara Armstrong

Dean

Michael Hoffman Director of Graduate Architecture

& Thesis Critic

Gregg Gossens Thesis Critic

Eleanor D’Aponte

Thesis Advisor

Timothy Parker Research Advisor

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Introduction Autism spectrum disorder is the fastest growing developmental disease in the

United States. Currently 1 in every 68 children has autism, and this number increasing

each year. Children are now being diagnosed as early as one year of age, much younger

than they had been diagnosed in past years. With these changes happening so rapidly,

children with autism are now being taught in the mainstream classroom, which is designed

for the typically developing child. In particular, a preschool classroom is designed to be fun,

inviting, creative and exciting for a child, which positively affects growth and development

in a typically developing child. These environments typically feel overwhelming to a child

with autism; with high color contrast, hard surfaces, and disorganization the space causes

a sensory overload.

Jean Piaget and the Center for Disease Control have researched and found typical

characteristics on the development of children from birth until adolescence. These

developmental characteristics have been used throughout the years to see where a child

stands developmentally, making any areas of delay clear. These developmental milestones

were taken into consideration when creating a curriculum for class, as well as when

designing the school. Montessori and Reggio Emelia are two preschool typologies that are

commonly found and designed to promote positive childhood development. These

schools are very successful in achieving healthy development of preschool children.

Children with autism are being sent to these schools, when in reality the environment may

be adding unnecessary stressors to the child.

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Looking at the effects that architecture can have on the experiences of a child with

autism, there is overlap as well as discrepancies with current preschool design typology,

which affects the child’s ability to learn and develop successfully. Working with both the

typical child and child with autism’s needs, the inclusive preschool will encourage healthy

development for all children.

Jean Piaget Childhood Development Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher, greatly

influenced child psychology with his studies of cognitive development of children. Piaget

focused on three main aspects throughout his career; schemas, adaptation processes that

enable transition from one stage to another, and the stages of development.

According to Jean Piaget there are four main stages of development: Sensorimotor,

preoperational, concrete operational and formal operations. The sensorimotor stage

occurs between the ages of zero and two years old. A child is born with a set of reflex

movements that respond to outside stimuli such as sucking when lips are touched, or

grasping an object when it is placed in their palm. These reflexes begin to grow and the

child starts to understand the physical actions to perceived results. This refers to Piaget’s

ideas on assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when a child uses the

information they have, assesses a new situation, and may correctly or incorrectly make an

educated guess. For example, a child may know a cat walks on four legs, has a tail, and is

soft to pet. When this child now sees a dog the child will use its current information to

assess the situation, the dog walks on four legs, has a tail and is soft to pet. When the child

guesses the animal is a cat, they are using assimilation to make their decision. The child

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uses accommodation when they learn that the animal is a dog, and a dog barks, which is a

new distinction from the cat, which meows. 1

The sensorimotor stage is characterized by extreme egocentrism as well. A

child at this stage of development only knows their own world, making them unaware of

actions that occur outside of their immediate surroundings. As this stage progresses the

child will begin to understand that objects exist and events occur outside of their own tiny

world. This understanding known as object permanence, knowing an object still exists even

if it is out of sight marks the end of the sensorimotor stage and the beginning of the

preoperational stage. 2

Throughout the preoperational stage, pieces of the sensorimotor stage are

becoming more developed as well as new developmental stages begin in the child. This

stage occurs roughly between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. The child continues to

become less egocentric throughout these years, resulting in the ability to perceive another

persons point of view, both physically and mentally. When a two year old is shown

mountain scenery they understand only what is in front of them, and believe their

counterpart can only view what they see as well, by the age of seven, the child understands

there are different views to the scenery that may not be visible from their perspective. With

this move toward the non-egocentric child, they begin do display animism, which is the

belief that inanimate objects have human feelings. This builds on their understanding of

                                                                                                                         

1 “Jean Piaget,” last modified 2012, http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html 2 “Sensorimotor Stage,” last modified 2010, http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimo tor.html

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others perceptions and feelings, further developing through the preoperational stage and

into the concrete operations stage.3

Occurring between the ages of seven and eleven, the concrete operational stage is

characterized by the beginning of logical or operational thoughts. The child may now

understand logical thoughts and rules, but only when applied to physical “concrete”

objects. When two of the same objects are presented to a child during this stage, and one

is physically altered, such as a ball of dough being flattened, a child will understand there is

still the same amount of dough, despite looking different. This shows understanding of

conservation of volume, number, area or orientation and its reversibility on the object. The

child is beginning to think more rationally, and can understand logic problems well. At this

point abstract problems are still difficult for the child and will become easier throughout the

formal operations stage. 4

After the age of eleven, the child begins the formal operations stage of development.

A child can begin to think in a more abstract manner at this point of development, can

classify objects in more sophisticated manners, and has a capacity for higher-order

reasoning. At this point a child may now form ideas without the need of concrete

manipulation. A child now can see the possible outcomes of mathematical calculations,

think creatively, and use abstract reasoning. Inferential reasoning is now possibly by

                                                                                                                         

3 “Preoperational Stage,” last modified 2010, http://www.simplypsychology.org/preoperati onal.html 4 “Concrete Operational Stage,” last modified 2010, http://www.simplypsychology.org/concrete -operational.html

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children developing through formal operations, they are able to draw conclusions from

thinking rather than doing.5

These stages are hugely important to the education of children. Without Jean

Piaget’s research on cognitive development of children, we may expect children to

complete tasks, or learn in ways that they are not capable of yet. Children ages zero to six

are still in preschool, which is also classified by children who have not developed to the

concrete operational stage yet. These preschool years prepare the child to learn to

formalize ideas and become less egocentric while they develop simultaneously. The tasks

at hand for a preschool child enhance their development at the stages they are at, rather

than having expectations that cannot be met.

Center for Disease Control Child Development

According to the Center for Disease Control, there are specific developmental

milestones that are to be met by children of a certain age. At preschool age, ages 3-6,

there are certain milestones that should be met in order to begin full time school. Gross

motor development should include becoming more skilled at running, jumping, kicking, and

throwing, catching a bounced ball, riding a tricycle, hoping on one foot and balancing on

one foot, as well as doing a heel-to-toe walk. These skills will be learned over the years

between ages 3-6 and may occur for some earlier or later than others. Fine motor skill

advancement would include drawing a circle, self-dressing, using scissors, cutting a

straight line, using a fork and spoon, and eventually spreading with a knife.

                                                                                                                         

5 “Formal Operational Stage,” last modified 2010, http://www.simplypsychology.org/formal-ope rational.html

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Language development is a large part of the developmental process of a

preschooler as well. At three years old, a child can make three-word sentences, use

pronouns and prepositions appropriately and use plural words. At four, the child

understands size relationships, follows three step commands, can count to four, and enjoy

rhymes and word play. Finally at five the child begins to show early understanding of time,

can count to ten, and responds to “why” questions.6 The language development of a child

coincides with Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Before reaching the preoperational

stage, children would not understand size relationships, follow multi-step commands or

begin understand time. These developmental stages progress together as the child grows

older.

Current School Typology for Preschool Children

Reggio Emilia is an educational practice developed by Loris Malaguzzi in Reggio

Emilia, Italy after World War II. Reggio Emilia is based on children possessing strong

potentials for development and will learn and grow in the relationship of others. The

schools are focused around community and the atelier, a main gathering space within the

school. Not only do Reggio Emilia schools have educational philosophies, they have design

philosophies as well. With educational philosophies preaching respect to each other’s

differences and all around understanding towards one another, the spaces designed within

the school are softer, less rigid, more open, where multiple dimensions may coexist. The

                                                                                                                         

6 “Preschooler Development,” last modified November 9, 2012, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/me dlineplus/ency/article/002013.htm

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space should be welcoming, stimulating, and diversified while still providing spaces for

privacy and a pause from the larger space as a whole. 7

Reggio Emilia schools focus on having a rich sensory experience for the child.

Experiencing and discovering the space using your whole body keeps the child’s senses

alive and striving, rather than allowing the sense to dull and deafen over time. This sensory

stimulating environment helps develop and refine the child’s sensory perceptions.

Architectural qualities that affect the sensory perception include light, color, acoustics,

microclimatic conditions and tactile effects. 8 A school must remain recognizable to the

children that attend. It may be representational of home, or a school, or form a new

identity, but even as the school continues to develop, a sense of identity is needed. With

this in mind the school should remain horizontal, meaning all spaces are equal, including

classrooms, work areas for adults, and service areas. This results in a feeling of

democracy rather than hierarchy throughout the school and spaces. The central piazza

within the school is a space of congregation, where both children and parents can gather

and interact with one another. This central piazza connects all of the smaller classrooms,

eliminating any need for corridors within the school. The atelier may be used for events

outside of school hours that may not be scholastic in nature such as teacher meetings or

special events. 9

Like all schools, spaces must be designed to be transformable and flexible with the

constant change in needs of the room. Children can express their personal spaces at                                                                                                                          

7 Loris Malaguzzi, Giulio Ceppi, and Michele Zini. Children, Spaces, Relations: Metaproject for an environment for Young Children (Reggio Emilia, Italy: 1998), 10-11. 8 Malaguzzi, Ceppi and Zini, Children, Spaces, Relations, 16-17. 9 Malaguzzi, Ceppi and Zini, Children, Spaces, Relations, 36-37.

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points of the day with the movement of furniture and curtains to express themselves. This

expression of oneself is heightened in the atelier, a space used for research,

experimentation, and art projects. This workshop space can be one large room, or many

smaller rooms, and is part of the foundation of learning in Reggio Emilia schools. The

strong relationship between indoors and outdoors can be seen in filter spaces,

conservatories and interior courtyards. Theses spaces are considered integral to the

school’s educational system in order for the child to sense what is happening outside at all

times. 10 This relationship can be made through transparency, which is not only used

between interior and exterior spaces, but between classrooms and into other adjacent

spaces within the school. This gives the child knowledge of what is happening in other

areas of the school, and the opportunity to join in activities that peak their curiosity. 11 The

Reggio Emilia schools are constantly using these design strategies to create spaces and

relationships that make better learning environments for children; environments where the

child can explore on their own, and better develop as a whole.

Montessori education dates back to 1907, when Maria Montessori opened her first

school, Casa dei Bambini. This was the beginning of an educational practice that would

continue on longer than Maria Montessori could have imagined. The foundation of the

school was based on Maria’s observation of children. She found that the development of a

child’s mind comes through their movements.12 This being said, most activities and

                                                                                                                         

10 Malaguzzi, Ceppi and Zini, Children, Spaces, Relations, 38-41. 11 Malaguzzi, Ceppi and Zini, Children, Spaces, Relations, 42. 12 O'Donnell Wicklund Pigozzi and Peterson, Architects Inc, VS Furniture, and Bruce Mau Design, The Third Teacher: 79 Ways you can use Design to Trasnform Teaching & Learning (New York: 2010), 80.

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teaching is very interactive with the child. Montessori learning materials are made to be

“beautiful objects” which a child learns to manipulate and utilize with care. When using

these objects, the task at hand feels more like playing than learning, making the process

enjoyable for the child. Children begin using senses they may not typically use in learning

environments by using sound shakers; they shake the shaker, listen to the sounds, and

then pair matching sounds. This method of learning allows movement and attention to

sound at the same time, utilizing multiple senses at once. The movable alphabet is used

with older children who are learning to form words, making it possible to physically move

letters around to form words they are learning. 13

Classrooms are filled with children of different ages, making it possible for older

children to teach younger children. This dynamic allows for students to learn

independently from the teacher, helping both the younger and older child to learn from their

interactions. This mixed-age classroom also allows for a teacher to have the same children

for three years at a time. This allows the teacher to see growth and development in a child,

as well as understand the best methods to work with specific children in the classroom.

An important piece of the Montessori education curriculum is a three-hour

uninterrupted block of time each day that is used for children to work on specific tasks.14

During this three-hour block of time, children independently choose tasks to work on until

landing on a task that particularly interests them. This task is then focused on for the

                                                                                                                         

13 “Montessori Learning Materials,” last modified 2013, http://amshq.org/Montessori-Education/Introduction-to-Montessori/Montessori-Learning-Materials. 14 Carolyn P. Edwards, ““Fine Designs” from Italy: Montessori Education and the Reggio Approach,” Faculty Publications, Department of Child, Youth, and Family Studies. (2003): Paper 20.

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remainder of the period, developing a child’s concentration ability and intellectual

exploration. 15

The Montessori classroom is designed around natural lighting, soft colors and

uncluttered spaces. This design allows for focused and calm independent learning for the

child. Learning materials are all accessible to the students on low shelves to further their

independent thinking abilities. With each item having a specific place children learn to be

organized, keeping the space as a whole well organized for all. Walls of the classroom are

not plastered in children’s drawings or child-like artwork like the typical preschool

classroom. Rather, the items are specifically chosen for the wall and more adult-like than

one may expect. With this focus on child lead learning, the teacher becomes more of a

guide than a ruler. There is the learning triangle of the student, teacher and environment

which all work together harmoniously to make the best learning situation for a child. This

creates an easygoing environment that is more home-like than what a child may expect to

see at school. 16 The Montessori education values an organized, home-like classroom,

which allows a child to flourish in their own independence and creativity with the guidance

of teachers.

The Fuji Kindergarten in Tokyo, Japan uses many of these design strategies within

its construction. There are no walls between classrooms, making the school one large

open space divided by furniture. The walls to the central, exterior play area fully open,

breaking any barriers between interior and exterior spaces. The design allows for children                                                                                                                          

15 “The Uninterrupted Three-Hour Work Cycle,” last modified September 29, 2011, http://www.mont essori.org/imc/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=266:the 16 “Montessori Classrooms,” last modified 2013, http://amshq.org/Montessori-Education/Introducti on-to-Montessori/Montessori-Classrooms

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to move from space to space without issue, as well as allowing children to hear what is

happening in the adjacent classrooms. Not only does this allow for movement, but

children can independently make the decision to change spaces without worry from the

teacher.

Finland has been said to be the highest-ranking country in education, including

preschool education in the world. When looking further into what makes Finland’s

educational system so successful, money plays a large roll in the outcome. Currently in

the United States it is not mandatory for states to provide free public preschools to

children. 39 states do provide some sort of public preschool education for free, such as

Vermont, which provides ten hours a week of free education.17 With parents working full

time, this is not an option, and many children are sent to private preschools that they can

afford, which may be mediocre quality. If the family cannot afford to send their child to

privately funded preschool, the child misses out on this early education. Finland provides

free preschool to all of its residents, despite their income. Although this makes higher

taxes for families living within the country, the end results are worth it. Krista Kiuru,

Finland’s minister of education and science, feels that if you invest in early childhood

education, in preschool and day care, it will lead to better results.18 Finland takes pride in

their early education, making sure teachers are of the highest quality, day care teachers are

required to have a bachelors degree, which is not the case in the United States. With such

                                                                                                                         

17 “Pre K Funding from State and Federal Sources,” last modified on April 25, 2014, http://febp.newa merica.net/background-analysis/pre-k-funding. 18 What the U.S. Can Learn from Finland, Where school starts at Age 7,” last modified on March 8, 2014, http://www.npr.org/2014/03/08/287255411/what-the-u-s-can-learn-from-finland-where-school-starts-at-age-7

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high value on teachers for children so young, the schools are taken very seriously, and the

curriculum is aligned with what they will be learning in their elementary schools.

The government in Finland feels that every child has the right to attend day care

provided by local authority once the parents no longer receive parental allowance. Parental

allowance is money received for the government for a specific amount of time to help

support the new child, despite any economic needs of the family. The teacher to student

ratio is 1:4 for children under three years old, and 1:7 for children 3-6 years old. Children

with special needs receive priorities in day care selection in order to have the highest level

of support possible. 19

Educational practices are based on systematic and conscious support for the

growth and development of a preschool child. The foundation of learning is formed by the

peer groups, play and activities offered by the teachers of the classroom. There is a clear

hierarchy within the class, the teachers being the most important with the children

following their lead. Subjects are taught in flexible manners so that all children have the

chance to learn and understand what they will begin to learn in early education programs in

the future. 20

Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder

When developmental milestones are missed, it may be a cause for concern. These

missed milestones could be early signs of developmental disorders such as Autism

                                                                                                                         

19 “Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in Finland,” last modified on May 2000, http://www.oe cd.org/finland/2476019.pdf 20 “Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in Finland.”

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Spectrum Disorder. When a child misses social, emotional and communication

milestones, it should raise concern to a parent that there is a chance of their child having

autism spectrum disorder. A child with autism may act as if they do not hear a person

speaking to them, avoid eye contact, have trouble understanding other people’s feelings,

prefer not to be cuddled, and/or have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or

motions. This is just the beginning of a long list of attributes that a child with autism may

express. This is what makes Autism a spectrum disorder. A child may possess many or

even all of traits associated with autism putting them higher on the spectrum than a child

who only possesses a small handful of these traits. Some children begin life developing at

the same rate as a typical child, but proceed to regress and lose skills they once had.

Since children with autism have many difficulties in social and emotional situations,

they may cope with their difficulties in many ways. Many children are found rocking,

ticking, flapping their hands, and spinning in circles. These coping mechanisms, which

may seem bizarre to children who are typically developing, help a child with autism deal

with world around them, which they are typically oversensitive to. A child with autism has a

sensory system that is not in-tune with the actual physical world. Sounds that may seem

reasonably loud may be overwhelming for a child with autism. The sound of an air

conditioning in a classroom could potentially distract the child to a point where nothing else

is noticeable, while other children may not notice the noise. This hypersensitive view of the

world along with a child’s difficulty socializing leaves the child with autism in a lonely world.

The inability to initiate conversation or pretend-play games makes it difficult for a young

child to find ways to socialize with their peers, especially in a world that is over stimulating

to the child.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder is becoming more prevalent with each passing year.

Currently 1 in every 68 children has the disorder, and it is five times more likely to occur in

boys than girls.21 Although it is unclear whether the rising numbers are a result of more

testing and a broader definition of autism spectrum disorder or if something has changed

in the environment to cause this increase in numbers. Currently, there is no one specific

cause of autism, as well as no cure for the disorder. There are therapy treatments to help a

child with autism with behavioral, social, and communication issues they may be

encountering. These therapy treatments are offered to children as young as one year old.

The earlier a child can begin therapy, the more likely they are to benefit from the

procedures.

Therapies and Support Groups for Autism

Therapy treatments such as the Early Start Denver Model and Applied Behavior

Analysis are the two most commonly used therapies for children with autism spectrum

disorder. Early Start Denver Model therapy begins as early as twelve months for a child at

risk for autism, and continues until the age of three, while Applied Behavior Analysis

typically begins after the age of three years old.

Early Start Denver Model a therapy method that is delivered in many different types

of sessions. It may occur at home, in school, in-group sessions or in individual sessions.

Each of theses sessions may be lead by a therapist, teacher or even a parent with

knowledge of the program. ESDM uses techniques that were designed for Applied

                                                                                                                         

21 “Fact about Autism,” last modified on 2014, http://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism/facts-about-autism

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Behavior Analysis combined with relationship-based techniques to make a unique therapy

program for the child. An important concept to both therapy typologies is positive

reinforcement, positive relationships, and positive affects. ESDM utilizes the close parent

involvement in the therapy to continue the therapy at home, increasing the time the child

has to potential improve. This play-based therapy model focuses on helping the child’s

developmental deficiencies in communication, play skills, relationships and language.

Research has proven that ESDM can help a child improve in IQ, language, adaptive

behavior and communication.22 Although the results were not statistically significant, there

was an improvement for the group of children tested.

Applied Behavior Analysis is the most commonly used method for therapy for

children with autism. It is typically used after the age of three years old, and is a play-

based therapy, mainly focused on children. Positive reinforcement is in important factor of

ABA therapy. When a good behavior is followed with a reward, the child will typically

continue with this behavior but when an unacceptable behavior occurs, the child is not

rewarded or punished. The therapy sessions can be lead by the adult or the child,

depending on the specific child’s needs. This child-centered therapy can be used in both

one on one sessions or classroom environments without interfering with daily routines.23

Applied Behavior Analysis is a solution for children with autism in the mainstream

classroom. Many of the techniques used in ABA therapy can be seamlessly integrated into

a typical preschool day for the child with autism, without drawing extra attention to child.

                                                                                                                         

22 “Early Start Denver Model,” http://nationalautismnetwork.com/about-autism/autism-treatments/early-start-denver-model.html 23 “Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA),” last modified on 2014, http://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism/treatment/applied-behavior-analysis-aba

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Positive reinforcement can be used to continue good behavior with all children in the

classroom, and the extra techniques such as extra attention to routine and choice may be

added to suit the autistic child.

How each child benefits from each therapy type depends on the individual as well

as how severe their autism may be. Although these therapies are beneficial on their own,

architecture should begin to reflect these therapy types to enhance the child’s

development. Magda Mostafa, Turner Brooks and Chirstopher Henry are three individuals

in the architecture world who have focused on how architecture can better the experience

of a person with autism. Each researching how the environment can influence a child or

person with autism, they found differing views on many of the subjects and began

designing based on the facts they came across.

Magda Mostafa is one of the leading researchers on architecture’s effect on

children with autism. Magda developed the ASPECTSS Design Index, an index specifying

design criteria for children with autism. ASPECTSS stands for acoustics, spatial

sequencing, escape space, compartmentalization, transition zones, sensory zoning and

safety. These seven categories are crucial when designing for a child with autism, since

they are typically sensitive to the world around them. Magda looked at the five senses, and

cross-referenced them to architectural attributes such as structure, balance, quality and

dynamics.24 This matrix can be used for each individual to design the space most suitable

for him or her. Children with autism have many different sensory challenges, but there are

many commonalities that can be found between each child, which may be designed for.                                                                                                                          

24 Magda Mostafa, “Architecture for Autism: Autism ASPECTSS in School Design,” Archnet- IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research (2014): 146.

17

Magda specifically states that the design criteria are to mainly be used for one child’s

specific needs, not necessarily a large group of children with autism.

Magda Mostafa then used these design criteria for a case study of the Advance

School in Egypt. The school is for children with developmental delays with a focus on

autism. When designing the school, the program was overlapped with the ASPECTSS

Design Index, making it possible for the autistic user to identify with their environment

based on sensory zoning rather than functional zoning, which is what we typically

experience. 25 Organizing the building as a whole based on the amount of stimulation

keeps a child with autism feel more in control in their environment. There are areas of low

and high stimulation as well as transitional zones. These transitional zones leave a

moment to prepare for a change in stimulation, and not become overwhelmed with the

environment. 26

Similarly to Magda Mostafa, Turner Brooks designed a school for autism, and

learned that moments of transition are key to a child with autism. Turner Brooks designed

part of the Center for Discovery in Monticello, New York. Although Turner did not focus on

architecture for autism before this project, he learned from the directors of the school the

needs of children with autism, and Turner then used this information to make decisions on

how design can make their lives easier. When a child is coming from within a room they

enter a transitional space which provides seating to contemplate their next step, and

prepare the child for what they will be experiencing. Larger undifferentiated spaces are

broken down visually to keep from overwhelming a child. The “bus stop” used within the                                                                                                                          

25 Mostafa, “Architecture for Autism: Autism ASPECTSS in School Design,” 150. 26 Mostafa, “Architecture for Autism: Autism ASPECTSS in School Design,” 151

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main lobby of the dormitory breaks up the room as well as provides a space to begin a

transition. The building bends and swells more naturally than how many architects

typically design. There are no right angles in the building until they reach the destination of

their bedroom or classroom. The hallways use larger angles to bend the child around the

turn and keep the space stress free. This provides a more nurturing and sympathetic

space for the child with autism, making it less likely to have an outburst of any sort.

Buildings are separated from each other with walking paths to direct a child where

to walk. Walking is typically a simple therapy method used for children with autism, keeping

them calm, while the paths call for routine for the day as well. Walking the same path day

after day, keeping with a routine calms many anxieties for a child with autism. Turner

Brooks designs spaces to be experienced viscerally by the child. This inward feeling

changes the space for a child with autism, and keeping these inner intellects in mind

throughout design makes daily activities easier for the child.

Christopher Henry is a consultant on autism design, focusing on two types of

approaches: neuro-typical and sensory sensitive.27 Neuro-typical design approach states

that children with autism should learn in environments that are not overly designed for

sensory sensitivity. People feel that spaces designed to overly control sensory stimulation

is unrealistic to the real world, hindering the abilities of a child with autism in the long run.

The exact opposite debate is risen for sensory sensitive approaches. With a sensory

sensitive approach a child has the chance to learn and receive therapy without all the

distractions of everyday life and begin to learn to cope with the daily challenges in the

                                                                                                                         

27 “Services,” http://www.autismdesignconsultants.com/Autism_Design_Consultants/Services.html

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world. Neither approach is right or wrong, nor is science pointing in either direction to

which may be better for a child with autism leaving it up to a persons personal opinion on

the matter. 28

Inclusive Education Systems & Programs

There are many programs that integrate the typical classroom with therapies for

children with autism. This integration stems from the belief that children with autism as

well as their typically developing peers will benefit from learning together. Vermont Part C

Early Intervention Affiliation is a support system based out of University of Vermont’s

Center on Disability and Community Inclusion. The Vermont Part C Early Intervention

Affiliation not only provides support for families of children with autism, they help post-

partum women, pregnant women, nursing and general family support.29 This support

program helps place children with special needs into classrooms with the assistance they

may need. They will make the transition into new environments as easy as possible and

provide the support a child may need to be successful in the classroom. Children’s

Integrated Services exists to provide necessary support to families and children as well as

assist them when needed. Vermont is an advocate for the inclusion of children with

special needs into the mainstream classroom, and these support systems make this

                                                                                                                         

28 “Designing for Autism: The Neuro-typical Approach,” last modified on November 3, 2011, http://www.archdaily.com/181402/designing-for-autism-the-neuro-typical-approach/ 29 Vermont Part C

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inclusion possible for the children. Now that Vermont provides ten hours a week of public

preschool to all children, this inclusion is more prevalent than ever at an early age. 30

Inclusion has been found to be beneficial for both a child with autism as well as their

peers. Children without autism learn to be more understanding to children’s differences

and learn to interact and accept them as they are. Yad Hamoreh in Jerusalem is an

inclusive school for children with moderate to sever autism and their typically developing

peers. Over the years they have found that the children with autism learn the behaviors

that are acceptable in “normal society” from the peers in their classes. The children

without autism have a higher social understanding for other people in the world that may

be developmentally different than them. The typical children attend therapy sessions with

the children with autism, giving them all the same opportunities to succeed. Children begin

to look forward to specialty therapy sessions that they feel are fun or enriching, rather than

feel excluded by them. 31

A study was done to see how children with autism were socially integrated in

inclusive settings. The results proved that there were no significant differences between

children with autism and students without disabilities and their social integration. Social

preference, social impact and social network affiliation were tested. Social preference

refers to the level of social acceptance a student has in reference to other members of the

classroom. Social impact is the amount of visibility a student has in the classroom, despite

whether this visibility is positive or negative. Social network refers to the peer group to                                                                                                                          

30 “Universal Pre-K Becomes Law in Vermont,” last modified on May 29, 2014, http://digital.vpr.net/ post/universal-pre-k-becomes-law-vermont 31 “A Very Special Learning Environment,” last modified on March 27, 2012, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/Is raelExperience/Pages/A-very-special-learning-environment-27-Mar-2012.aspx

21

which a student belongs. The three categories were measured using 177 students, ten of

which had autism. Although the results were shown to be insignificant, this shows there is

no significant negative effect to having a child with autism in the mainstream classroom in

relation to social situations. 32

Inclusive Architecture

Currently there are typologies for typical preschools as well as schools for children

with autism. There are overlaps as well as areas that do not connect well. When one

walks into a typical preschool classroom, there are posters on the wall, colors everywhere,

and the room may be cluttered with toys and games. When walking into a school for

children with autism the walls are bare, the toys are put away neatly and objects are

specifically labeled. The schools are both designed to be the best for the child who will be

using the space. With the rise in autism in the United States, children with autism will have

to attend mainstream preschool classes.

These design philosophies need to be combined to make spaces beneficial for all

users. Many therapies used for children with autism can be beneficial for the typically

developing child. Therapies involving music and dance can be enjoyable for all to

participate in. Spaces for children with autism need to be carefully designed to keep from

over stimulating their senses and allow the children to grow and develop. With this in mind,

there is a fine line between designing for autism, and simply removing all decorations and

toys that children enjoy, keeping the room distraction free.

                                                                                                                         

32 Amanda E. Boutot, “Social Integration of Students with Autism in Inclusive Settings,” Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities (2005) 14-23.

22

Acoustics, lighting, textures, colors, and transition zones just scratch the surface of

parts of design that need to be focused on in great detail. A room for therapy must be

acoustically sound, where a classroom may be moderately acoustically sound. The texture

of the carpeting or tiling plays a role in how a child with autism may learn, when in a typical

classroom this may be a second thought. While its beneficial to keep distraction to a

minimum in the classroom, it seems to have led schools for autism to have bare walls in

neutral colors. There are ways to stimulate the typical child while still remaining in the

range of what will not distract or overstimulation a child with autism. Walls that remain

one continuous material without excessive decoration can solve this problem. Windows

can be placed out of the line of vision of children, while still providing natural light. Rooms

that vary in acoustical quality will benefit for a child with autism, while still remaining

realistic to the outside world. Organization is key for a child with autism, and can benefit a

typical preschool classroom greatly. With each item having a place, the classroom may

remain clutter free more often. Items may be kept on higher shelves, out of reach from

children but still within sight, prompting conversation initiation between students and

teachers. Design changes that may seem minor at first, make the largest and most

beneficial changes for children with autism and their typically developing peers.

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Annotated Bibliography American Montessori Society. “Montessori Education.” Last modified 2013. http://amshq

.org/montessori-education Bahamón, A., & Álvarez, A. M. Light color sound: Sensory effects in contemporary

architecture. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 2010. An exploration of how color, light and sound in architecture effect a persons sensorial experience. With new technologies, the sensorial experience is heightened creating a need for a better understanding of light, color, and sounds effects on a person.

Bloomer, Kent C., and Charles Willard Moore. Body, Memory, and Architecture. New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1977. Body, Memory, and Architecture looks into how the body interacts with architecture and it’s environment. This was useful for research on haptic space and basic orienting of a person within a space.

Boroson, B. Autism spectrum disorders in the mainstream classroom. New York:

Scholastic, 2011. An informative book written to give teachers an better understanding about how children with autism experience the world they live in. With the rise in autism in the United States, children with autism are now forced into the mainstream classroom with teachers who do not know how to properly teach them.

Boucher, Jill. The autistic spectrum: characteristics, causes, and practical issues. Los

Angeles: SAGE, 2009. The Autistic Spectrum is an introductory text, providing basic information on the topic of Autism. It begins with what autism is, what causes autism, and how to help a person through intervention and care. This overview of autism spectrum disorder as a whole provides insight in almost all areas of knowledge.

Boutot, E. Amanda, and Diane P. Bryant. "Social integration of students with autism in

inclusive settings." Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities 40, no. 1 (2005): 14-23. This study looked into three social integration constructs of students with autism in an inclusive classroom. The three constructs were social preference, social impact,

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and social network affiliation, all of which showed children with autism were equals with their peers in the categories.

Brooks, Turner. “The Fullness of Space: Notes on Design for Students with Autism.” Architect, Turner Brooks, provided personal notes for the design of The Center for Discovery Autism Campus, discussing Haptic space, transition zones, and sequence of spaces.

Bundy, Anita C., Tim Luckett, Geraldine A. Naughton, Paul J. Tranter, Shirley R. Wyver, Jo Ragen, Emma Singleton, and Greta Spies. "Playful interaction: Occupational therapy for all children on the school playground." American Journal of Occupational Therapy 62, no. 5 (2008): 522-527. A study looking into the use of play therapy on typically developing children on the playground. The children were unaware that the toys were used for play therapy, and the results showed positive results for all of the children involved.

Comer, James P. "Schools That Develop Children." The American Prospect 12, no. 7 (April

23, 2001): 33-35. http://occonline.occ.cccd.edu/online/cpettus/schoolsthatdevelop. pdf. Schools that Develop Children discusses the failing school systems in America, and how the recent development to change theses systems has proved beneficial for all of the schools involved. An interesting perspective on the teacher and school being a primary caregiver of the child in their years developing and growing.

Dattner, Richard. Design for Play. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1974.

Richard Dattner explores playground design for children, looking into areas of psychology and sociology to enhance the design of the play space. Focusing on how, why and where children play, the book gives an interesting view on playgrounds.

Delmolino, Lara, and Sandra L. Harris. Essential first steps for parents of children with

autism: helping the littlest learners. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House, 2013. The book is written in laymen’s terms explaining the most beneficial first steps a parent should take with a child with autism. Focuses on children of a young age, explaining how play, school, and early intervention can change the child’s life in the long run.

Dudek, Mark. Kindergarten architecture: space for the imagination. London: Spon Press,

2000.

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Kindergarten Architecture provides comprehensive information about the design of pre-school and kindergartens. The book showcases a vast variety of schools, varying from traditional to modern, explaining the strengths and weaknesses of each design.

Edwards, Carolyn P., ""Fine Designs" from Italy: Montessori Education and the Reggio Approach," Faculty Publications, Department of Child, Youth, and Family Studies. (2003): Paper 20. A quick comparison of the Reggio Emilia and Montessori school typologies, mainly focusing on the history of the programs and the teaching techniques used within each of the classrooms.

Ehmann, Sven, Sofia Borges, and Robert Klanten. Learn for life: new architecture for new learning. Berlin: Gestalten, 2012. Learn for Life provides a brief overview of how architecture can impact the learning environment, for infants, children, teenagers and adults alike. It explores environments such as schools, parks, libraries and corporate buildings, providing successful examples of learning environments for each.

Evans, E. Belle, George E. Saia, and Elmer A. Evans. Designing a day care center; how to

select, design, and develop a day care center. Boston: Beacon Press, 1974. This book discusses the need for quality day care arrangements for preschool children, explaining how a person’s educational philosophy will be the main effect on designing the day care. It then moves forward to discuss design of the physical space in the best way possible.

Federal Education Budget Project. “Pre K Funding from State and Federal Sources.” Last

modified April 25, 2014. http://febp.newa merica.net/background-analysis/pre-k-funding.

Ginko Press. Color and space in architecture and interior design: commercial, corporate,

dining, educational, public, residential, recreational. Berkeley, CA: Gingko Press, 2013. A brief overview of different building types that use color as a main focus in their design. With each building discussed, there is explanation for why color was used, and how the color use enhanced the space it was used.

26

The International Montessori Council. “The Uniterrupted Three-Hour Work Cycle.” Last modified September 29, 2011. http://www.montessori.org/imc/index.php?option =com_content&view=article&id=266:the

Malaguzzi, Loris, Giulio Ceppi, and Michele Zini. Children, Spaces, Relations: Metaproject for

an Environment for Young Children. Reggio Emilia, Italy: Reggio Children, 1998. Loris Malaguzzi, the founder of the Reggio Emilia education system, explores the design tools used in the Reggio Emilia schools, how it relates to the senses, and how the environment can be designed best for the use of preschool students. The book includes essays from an outside research group, studying the Reggio Emilia and Domus Academy.

Medline Plus. “Preschooler Development.” Last modified on November 9, 2012. http://www. nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002013.htm

Mostafa, M. "An Architecture for Autism: Concepts of Design Intervention for the Autistic

User", International Journal of Architectural Research (IJAR), Massachusetts Institute of Technology ArchNet, 2, 189-211, 2008. The article examines the role that architecture can have in educational facilities for autistic children. The primary goal of the research is to eliminate the exclusion of autism in the design discussion, and determine the impact of architectural design elements on autistic behavior.

Mostafa, Magda. "ARCHITECTURE FOR AUTISM: Autism ASPECTSS™ in School

Design" International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR [Online], Volume 8 Number 1 (3 March 2014).

This article goes through the eight design factors that should be considered while designing for a child with autism. The design criteria are specified for the use of a single child, rather than a group of children with autism to have the best results.

Nair, Prakash, and Randall Fielding. The language of school design: design patterns for 21st century schools. Minneapolis, MN: DesignShare, 2005. The book begins to answer the questions of school design, and why there is disconnect between learning research and learning places. It is written as a practical tool to assist in the design and construction of a successful educational facility.

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National Public Radio. “What the U.S. Can Learn from Finland, Where School Starts at age 7.” Last modified March 8, 2014. http://www.npr.org/2014/03/08/287255411/what -the-u-s-can-learn-from-finland-where-school-starts-at-age-7

O'Donnell Wicklund Pigozzi and Peterson, Architects Inc, VS Furniture, and Bruce Mau

Design. The Third Teacher: 79 Ways You Can Use Design to Transform Teaching & Learning. New York: Abrams, 2010.

Discusses the idea of “the third teacher” being the environment that the student inhabits. The 79 steps go in depth in areas such as acoustics, color, special needs, and playgrounds.

Ogata, Amy Fumiko. Designing the Creative Child: Playthings and Places in Midcentury

America. 2013. Designing the Creative Child begins to research post war life, and the boom of childhood creativity. Discussing areas such as house design, school design, and toy design, the author shows the shift into a more creative future for children.

Perkins, L. Bradford. Building Type Basics for Elementary and Secondary Schools. New

York: Wiley, 2001 Building Type Basics for Elementary and Secondary Schools provides useful, easy to decipher information on the building of a school. This information begins with broad topics such as pre-design and focuses on details as fine as financing and cost issues.

Phillips, N. J., & Beavan, L. Teaching Play to children with autism: Practical interventions

using Identiplay. London: Paul Chapman, 2007. Nicola Phillips and Liz Beavan begin to explore how interventions using Identiplay, play a huge role in the interaction between autistic children and their peers. These interventions focus on interactions during playtime and how to increase the amount of interactions an autistic child has.

Piaget, Jean, and Bä rbel Inhelder. The Child's Conception of Space. London: Routledge &

K. Paul, 1956. Jean Piaget, a psychologist specializing in developmental psychology in children, focuses on how the child perceives space, and how it can be used to enhance their experiences.

Simply Psychology. “Jean Piaget.” Last modified 2012.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/pi aget.html

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Stine, S. Landscapes for learning: Creating outdoor environments for children and youth. New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1997. Landscapes for Learning explores successful outdoor environments that enhance a child’s ability to learn, develop and grow. This look into the process and final product of the playground gives an inside look at how thougtful design goes a long way.

Tarr, Patricia. "Aesthetic Codes in Early Childhood Classrooms: What Art Educators Can

Learn from Reggio Emilia." Art Education 54, no. 3, Early Childhood & Interdisciplinary Challenge (May 01, 2001): 33-39. Accessed September 29, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3193922?ref=no-x-route:5cdf9d4a57571c3e7 1ea24c365b2f741. A comparative article looking into the physical environments of early childhood classrooms in Reggio Emilia, Italy and the United States. The comparison is looked at in relation to the “aesthetic codes” by Rosario and Collazo from 1981.

Warash, Bobbie, Reagan Curtis, Dan Hursh, and Vicci Tucci. "Skinner Meets Piaget on the

Reggio Playground: Practical Synthesis of Applied Behavior Analysis and Developmentally Appropriate Practice Orientations." Journal of Research in Childhood Education 22, no. 4 (2008): 441-53. doi:10.1080/02568540809594638. An in depth review of Applied Behavior Analysis and how it is used in the Reggio Emilia school system. The article looks into how the Reggio Emilia school system works with children with special needs to better their learning experiences, rather than excluding them from the programs.

Wortham, Sue Clark, and Joe L. Frost. Playgrounds for young children: national survey and

perspectives. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1990. This is a comprehensive study of playgrounds around the country, looking at their function, and the nature of children playing within the spaces. The study looked into children of all ages and their use of playgrounds, as well as the adult’s role in child’s play.