Listening to the Earth: An Environmental Audit For Benedictine Communities

LISTENING TO THE EARTH

An Environmental Audit For Benedictine Communities

byBenedictine Sisters of Erie, Pennsylvania

at Lake Erie-Allegheny Earth Force

About the authors:

This Environmental Audit for Benedictine Communities in Central and SouthAmerica was prepared under the direction of members of the Benedictine Sisters

of Erie, PA whose work with Earth Force, Inc. gives expression to theCommunity’s commitment to Ecological Stewardship.

Principal author, William L. Bartlett, graduated from Edinboro University ofPennsylvania with Bachelor’s degrees in Philosophy and Mathematics; he hasbeen an advocate for environmental protection and human rights through his

work with various non-profit making organisations. Presently he is preparing tospend a year serving as an Americorps volunteer working with Lake Erie-

Allegheny Earth Force, where he will continue to work with groups of youthtrying to implement sustainable changes in their communities. He remains verygrateful for the Benedictine community of Erie, and for his beautiful son who

was born during the preparation of this manual.

Annette Marshall, OSB has served as Director of Administration for theWestern Pennsylvania (USA) branch of Earth Force* since 1997. After twenty-five years as teacher and school administrator in Catholic elementary and high

schools, she now enjoys sharing her love for nature and her commitment todeveloping the next generation of civic leaders with school teachers

and youth leaders.

Pat Lupo, OSB has served as Program Director for the Western Pennsylvania(USA) branch of Earth Force since 1997. Daily through the education of

teachers and students and in her personal commitment to local, state, nationaland bi-national boards, Pat models responsible citizenship

and environmental stewardship.

Margarita Dangel, OSB has served as Education Director for the WesternPennsylvania (USA) branch of Earth Force since 1997. Her position as asummer camp director and assistant for environmental education at the

Benedictine owned center prepared her in many ways to guide youth andeducators to become actively involved in their community. Her goal is to helpyoung people realize that they are really needed in their community and that

they can contribute to finding solutions to environmental problems.

* www.earthforce.org/section/offices/lea

Cover image: “Web of Life” painting by Daniel Fallshaw www.artofcreation.co.uk.

LISTENING TO THE EARTH

An Environmental Audit for Benedictine Communities

by

William L BartlettMargarita Dangel OSB

Pat Lupo OSBAnnette Marshall OSB

Lake Erie-Allegheny Earth Force, Erie, PA, USA

This publication is funded by The World Bank’s Faithsand Environment Initiative* with support from the

President’s Contingency Fund in partnership with ARC(Alliance of Religions and Conservation)†

The authors would like to thank:Joanne Robinson – Handbook Co-ordinator, ARC

Tony Whitten – Coordinator, the World Bank’s Faiths and Environment InitiativeBekir Onursal and John Morton – World Bank peer reviewers

Richard Prime – designerP. Martin Neyt OSB and Gisela Happ OSB – AIM, Alliance Inter-Monastères, Paris

Jordi Sánchez – translation into SpanishIoL Language Services Ltd (Débora Chobanian) – translation into Portuguese

Published in London 2006This edition is also published in Spanish and

Portuguese

© Earth Force, Inc. 2006

* www.worldbank.org/faithsandenvironment† www.arcworld.org

FOREWORD by Joan D Chittister OSB . . . . . . vii

ABOUT THIS MANUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 BENEDICTINE LIFE AND MINISTRIES

Environmental Stewardship in BenedictineLife: Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Environmental Stewardship in BenedictineLife: Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1. Prayer and Liturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62. Ministries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63. Community Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64. Community Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75. Community Resource Management . . . . . 76. Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Environmental Stewardship in BenedictineLife: Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1. Prayer and Liturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72. Ministries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73. Community Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84. Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85. Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86. Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 AIR

Overview of Chapter:Air Pollution, Indoorand Outdoor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Air, Earth’s Sacred Gift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Overview of Outdoor and Indoor AirPollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Outdoor Air Pollution: Assessment . . . . . 16This Chapter’s Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Our Atmosphere: A Gift to be Preserved . . 16Problems in the Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

The health effects of air pollution . . . . . . . 18What’s causing the problems? . . . . . . . . . . 19What’s being done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20What can we do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Outdoor Air Pollution: Inventory . . . . . . 201. Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202. Community Transportation Practices. . . 213. Public Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224. Other Internal Combustion Engines . . . 225. Other Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Ozone depleting substances . . . . . . . . . . 237. Herbicides and Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . 238. Community Tree Preservation . . . . . . . . 239A. Expert Environmental Information Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239B. Expert Public Health Information Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Outdoor Air Pollution: Evaluation. . . . . . 241. Community Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242. Community Transportation Practices. . . 273. Public Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294. Other Combustion Engines . . . . . . . . . . 305. Burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306. Ozone Depleting Substances . . . . . . . . . 317. Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318. Community Tree Preservation . . . . . . . . 319. Expert Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Indoor Air Pollution: Assessment . . . . . . 34Air pollution—Inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Indoor Air Pollution: Inventory. . . . . . . . 341. Types and uses of community fuel . . . . . 342. Getting fuel; buying and gathering . . . . 353. Fuel drying (for biomass fuels). . . . . . . . 354. Health and Wellbeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365. Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366. Ventilation of the Kitchen area . . . . . . . 367. The stove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368. Smoke extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379. Education, Policy, and Civic Engagement38

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Contents

Indoor Air Pollution: Evaluation . . . . . . . 381-2. Types, Uses, Costs of Community’s Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383. Fuel Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394. Health and Wellbeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395. Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396. Ventilation of the kitchen area. . . . . . . . 397-8. The stove and smoke extraction . . . . . 409. Education, Policy, and Civic Engagement41Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3 DRINKING WATER

Water: Catalyst and Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Water: The Catalyst of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Water: Global Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Uses and Abuses of Water Resources . . . . . 46Assessment of Community Practices . . . . . 47

Drinking Water Quality and SourceProtection: Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

1. Main Drinking Water Source. . . . . . . . . 472. Potential sources of pollution: . . . . . . . . 483. NGO involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484. Community Water Governance . . . . . . . 495. Water Quality Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496. Water Treatment by the Community . . . 497. Water Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Drinking Water Quality and SourceProtection: Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

1. Water sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502. Water Source Pollution Hazards . . . . . . 513. Water resource protection committee . . 524. Water Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525. Water quality testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536. Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547. Water handling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Site-Specific Source: Assessment . . . . . . . 57A Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57B Dug Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57C1 Borehole: Deep with MechanizedPumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58C2 Borehole with Handpump . . . . . . . . . . 58D Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59E Rainwater Collection and Storage . . . . . 59F Vendors (Tanker Trucks) . . . . . . . . . . . . 59G Piped Water (General) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60G1 Piped Water (from Storage Tank) . . . . 60G2 Piped Water (from Water Provider) . . 60

Site-Specific Source: Evaluations. . . . . . . 61Surface water (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Ground Water: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Ground water: Dug wells (B) . . . . . . . . . . . 62Ground water: Boreholes (C) . . . . . . . . . . . 63Ground water: Springs (D). . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Rainwater (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Water vendors (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Piped Water (G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Water Conservation: Inventory . . . . . . . . 691. Monitoring Water Consumption . . . . . . 692. Leaks and plumbing fixtures . . . . . . . . . 693. Water Provider’s Practices . . . . . . . . . . . 704. Education and Personal Habits . . . . . . . 705. Using Greywater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Water Conservation: Evaluation . . . . . . . 701. Monitoring Water Consumption . . . . . . 702. Leaks and plumbing fixtures . . . . . . . . . 713. Water Provider’s Practices . . . . . . . . . . . 714. Education and Personal Habits . . . . . . . 725. Using Greywater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7346 Ways of Saving Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Saving Water Outdoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75General Water Saving Tips. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4 SANITATION AND WASTE

Overview: Sanitation, Municipal Waste, andHazardous Waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Community Excreta Handling andSanitation: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Ecological Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Sanitation and Population Explosion: ADeadly Mix? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Excreta: Environmental Pollutant and HealthHazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Sewered Sanitation Technology: Problematicand Unsustainable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Sustainable Approach to Sanitation, and thisAssessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Community Excreta Handling andSanitation: Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

1. Mix or No-Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822. Soil conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823. Characteristics of Sanitation System: . . 824. Resource Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835. Sewer Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836. Waste Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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Listening To The Earth

7. Hygiene Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858. General Sanitation Practices . . . . . . . . . 85

Community Excreta Handling andSanitation: Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

1. Mix or No-Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852. Soil Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863. General Characteristics of SanitationSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863i. Characteristics of Sanitation System:Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933ii. Characteristics of Sanitation System:Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943iii. Characteristics of Sanitation System:Emptying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Evaluation of Sanitation Facilities (3-3iii) . 974. Resource Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975. Sewer Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006. Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017. Hygienic Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038. General Sanitation Practices . . . . . . . . 103Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Community Solid Waste Management:Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Preserving the Gifts of Garbage . . . . . . . . 105The Inherent Dangers of Solid Waste . . . 105The Waste Crisis: A Burden Borne by thePoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Contributions to the Mismanagement ofWaste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109What’s Being Done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Community Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Community Solid Waste Management:Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

1. Community Waste Generation Survey 1102. Community Waste Collection and Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123. Solid Waste Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134. Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135. Land Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146A. Waste Handling Workers or Workers’Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156B. Governmental Regulatory Agency . . . 1166C. Environmental Information Source . . 1166D. Expert Public Health/Safety Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167. Cleaning of Public Areas . . . . . . . . . . . 1178. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Community Solid Waste Management:Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

1. Community Waste Generation Survey 1182. Community’s Practice for Solid WasteCollection and/or End-Disposal . . . . . . . . 1193. Solid Waste Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214. Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225. Land Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236. Seeking Expert Information . . . . . . . . . 1257. Cleaning of Public Areas . . . . . . . . . . . 1268. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Hazardous Products and Wastes:Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

An Overview of this Assessment . . . . . . . 129What is Hazardous Waste? . . . . . . . . . . . 129How Hazardous Waste Affects Health. . . 130How Hazardous Waste Affects theEnvironment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130What needs to be done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Your Community’s Responsibility . . . . . . 133

Hazardous Products and Wastes Handling:Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

1. Hazardous Product Survey. . . . . . . . . . 1332. Hazardous Product Handling. . . . . . . . 1343. Quantities and Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . 1354. Legislative Policy Framework and RegionalResources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Hazardous Products and Wastes Handling:Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

1-2. Hazardous Product Inventory andHandling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1363. Quantities and Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . 1494. Legislative Policy Framework and RegionalResources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

5 ENERGY

Energy: The Animation of the Universe 155Properties of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Many Forms of Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Electricity, a Special Form of Energy . . . . 156Electricity: Modern ‘Utility’ . . . . . . . . . . . 156The Grid and Social Inequality . . . . . . . . 157Producing Electricity, Creating Catastrophes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Sustainable Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159Keeping Energy Sacred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Electricity Production Practices: Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

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1 Community Consumption . . . . . . . . . . 1602 Community Generative Potential . . . . . 1603 Community Generative Practices . . . . . 1604. Sources of Expert Information . . . . . . . 1615. Electricity Provider Governance. . . . . . 1626. Public and Environmental Safety. . . . . 1637. Provider Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638. Community Practices and Education. . 163

Electricity Production Practices: Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

1. Community Consumption . . . . . . . . . . 1642. Community Generative Potential. . . . . 1643. Community Generative Practices. . . . . 1654. Sources of Expert Information . . . . . . . 1695. Electricity Provider Governance. . . . . . 1696. Public and Environmental Safety. . . . . 1707. Provider Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1718. Community Practices and Education. . 171Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Conservation Practices: Inventory. . . . . 1731. Community Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732. Air Conditioning/Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . 1733. Air/Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

4. Refrigeration and Freezing . . . . . . . . . . 1765. Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1766. Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777. Electric Motors and Pumps . . . . . . . . . 1778. General Conservation Practices . . . . . . 177

Electricity/Energy Conservation: Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

1. Community Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782. Air Conditioning/Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . 1783. Air/Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814. Refrigeration and Freezing . . . . . . . . . . 1815. Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826. Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837. Electric Motors and Pumps . . . . . . . . . 1838. General Conservation Practices . . . . . . 184Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

6 AFTER THE AUDIT: DEVELOPING ANACTION PLAN

Prioritizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187Evaluating Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Generating an Action Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Appendix: General Resources . . . . . . . . . . 190

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If you are wondering why you are even considering such a thing as an ‘environmental audit’ ina life that seems so removed from such processes, consider the time in which you live.

There are two moments in history when Benedictinism has been needed in a very special way:the first was in the 6th century; the second is now.

In the 6th century, Europe was reeling from the loss of civil order and the breakdown ofagrarian communities. Farm lands lay in ruin from the movement of foreign invaders acrossEurope, trade routes were unsafe with the loss of the Roman Legions and the countryside was leftovergrown and in ruins.

To that sorry state, Benedictinism brought a new system of order, a new pattern of life, a newcommitment to the land and to life. Almost 700 years later, Cistercian groups again devotedthemselves to the reforestation, the replanting and the reclamation of some of the worst land inEurope.

As a result of those conscious efforts, Europe became a garden again. Life thrived. Peopleorganized themselves into productive communities. Agriculture flourished everywhere.

Now, in this last century, our own century, after over 100 years of erosion, pollution, and thediminishment of natural resources by most unnatural means, the whole world is becoming alertto the relationship between the gift of creation and sins against creation again.

The garden we were given to live in as a people, we have failed to tend. The solemncommitment we made as a species to steward the fruits of the earth we have failed to honor.

On the contrary. We have all taken it for granted, even while it was being plundered right infront of our eyes.

The industrial revolution that made the robber barons rich also made the globe poor: Wepoisoned our fresh waters and drowned them in tin cans and coffee cups. We wasted our forestsand drained the world of their medicinal herbs. We turned farmland into grazing land to makecheap hamburgers and so denied the people of the land, the very land they needed to live. Webelched gasses into the atmosphere till people died from the lack of fresh air. We saturated ourfarmlands with chemicals which, in the end, ironically, bled them dry of nutrients. We strippedthe globe of whole species of animals. We dealt carelessly, recklessly, heedlessly and arrogantlywith the very resources that sustained us.

Now, we find ourselves locked in mortal struggle between those who are trying to redeem thoseresources and those who are simply committed to making even more quick money on what’s leftof them. We find ourselves faced with those whose philosophy of life is “after me the deluge,”—who use what’s available without restraint and leave the problem of scarcity to generations tocome—and those who simply fail to understand the magnitude of the problem and so go onblindly, using what we should be saving, destroying what we cannot do without.

Time is of the essence; the future is at stake. We are choosing between a philosophy ofconsumption that gobbles up the world for its own satisfaction and a philosophy of co-creationthat is committed to preserving natural resources for the sake of those to come.

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Foreword

A Benedictine Consciousness

Whose Time Has Come—Again

by Joan D. Chittister OSB

We are choosing now between those who are willing to drain the present for the sake ofpersonal gratification and those who, loving the present, love it enough to preserve its richnessfor the sake of the future, as well.

Clearly the whole world needs Benedictinism again, needs a mindset that cares for the tools oflife “as if they were vessels of the altar.” We need a sense of balance, of enoughness, ofstewardship and a sense of the eternal presence of God. We need a life lived in harmony with theseasons, the sun, the self and the other.

For Benedictines, an environmental audit is not a fad. It is not a social nicety. It is certainlynot an option. It is simply a contemporary manifestation of an ancient commitment to therhythm of the earth, the needs of the community and the God of Creation.

Congratulations to those who see its sacramental value, its claim to the Benedictine heart.They shall be called blessed for centuries to come, just as our ancestors before us.


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Intentions

This manual was assembled specifically forBenedictine religious communities in theLatin American and Caribbean (LAC)

region. Nevertheless, the majority of the manual’scontent can easily be applied to any population,especially those living in the LAC region. Whilemost of the explanatory text focuses on theconditions of the LAC region, the mainenvironmental principles that underlie theregional—specific information are applicable toany region of the world. It was intended that thismanual be as broad as possible, give attention toboth rural and urban environments, but addressonly those issues that can be affected by theactions of ordinary citizens.

The main intentions of this manual are to (1)educate the reader about environmental problemsand crises being faced by the world’s populationstoday, (2) to provide the communities that utilizethe manual with a means of assessing how theirdaily practices may contribute to these problems,and (3) offer ideas and resources regarding betterpractices.

Thus, each subject area consists of threesegments: an introduction, an inventory, and anevaluation. The introductions provide backgroundinformation about the subjects at hand, includingthe scope and importance of the problems, andhow individuals’ actions contribute to theproblems. The inventories, then, are series ofquestions which are suggested approaches toinventorying the behaviors of communitymembers. Lastly, each suggested inventory isfollowed by an evaluation section that providesmore information specific to the questions asked inthe inventory sections.

Terminology

Since this manual was written specifically forreligious communities, throughout the work, theword “community” will often be used. When theword is left unqualified, it may be assumed that thereferent of the word is your religious, or intentionalcommunity. If the larger population of a barrio,

municipality, or town is implied, the word“community” will be qualified with adjectives suchas “larger” or “greater.”

Premises

The following controversial presumptions underliethe content of this manual:

1) That a respect for Creation, or reverence forthe environment to which we areintrinsically connected, is an essentialspiritual attitude.

2) That industries, governments, andmunicipal operations (like water suppliers,trash haulers, etc) should be operated in atransparent and democratic manner; that is,that citizens should both be able to knowhow a system is operating and be able todirectly influence the operation.

3) Best practices are those that minimize oreliminate adverse environmental impacts.

4) That despite the enormity of theenvironmental problems being faced—which are often large enough and seriousenough to be called crises—there is stillhope that future generations may still liveon this earth, and thus that actions we taketoday can make a difference.

Guidance for using this manual

For ease of understanding, it is recommended thatthe introductory material—contained in thePreface and Introduction—is read in its entiretybefore reading the main text. It should be notedthat the chapters in the main text are notorganized in a chronological or methodologicalorder; that is to say that the chapters may be usedin any order. The last chapter, “Developing anAction Plan,” is intended to help guidecommunities into a decision making and actionplanning process after conducting one or moreinventories. Thus, this chapter can be read as soonas the community is ready to take action. Theresources found in the appendix can be usedthroughout the process. It is recommended that

ix

Preface

About This Manual

you review the appendix before beginning the workof the audit so that you may be familiar with theresources available to you in your work.

As mentioned before, each chapter begins withan introduction section that provides backgroundinformation about the subject at hand. Followingthe introduction are one or more assessmentswhich focus upon a particular set of practices. Theassessments will vary in their applicability to anindividual community’s characteristics, and acommunity can choose which assessments it willperform. Nevertheless, it is recommended that anentire chapter be read over completely beforemaking the decision, as some parts of anassessment may be found to apply even when mostof it does not.

Content sources and acknowledgements

This manual was mainly edited in the UnitedStates by an English speaking editor. It wascomposed primarily with resources publiclyavailable on the Internet, and all attempts havebeen made to acknowledge the actual sources used.(See the Endnotes.)

Given these characteristics, there are severalweaknesses to the manual which suggest possibleimprovements. The three most importantweaknesses, in the authors opinion are:

1) The resources used were written in English,

thus the entirety of available Spanishliterature was not utilized, with very fewexceptions.

2) The inventories are intended to analyze thepractices that are shared in a general wayby the population of the LAC region. Assuch, they do not adequately account forthe vast diversity of living conditionsencountered throughout this region. Thus,each inventory can at best be considered asuggested list of questions to ask. This workin no way can make a claim to provide athorough analysis of a community’s totalcontribution to environmental pollution.

3) The majority of entries provided in theappendix unfortunately assume thatinternet connectivity is available. As well,there is an overabundance of Englishresources.

Nevertheless, the amount of informationprovided by numerous citizens, agencies,industries, and governments around the world thatis pertinent to the environment of LAC is trulyamazing and beautiful. Much gratitude is given bythe authors of this manual to all those workingtowards a sustainable future, especially those thatpublish their material for the benefit of allhumanity.

Un otro mundo es posible!

x


Congratulations for your environmentalstewardship! The very fact that you arereading this publication is evidence that

your community has within it a seed for improvingyour community’s environmental practices.Hopefully, like you, your religious community hasthe will to live sustainably; nevertheless it takesmore than just will-power to achieve this, and theintention of this publication is to help you gofurther.

In our present world, it is becoming ever moreimportant that communities adopt a sustainablemanner of life that is in harmony with nature andnot opposed to it. Today, in all countries, we arefacing the grievous effects of atmosphericdegradation, water pollution, and soil depletion.Aside from upsetting the intricate balances foundwithin God’s creation, we are now finding thatchronic, debilitating, and often fatal, humandiseases are on the rise. And it is our day-to-dayhabits that make the greatest contribution to theongoing ecological devastation.

To get the most out of this manual, it isrecommended that your community establish anongoing Environmental Program. AnEnvironmental Program implies that there is ateam of people that are charged with the oversightof community environmental practices. This team,or committee, ensures that your community’spractices are continually moving towardsimproving the relationship between yourcommunity and the Earth. Hopefully, with theresources found herein, you will be able to assessyour community’s ecological impact, find policiesand practices that need to be changed, and gainideas for more sustainable alternatives. The goal ofa successful Environmental Program is to changeyour community’s practices in a permanentmanner. This requires thoughtful analysis,evaluation, and planning by a dedicatedcommittee.

Guidelines for Establishing a SuccessfulEnvironmental Program

1. Create a team or committee to take chargeof the work of the Environmental Program.In general, the best way to approach theimplementation of an Environmental Program inyour community is to form a team that isresponsible for carrying out the work of the audit,assessing the results, producing ecologicalalternatives, and then helping the community toimplement the changes. Perhaps this work maybegin with one or more motivated individuals inyour community who would like to increase theenvironmental stewardship of your community, ormaybe it begins with a directive from above; butwhatever provides the initial impetus for theproject, it is important that there is an identifiablehead or executive member of the project. Besidesthe executive member, it is important thatrepresentatives from each department or servicebranch of your community serve on the committee(e.g. housekeeping, administration, grounds-keeping, ministries, etc…) Beyond this, any otherinterested members of the community canvolunteer to serve on the committee.

Characteristics of an Environmental Program Team• Leadership: Someone in charge and

accountable for the Program• Regular Communication: Hold regularly

scheduled meetings to discuss progress andshare new information or ideas

• Recordkeeping: Record meetings,discussions, and progress

• Shared vision: Develop and share a visionof what your community will look like atthe height of ecological stewardship.

• Consensus: Cooperative decision-making toensure a unified orientation

• Longevity: Maintain the Program’s team tocontinue progress

1

Introduction

Steps to a Successful Environmental Program

The committee should begin by establishingcommon ground by agreeing to fundamentalprinciples that will guide the work of the program(e.g. a respect for Creation), and then extrapolatingthese principles into a shared vision of what yourcommunity could achieve someday if it were torealize all these principles in everyday practices.

2. Community Environmental InventoryThe next major task of the team is to identify yourcommunity’s environmental problems or threatsand related community information, including itsstrengths. This is the step where your team gainsawareness and creates visions: i.e. seeing “what is”and “what can be” more clearly, in terms ofenvironmental risks and sustainable development.This is the step in which the chapters that followcan be utilized most effectively.

In addition, it is recommended that youidentify and analyze relevant public and privatepolicies in addition to your community’s policiesand practices. Examine who makes policy and how,and strive to understand different perspectives onissues.

In using this manual, it may be helpful tochoose to work on only one section, orenvironmental topic, at a time. Several of theassessments included in this manual are fairlyinvolved, and so several problems may beidentified within one assessment. Thus, to preventbeing overwhelmed by data, problems, andoptions, it may be a good idea to limit your team’sfocus to one area until your team feels that it hasthe capacity to move onward.

3. Forging partnershipsAs you conduct your inventory, you will haveseveral opportunities to create relationships withexperts, industries, and government officials. It isimportant to establish productive relationshipsand working alliances with these people wheneverpossible. These relationships provide a means ofincreasing your team’s knowledge, experience, andpower. Thus, these partnerships can enhance yourability to effect change not only within yourreligious community, but also throughout thelarger community.

4. Setting Priorities and Evaluating OptionsGenerally, the results of your audit identify severalareas that could be improved, but changing themall at once is impractical. Thus, it is important toprioritize your findings, and possibly even to

present your findings to the community at large fortheir input in prioritizing. Practices that werefound to be critically important or dangerousshould, of course, be addressed first if possible.

Once your team has assessed your community’spresent practices, has established relationshipswith people or agencies that can further yourunderstanding of issues and alternatives, and hasestablished priorities, you are ready to give seriousconsideration to alternative courses of action andtheir potential consequences. Your team shoulddevelop a list of alternatives solutions to any oneproblem. In creating this list, the rationale,beneficial impacts, expected difficulties, costs, andmeasurability of each alternative should beincluded for analysis. Once this list is generatedyour team may wish to consult with the entirecommunity and/or outside experts, for help indeciding which alternative to choose.

Characteristics of a Reasonable Option for Action• Compatible with the overall program goals• Acceptable to those who will work to

achieve them• Understandable by everyone• Motivational to encourage participation of

entire community• Achievable with a reasonable amount of

effort• Measurable over time

5. Taking ActionOnce your team has decided what it needs to do,an action plan needs be developed andimplemented. This plan should include thespecifics regarding how to acquire and mobilize theresources necessary for success, and a deadlineestablished. A budget may need to be created, andfunding secured. The plan should include how toeffectively communicate the change to othercommunity members. As well, the means ofassessing the action’s success should be developed.With all this accomplished, the action plan shouldbe executed and the results measured over time.

6. Looking Back and AheadPeriodically, especially after an action plan hasbeen executed, the Environmental Program teamshould reflect upon and assess the Program itself.Identify successes and failures, strengths andweaknesses, difficulties and examples of efficientfunctioning. The overall progress and effectiveness

2


of actions taken should be assessed. It is importantto address the problems identified with theProgram, but it is equally important to celebrate itssuccesses!

The goal of this reflection period is to updatethe Program with your learned experiences, and toidentify the next steps to take to continue movingyour community toward sustainability.

3

Introduction

4

Environmental Stewardship inBenedictine Life: Assessment

In the past 1500 years, Benedictines have heldEnvironmental Stewardship as an essential,defining value. It is an explicit policy of most

Benedictine monasteries and communitiesworldwide to apply environmental stewardshipprinciples to their land, buildings and work. Thissection of the Environmental Inventory is designedto examine the extent to which your communityembraces this core value, grows in itsunderstanding of environmental responsibility, andexpresses it in prayer, ministry and community life.

The Earth Charter, forged at The Council for aParliament of the World’s Religions in 1993,challenges all of us: “We stand at a critical momentin Earth’s history, a time when humanity must chooseits future. As the world becomes increasinglyinterdependent and fragile, the future at once holdsgreat peril and great promise… The choice is ours:form a global partnership to care for the Earth and oneanother or risk the destruction of ourselves and thediversity of life. Fundamental changes are needed inour values, institutions, and ways of living.”

Just as our understanding of the universe inwhich we live and the interrelatedness of all ofnature has been stretched and deepened by recentcosmological discoveries, stewardship needs to bestretched to recognize the co-dependence that weshare with the rest of the natural world. AnneMcCarthy, OSB, writes, “Stewardship assumes arelationship in which the human is dominant:primary, central, the superior species responsiblefor all other lesser species. This essentialdominance, even if a very benevolent, responsibledominance is being critiqued in our day astroubling at best and destructive at worst.”Humans were not placed on the earth to dominate.Rather, humans are one of many species sharingthis earth, part of a vast web. If humans are toprosper, so must the entire web.

We are living in a time when the ability of theearth to support future generations has been calledinto serious question. Donnella Meadows explains,“What the scientists and now also the economists

are telling us is that our planetary life-supportsystem is in danger—and that it needn’t be, if wetake perfectly feasible steps to protect it.”Environmentalists around the globe are calling foraction on behalf of the planet. As earth citizens wehave a responsibility to respond. As Benedictineswe have a responsibility to help create a new visionfor our planet by applying 1500 years of livedcommunity experience to the new realities facingus. “When looking back at Benedict of Nursia andhis legacy,” McCarthy, OSB, offers, “humilityemerges as the primary gift that Benedictines canoffer a new millennium: a gift that will givepositive shape to the human relationship with allthe cosmos.” Humility helps us recognize that ashuman beings we are not outside or above thecommunity of life. As spoken by Native AmericanChief Seattle, “We have not woven the web of life;we are but a strand within it.” We depend on thewhole for our very existence.

Today, we are challenged to extend thetraditional Benedictine value of stewardship byabandoning dominance and embracing inter-dependence. We must recognize that our care forthe earth extends far beyond this time and place.Native peoples of the Americas have long taught usto evaluate all that we do in light of “the seventhgeneration.” That is, our actions today must beviewed in terms of how they will affect those to beborn seven generations from now.

Sustainability, meeting the needs of the presentwithout compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs, is a call tojustice. Sustainable living is an approach to socialand economic, indeed, all activities, for allsocieties, rich and poor, which is compatible withthe preservation of the environment. It is based ona philosophy of interdependence, of respect for lifeas well as non-living parts of Nature, and ofresponsibility for future generations.

Principles for sustainable living include:• respect and care for the community of life• improve the quality of human life• conserve the Earth’s vitality and diversity• minimize the depletion of non-renewable resources

5

Chapter 1

Benedictine Life and Ministries

• keep within the Earth’s carrying capacity• change personal attitudes and practices• enable communities to care for their own

environments• provide a national framework for integrating

environment and conservation• create a global alliance

Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living,WCU/UNEP/WWF

As we look to this section of the audit, we do soknowing that today’s call to BenedictineStewardship is a call to sustainable living. If wehold stewardship as a core value in our lives, it willnot be assigned to a segment of life; it willpermeate what we think and how we pray, ministerand live together in community.

Environmental Stewardship inBenedictine Life: Inventory

(please answer where relevant according to the followingnumerical gradation: 1 = not at all, 9 = to a greatextent)

1. Prayer and Liturgy

To what extent does the community use songs/hymns,readings, and/or symbols during Community Prayerthat call attention to creation?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the community include reflection onstewardship, sustainability, creation, responsible living,etc. in its communal prayer?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the community celebrate specialdays/ observances that give attention to the universalcall to care for the earth? (i.e. Earth Day)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the community promote the use ofreflection materials that encourage ongoing developmentof ecological values?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Ministries

To what extent are sustainability practices promoted in

community ministry locations? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the community include anunderstanding of sustainable living practices as part ofits education/expectation of employees working in itsministries?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

If your community offers retreats, to what extent isattention given to the relationship between humans andthe cosmos, between humanity and the earth?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Is your community involved in teaching? Yes / No

If so, to what extent does it recognize the need forongoing environmental education and training for itselfand all those engaged in religious instruction?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does it promote environmental educationwithin its schools/ organizations, especially among youthand children?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does it pursue peacemaking as anessential component of conservation action?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

In its ministry of hospitality, to what extent does thecommunity model the use of sustainable practices andpromote these for guests?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Community Policy

To what extent does the Community believe thatsustaining environmental life systems is a religiousduty?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent do community members implementindividual and communal actions on behalf ofsustainable living?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Has the community committed itself to sustainablepractices through the development of a communitypolicy, expression in a corporate commitment or missionstatement, and/or publication of a position paper?

Yes / No

6


4. Community Leadership

To what extent does the Community Leadershipemphasize env-ironmental issues in teaching andguidance to the community?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the Community Leadershiprecognize the need for ongoing environmental educationand training for themselves and for communitymembers?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Has the Community Leadership called for a self-reviewand auditing process on conservation issues and itsrenewal on a regular basis?

Yes / No

5. Community Resource Management

If the community sponsors events/gatherings, to whatextent does the planning include attention to sustainablepractices such as purchasing locally grown food, avoidingexcessive use of paper products, recycling, use of greenproducts or services, mass transportation?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent is the community involved in sustainablefood production and consumption?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the community encouragesustainable land use practices such as organic foodproduction, pesticide/herbicide reduction, habitatprotection, maintaining green zones and/or use of landfor the poor?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6. Investments

To what extent does the community use investmentcriteria that promote ecological principals?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To what extent does the community use fair tradepractices devoid of financial, economic and politicalexploitation?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Environmental Stewardship inBenedictine Life: Evaluation

At the end of each discussion section, there will bestatements and a list of numbers from which to choose.Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessmentof how well your community represents the statementgiven. (1 = disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9= agree completely, no change needed)

1. Prayer and Liturgy

As prayer and liturgy are the central expression ofa religious community’s intentionality, theseelements can be the most powerful means ofexpressing and reinforcing your community’s corevalues. The content of your community’s liturgicallife serves as a profound teaching opportunity, as itraises the awareness of the praying community andhelps to strengthen the members’ commitment tothe values expressed. Hence, if environmentalsustainability is indeed a core value of yourcommunity, it should find expression in prayer andliturgy.

If, on the other hand, your community does notinclude environmental consciousness in its prayerlife, you should determine why. Is it the case thatenvironmental stewardship is not a shared value ofyour community? Is it a value that is simplyunexpressed for lack of knowledge or resources? Ordoes the absence of inclusion reveal a divisionwithin your community regarding this value? Eachreason has its own set of possible solutions, andGod’s inspiration should be sought to help guideyour efforts in uniting your community to acceptand express the importance of environmentalsustainability in this most important aspect ofyour community life.

Consult the references listed at the end of thischapter for resources on incorporatingenvironmental consciousness into yourcommunity’s prayer life.

To what extent does the Community incorporateenvironmental consciousness into its prayer life?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Ministries

Ministries are the most direct way that yourcommunity can express its commitments andvalues to the greater community. As such, they canbe the most powerful means of demonstrating

7

Chapter 1: Benedictine Life and Ministries

leadership through example. Whether yourcommunity expresses its service througheducation, spirituality programs, providing food orother alms to the poor, or other ministry, thedeeply held values of your community arenaturally expressed both by the content andstructure of the ministry itself, and by the actionsof the individuals delivering the ministry. Thus, itis important that your community ministries areinformed by agreed upon principles, includingenvironmental stewardship. Environmentalstewardship can be expressed in any ministry.

Your community’s ministries should exemplifyenvironmentally sustainable practices and respectfor Creation to the greatest extent possible. Allthose engaged in ministerial activities should beeducated about both the importance of sustainablepractices, as well as ways in which they canexemplify these in their ministry. A deep respectfor Creation should be modeled in all activities.

The resources found at the end of this chaptermay be helpful in improving the Earth-centeredness of your ministries.

To what extent does the Community incorporateenvironmental consciousness into its ministries?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Community Policy

The practices of individual members of yourcommunity are ultimately the true expression ofyour community’s environmental stewardship;however, having policies in place which inform andguide the actions of community members helps tounify and clarify the community intentions andvalues. Furthermore, having policies in placeprovides the opportunity to hold communitymembers accountable for their actions. Thus, it isimportant that your community adopt policies tostrengthen and inform each member’scommitment to environmental stewardship.

To what extent does the Community incorporateenvironmental consciousness into its community policy?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Leadership

Even if your community has policies regardingenvironmental stewardship and/or sustainabilitypractices, without the support and espousal ofthese by the community leadership, there is a

greater chance that the policies may not be realizedin everyday practice. Leaders play a tremendousrole in unifying and influencing the actions of thecommunity since they are ultimately responsiblefor executing community decisions. Thus it isimportant that your community’s commitment toenvironmental stewardship be reflected in thecommunications and decisions made by thecommunity leadership. The leader(s) of thecommunity should see to it that sustainableprinciples are realized in ministries, liturgy, andeducational activities, as well as in theadministrative, fiscal, and domestic affairs of thecommunity. It is suggested that a permanentcommittee should exist to continually review thesustainable practices of all community affairs, to beresponsible for educating the rest of thecommunity regarding environmentally consciouspractices, and to regularly update the leadership ondevelopments.

To what extent does the Community’s leadership giveexpression to environmental consciousness?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Resource Management

The keystone to environmental sustainability isthe proper management of resources. Thus, toexpress its commitment to sustainable principles,your community should definitely manage its ownresources in the most sustainable manner possible.Community resources include the property,buildings, equipment, and other commoditiesowned by the community. Buildings, properties,and community events should be managed in away that minimizes the impact on theenvironment.

The following chapters of this manual weredesigned to more closely examine how well yourcommunity incorporates sustainable practices intoits resource management.

To what extent does the Community incorporateenvironmental consciousness into resource management?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6. Investments

While it is certainly the intention of investment tomaximize the return, doing so without regard towhat or who is being invested in is nothing short ofirresponsible. Investments should be made in line

8


with community principles. Investing money issimply a way of encouraging those who receive yourinvestment to succeed so that you can profit aswell. Hence to realize your community’scommitment to environmental sustainability, theenvironmental record of potential investments(companies and funds) should be reviewed beforeyour community makes the decision to invest. Or,if there are already standing investments, theseshould be audited in the same way and adjustmentsmade if deemed necessary. In addition, if yourcommunity does own stock in a company withquestionable practices, you can exercise your rightsas stockholders to bring attention to these issues atstockholder meetings, or directly influencecompany decisions if the company is small enoughor your position large enough.

To what extent does the Community incorporateenvironmental consciousness into its investments?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions

Now enter the scores from each section in thecolumn on the right:

score

1 Prayer and Liturgy

2 Ministries

3 Community Policy

4 Community Leadership

5 Community Resource Management

6 Investments

If you found areas of your community life that could beimproved in regard to environmental stewardship andsustainability, list them below:

Category (I-III)

Issue 1

Issue 2

Issue 3

Issue 4

Now categorize each issue listed above into one ofthe following three categories:

I = Most important. Should be addressed immediatelyII = Important, but does not demand immediateattention. Must be addressedIII = Current practice should be improved, but is notimmediately important

9


Acknowledgements for Chapter 1

The information contained in this chapter has been adapted from thefollowing sources:

Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living,World Conservation Union, United NationsEnvironmental Program and World Wildlife Fund,Geneva, Switzerland, 1980The Earth Charter: A Religious perspective, in A SourceBook for the Community of Religions, Joel Beversluis,International Coordinating Committee on Religion andthe Earth, ed. Chicago: The Council for a Parliament ofthe World’s Religions. 1993, Preamble. A Humble Stance: Benedictines’ Gift to theCosmos, McCarthy, Anne, OSB. American BenedictineReview, Volume 58, 2nd edition. p. 52.Expert Statements Worth Paying Attention To, TheGlobal Citizen, Meadows, Donella, www.sustainer.org,Sustainability Institute, Hartland, VT

Resources for Chapter 1

Internet Resources

Alliance of Religions and Conservation: www.arcworld.org. ARC is a secular body that helps themajor religions of the world to develop their ownenvironmental programs, based on their own coreteachings, beliefs and practices. The web site containsseveral resources, both online and available in print.Catholic Conservation Center:http://conservation.catholic.org/ Available en español.This site contains several resources on incorporatingenvironmental consciousness into Catholic life.National Catholic Rural Life Conference:http://www.ncrlc.com/ The NCRLC is is a membershiporganization grounded in a spiritual tradition thatbrings together the Church, care of community andcare of creation. Their website contains a variety ofinformation on environmental topics, particularly ofinterest to agricultural congregations.Earth Ministry/ Caring for Creation: http://www.earthministry.org/ The mission of EarthMinistry is to inspire and mobilize the ChristianCommunity to play a leadership role in building a justand sustainable future. (In English only.) There areseveral resources available here, including a 225 pagehandbook of their own. EcoCongregation: www.ecocongregation.org/ Based in Europe,EcoCongregation offers an ecumenical toolkit thatencourages churches to weave creation care into theirlife and mission. They also provide an environmentalaudit manual with several modules.Print Resources (in English)

Embracing Earth: Catholic Approaches to Ecology, byAlbert J. LaChance and John E. Carroll,editors,1994,Orbis Books, Maryknoll NY, 800/258-5838.Collection of seminal contributions by contemporaryCatholic writers. Besides the editors, authors include:Thomas Berry CP; Miriam Therese MacGillis,Frederich G. Levine, David Toolan SJ, Mary RoseraJoyce, and more. The Great Work: Our Way into the Future, by Thomas

Berry, 1999, Bell Tower NY. Dedicated to all children,the book calls us to experience creation as a source ofwonder and delight. We are urged to move into thefuture making use of the four-fold wisdom available (ofindigenous peoples, of women, of classical traditionsand of science), using this moment of grace totransform this cenozoic era into the ecozoic.Voices of Hope in the Struggle to Save the Planet, byMarjorie Hope and James Young, 2000, ApexPress,Council on International and Public Affairs, Inc., 777United Nations Plaza, Ste. 3C, New York NY 10017;800/316-2739. Beginning with the prophetic voice ofThomas Berry, the book continues with the lives andideas of key spiritual leaders in Judaism, western andeastern Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Shinto,and faiths of Native Americans and two otherindigenous peoples.Environmental Books for Children. All available fromWordsworth, a publishing service. Write for catalogueto Wordsworth, 702 NE 24th St. Newton KS 67114,(316) 283-6708.Ecology and the Jewish Spirit: Where Nature and theSacred Meet, edited by Ellen Bernstein, Jewish LightsPublishing, Sunset Farm Offices, Rte.4, PO Box 237,Woodstock, VT 05091; 800-962-4544. The first bookin the emerging field of religion and environment toreflect a Jewish ecological perspective.Ecology and Religion: Scientists Speak, John E. Carrolland Keith Warner, OFM, editors, 2000, FranciscanPress, Quincy University, Quincy IL 62301; 217/228-5670; www.quincy.edu/press. An interfaith group ofreligious scientists articulate their understanding of therelationship between religion and ecology. The bookchallenges the various faith communities to address theenvironment as a legitimate religious concern.Peace with God the Creator, Peace with All Creation, aresource packet of the US Catholic bishops’ Renewingthe Earth program, includes homily helps; articles onecological spirituality, environmental hazards, the goodlife and the problem of consumption; guidelines tointegrate environmental education into responsibilitiesof parish committees; environmental justice resources,and much more. Available from Environmental JusticeProgram, US Catholic Conference, 3211 Fourth St.NE, Washington DC 20078, 800/235-8722.Love of Nature and Environmental Activism: Danger orDuty for Christians, by Paul Hansen, available fromHansen, 2899 Agoura Rd., West Lake Village CA91361; 805/498-6066. A helpful booklet for Christiansworking with Christians who are new to, or opposed to,earthkeeping.Discovering Your Life-Place: A First BioregionalWorkbook, by Peter Berg, Planet Drum Foundation,1998. Leads readers to a new appreciation of theirbioregion through practical, hands-on map-makingexercises, for rural or urban areas, all ages. Order fromPlanet Drum Foundation, PO Box 31251, SanFrancisco CA 94131; 415/ 285-6556;[email protected] with the Earth, by Mary Elizabeth Moore($20), 1998, Chalice Press, St. Louis MO. Stories andtheological discussion view the Earth as a sacredcreation of God in which we participate in a covenantalrelationship. Using the metaphor of quilt making, theauthor challenges us to orient our spiritual life andministry in partnership with (rather than caring for)

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the Earth. Appendix includes a retreat design “Quiltinga life in Relation to God and to God’s Creation.”Holy Ground: A Resource on Faith and theEnvironment ($5) 1997, by Sojourners, 2401 15th St.NW, Washington DC 20009; 800/714-7474. Studyguide for four sessions – Covenant with Creation;Systems of Environmental Degradation; EnvironmentalRacism; Justice and Living Rightly with the Earth;writings, resources, activities and discussion questions.Forty Nights; Creation Centered Night Prayer, byDaniel J. McGill, Paulist Press, 997 Macarthur Blvd.,Mahwah NJ 07430, (201/ 825-7300) 1994. Blendingecology and ecumenism, these prayers are the author’spersonal response to the spiritual and intellectualtransformation of our age. Each of the 40 prayerservices may be used alone or with responses from acommunity.Celebrating the Earth, by Scott McCarthy, 1998Resource Publications, Inc., 160 E. Virginia St., SanJose CA 95112; 408/286-8505. An earth-centeredtheology of worship with blessings, prayers and ritualsthat link Christian spirituality with the natural cyclesand patterns of earth.Ponderings From the Precipice: Soulwork for the NewMillennium, by James Conlon,1998 Forest of PeacePublishing, 251 Muncie Rd., Leavenworth KS 66048;800/659-3227. Forty-eight short reflections intended ascompanions for moments of meditation.Nature, God and Pulpit by Elizabeth Achtemeier, 1992,paperback, Eerdmans. Intended primarily for preachers,this book draws together and interprets all the biblicalmaterials dealing with the natural world and God’srelation to it. It also relates the materials to findings ofmodern science.The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and theGood Life, John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and MaryWestfall, editors, 1996, University Press of NewEngland, University of New Hampshire 1995. Fifteenphilosophers, theologians and environmentalists, from

different religious perspectives, explore ways to respondto the environment as the spiritual issue of our time.Ecotherapy: Healing Ourselves, Healing the Earth, byHoward Clinebell, Ph D, The Haworth Press, 1996; 10Alice St., Binghamton NY 13904. Clinebell bringstogether long overlooked issues at the boundarybetween human health and the health of the naturalenvironment; plus theories and methods of ecologicaldiagnosis, treatment and education.Divided Planet: The Ecology of Rich and Poor, by TomAthanasiou ($24.95), Little Brown, New York, 1996. Achallenging analysis of social and economic conditionsof the ecological crisis. A call to institute the radicalsocial and economic changes required to shift thepriorities of the New World Order with its everwidening gap between rich and poor.Women and the Environment, by Annabel Rodda,1991, United Nations Publications, 2 UN Plaza, RoomDC2-853, Dept.COO3, New York NY 10017, 800/253-9646. Focusing on women’s roles as users, producersand managers of the earth’s resources, the bookexplains all the major environmental issues and revealshow women can be a major force for environmentalchange. Includes a glossary of environmental terms, aguide to education and action, bibliography andresource guide.Your Health and the Environment: A ChristianPerspective, by Shantilal P. Bhagat, 1998, Eco-JusticeWorking Group of the National Council of Churches.Each of 13 chapters provides a biblical anchor,information, suggestions and. discussion questions.Order from NCC Environmental Justice Resources,800/762-0968.Caring for Creation: Reflections on the Biblical Basis ofEarthcare, by Lisa Lofland Gould, 1999, FriendsCommittee on Unity with Nature, Burlington VT. Fivechapters focus on Celebration, Humility, Connections,Right Relationship and Stewardship; study guideincluded.802/658-0308

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Overview of Chapter:Air Pollution, Indoor and

Outdoor

Air, Earth’s Sacred Gift

Air is our most precious resource, eventhough it is often taken for granted. Allliving things need air to survive. Without

water a person cannot live for more than a coupledays, but without the oxygen found in air a personwould die within minutes. In fact, all animals andeven plants need air to survive. Unfortunately,poor air quality, or polluted air, can be dangerousto life. Air that contains human-producedpollutants can and does kill plants, trees, andsmall organisms, and can cause extreme illness inhumans. It is up to us to become aware of andchange those practices of ours which contribute tothe poisoning of the Earth’s atmosphere.

Combustion

The most common way that humans affect airquality is by burning different materials and fuels.The process of burning is called combustion.Combustion in its various forms is probably themain source of both indoor and outdoor airpollution, and thus it will be mentionedfrequently in this assessment. For this reason, itmay be helpful to briefly describe combustion.

The most obvious example of combustion is asimple fire like those used for cooking or heating,burning refuse or cropland. However, internalcombustion engines, like those used inautomobiles, trucks, generators, tractors, as wellas other engines like those used in airplanes, orthose used in lawn care equipment also usecombustion for energy, and are very importantsources of pollution. Combustion of fuels (usuallyoil, coal, or natural gas) is also used for theproduction of electricity, as well as other industrialprocesses that require heat.

Not only are combustion processes diverse, butthe by-products emitted by them vary with

process efficiency and fuel type. Generally,combustion results in the emission of complexmixtures of gases, organic pollutants, metals, andfine particles.

As a result of our practices, indoor and outdoorenvironments are widely contaminated bycomplex mixtures of combustion-derived gasesand particles, and these pollutants create bothlocal and global human and environmental healthproblems.

Definitions

In order to understand and communicate aboutair pollution, it is quite helpful to know a little bitabout the most common air pollutants. These areparticulate matter (PM), oxides of nitrogen (NOX), oxides ofsulpher (SOX), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbonmonoxide (CO), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2) andchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These are not by anymeans the only pollutants, but they are the mostcommon. Each is described below.

Particulate matter, or PM, is the term for particlesfound in the air, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke,and liquid droplets. Particles can be suspended inthe air for long periods of time. Some particles arelarge or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke.Others are so small that individually they can onlybe detected with an electron microscope. Theycome from a variety of sources such as cars, trucks,buses, factories, construction sites, tilled fields,unpaved roads, stone crushing, and burning ofwood. PM is usually categorized by the size of theparticles; e.g. PM10= less than 10 microns,PM2.5= particles up to 2.5 microns, etc.) Ingeneral, the smaller the particles the moredangerous they are to living tissue.

Carbon monoxide, or CO, is a colorless, odorlessgas that is formed when carbon in fuel is notburned completely. It is a component of motorvehicle exhaust, and so higher levels of COgenerally occur in areas with heavy trafficcongestion. In cities, 85% to 95% of all COemissions may come from motor vehicle exhaust.Other sources of CO emissions include industrialprocesses (such as metals processing and chemical

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Chapter 2

Air Quality Assessment

manufacturing), residential wood burning, andnatural sources such as forest fires. Woodstoves,gas stoves, cigarette smoke, unvented gas andkerosene space heaters are sources of CO indoors.The highest levels of CO in the outside airtypically occur during the colder months of theyear when the air pollution becomes trapped nearthe ground beneath a layer of warm air (a processcalled inversion).

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also a pollutant, eventhough it is an important natural component ofthe atmosphere. Plants need it to grow; thus,vegetation removes CO2 from the air, and in turnprovides us with the oxygen we need. CO2 is alsoa product of all combustion reactions. Carbondioxide is not directly harmful to our health;however, one important characteristic of CO2 isthat it is able to reflect heat back towards theearth. This process is called the ‘greenhouseeffect,’ and consequently, CO2 is called a‘greenhouse gas.’ When too much greenhouse gasexists in the atmosphere, the temperature of theearth begins to rise, and this can cause manysevere problems. Since this is occurring, CO2 is animportant pollutant to consider. (The greenhouseeffect and global warming will be discussed morefully below in the Outdoor Air Pollution section.)

Nitrogen oxides, or NOX, is the generic term for agroup of highly reactive gases, all of which containnitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Many ofthe nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless.However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide(NO2) along with particles in the air can often beseen as a reddish-brown layer over many urbanareas. NOX gases can also dissolve in water; whenthis occurs in the atmosphere, the NOX causesacid rain. Furthermore, NOX react with otherpollutants to create smog. Nitrogen oxides formwhen fuel is burned at high temperatures, as in acombustion process. The primary manmadesources of NOX are motor vehicles, electricutilities, and other industrial, commercial, andresidential sources that burn fuels. NOX can alsobe formed naturally.

Sulfur dioxide, or SO2, belongs to the family ofsulfur oxide gases (SOX). These gases dissolveeasily in water. Sulfur is prevalent in all rawmaterials, including crude oil, coal, and ore thatcontains common metals like aluminum, copper,zinc, lead, and iron. SOX gases are formed whenfuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, isburned, and when gasoline is extracted from oil, ormetals are extracted from ore. Like NOX, SO2

dissolves in water vapor to form acid, andprecipitates as acid rain. SO2 interacts with othergases and particles in the air to form sulfates andother products that can be harmful to people andtheir environment.

Over 65% of SO2 released to the air, or morethan 13 million tons per year, comes from electricutilities, especially those that burn coal. Othersources of SO2 are industrial facilities that derivetheir products from raw materials like metallic ore,coal, and crude oil, or that burn coal or oil toproduce process heat. Examples are petroleumrefineries, cement manufacturing, and metalprocessing facilities. Also, locomotives, large ships,and some nonroad diesel equipment currentlyburn high sulfur fuel and release SO2 emissions tothe air in large quantities.

Volatile Organic Compounds, or VOCs, is a generalterm that covers a wide range of organic (i.e.carbon-containing) compounds. VOCs may resultfrom combustion processes, or from theevaporation of gasoline, solvent, and other organiccompound vapors. VOCs (especially methane)contribute to global warming, and they react withother pollutants to form ground level ozone. SomeVOCs are in and of themselves toxic andhazardous to human health. Sources of VOCsinclude: paints, paint strippers, and othersolvents; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays;cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents andair fresheners; stored fuels and automotiveproducts.

Finally, Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs are pollutantsthat affect the amount of ozone found in theupper levels of the atmosphere—called the ‘ozonelayer.’ The ozone layer is the importantcomponent of the Earth’s atmosphere that blocksdangerous radiation from hitting us on theground. CFCs have been used extensively asrefrigerants, aerosol propellants, and solvents, andare also used in some industrial processes. OnceCFCs enter the atmosphere, it takes a very longtime before they stop affecting the ozone layer.Thus, although their use and production hasdramatically declined on account of a successfulinternational agreement, called the MontrealProtocol, it will be at least 100 years before theireffects on the ozone layer disappear because oftheir long atmospheric lifetimes.

Opposite is a table which summarizes theinformation about these pollutants.

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15

Chapter 2: Air

Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects

Carbon Monoxide(CO)

Colorless, odorlessgas

Motor vehicleexhaust, indoorsources includekerosene or woodburning stoves

Headaches, reducedmental alertness,heart attack,cardiovasculardiseases, impairedfetal development,death

Contribute to theformation of smog

Carbon Dioxide(CO2)

Colorless, odorlessgas

Combustion of anyfuel, including oil,coal, natural gas,diesel fuel, gasoline,etc. Deforestation

Does not directlyimpair humanhealth

Major contributor toglobal warming

Sulfur Dioxide(SO2)

Colorless andreactive gas

Coal-fired powerplants, petroleumrefineries,manufacture ofsulfuric acid andsmelting of orescontaining sulfur

Eye irritation,wheezing, chesttightness, shortnessof breath, lungdamage

Contribute to theformation of acidrain, visibilityimpairment, plantand water damage,aesthetic damage

Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2)

Reddish brown,highly reactive gas.

Motor vehicles,electric utilities, andother industrial,commercial, andresidential sourcesthat burn fuels

Susceptibility to res-piratory infections,irritation of the lungand respiratorysymptoms (cough,chest pain, difficultybreathing)

Contribute to theformation of smog,acid rain, waterquality deteriora-tion, global warm-ing, and visibilityimpairment

Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOC)

Reactive carbon con-taining compounds

Gasoline, solvents,industrial processes,pesticides and otherchemicals

Eye, nose, and throatirritation; headaches,loss of coordination,allergic skin reaction,fatigue, dizziness,nausea; damage toliver, kidney, and cen-tral nervous system.Cancer

Major contributor,along with NOx, toground level ozone,or smog

Ozone (O3)Gaseous pollutantwhen it is formed inthe troposphere

Vehicle exhaust andcertain other fumes.Formed from otherair pollutants in thepresence of sunlight

Eye and throatirritation, coughing,respiratory tractproblems, asthma,lung damage

Plant and ecosystemdamage

Chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs)

Compoundscontaining carbon,chlorine, fluorine,and hydrogen easilyconverted fromliquid to gas andvice versa

Used as refrigerants,aerosol spraypropellants, solvents,and foam-blowingagents

Generally do notdirectly impairhuman health

Reacts with ozone inupper atmospherewhcich destroys theozone layer.Contributes toglobal warming

Particulate Matter(PM)

Very small particlesof soot, dust, orother matter,including tinydroplets of liquids

Diesel engines,power plants,industries,windblown dust,wood stoves

Eye irritation,asthma, bronchitis,lung damage, cancer,heavy metalpoisoning,cardiovasculareffects

Visibilityimpairment,atmosphericdeposition, aestheticdamage

Most Common Air Pollutants

Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2006)

Overview of Outdoor and Indoor AirPollution

The air surrounds us all, and we all share this giftwith each other. Yet despite this many of ourpersonal and communal practices are not in accordwith the need to respect and protect this sacredgift. The quality of Earth’s air has beendeteriorating by alarming degrees over the pastcentury because of humanity’s use of fire,uncontrolled or inadequately controlled industrialprocesses, and internal combustion engines.Although many people are now aware of theproblems, and the need to do something aboutthem, much is still left to be done.

In addition to outdoor sources such as factories,power plants and vehicles, a person’s health can beseriously affected by exposure to indoor airpollution. Polluting fuels (wood, coal, etc.), poorventilation conditions, and long exposure times areresponsible for conditions of ill-health. To makematters worse, relatively little attention has beenpaid to the significant risks associated with theindoor use of solid fuel for cooking and heating.Simple stoves burning solid fuel (mostly biomassfuel) are used by about half of the world’s people.Poor ventilation and inefficient combustion resultin significant daily exposure ,particularly of womenand young children, to a host of dangerouspollutants.

Outdoor Air Pollution:Assessment

This Chapter’s Assessments

The two assessments in this chapter are intended tohelp you identify ways in which your communitypollutes the air, and will hopefully encourage betterpractices. Specific attention is paid to indoor airpollution because it is such a widespread butoverlooked problem, particularly in rural areas.

Besides these two assessments, it isrecommended that your community also completethe Energy Assessment, Chapter Five, since a largeportion of air pollution is a consequence of energyproduction.

Our Atmosphere: A Gift to be Preserved

The air is a vital environmental resource, a Sacred

Gift to Life, as it is used by all plants and animalsto sustain life. While it is generally availableeverywhere, today it is often in a condition that isnot suitable for human health nor forenvironmental sustainability. These unacceptableconditions tend to especially occur in larger citieswhere industrial activities are concentrated,transportation networks are intense, andpopulation density is high. Wherever we live, it isour job to make sure that we do our part not tocontribute to these problems, and to help correctthem wherever possible. It is the intention of thisassessment to help your community achieve thesegoals.

The Earth’s atmosphere consists of a number ofgases and water vapor which provide anenvironment within which life can flourish.Unfortunately, the atmosphere is being affected byhuman activities in ways that are threatening thelife-sustaining ability of the air. The air is used byall forms of Life in a vital process called respiration,or breathing. People and other animals inhaleoxygen and exhale carbon dioxide; plants are viceversa. Unfortunately, as pollutants deteriorate theair quality, we are now breathing in irritating andharmful gases along with the natural constituentsof our atmosphere; thus, breathing air may now becontributing to disease.

The gases in our atmosphere provide other giftsto life on earth besides the ability to breathe. Somegases, particularly carbon dioxide, have the abilityto trap heat inside the Earth’s atmosphere,allowing the globe to maintain the stabletemperatures necessary for life. However, an excessof these gases cause temperatures to increasearound the world—a process called ‘globalwarming.’ The water vapor in the atmosphere isalso an essential component for life. As part of the‘water cycle’ (the endless cycle through whichwater flows from the earth to the sky and from thesky to earth), water on earth evaporates into theair before returning again as precipitation. Theprocess of evaporation and precipitation helps topurify water so that life on the surface iscontinually provided fresh, clean water.Unfortunately, because human activities havecontaminated the air, pollution is now mixing withthe water vapor before precipitating as acontaminated solution. This effect of pollution iscalled ‘acid rain.’

The upper levels of the atmosphere include alayer of a special type of oxygen, called ‘ozone.’This ozone functions as a protective filter which

16


prevents the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays fromburning the life that exists on the earth’s surface—like us. However, some forms of air pollution aredestroying this protective characteristic of theatmosphere, progressively increasing our exposureto harmful radiation from the sun.

The earth’s atmosphere has also been a sourceof aesthetic pleasure; it has provided us with awindow in which we may glimpse the grandeurthat our Creator has wrought. However, especiallyin densely populated urban areas, the clear blueskies have been replaced by a hazy, murky,malodorous cloud. This phenomenon is also aresult of pollution, and we call it ‘photochemicalsmog,’ or simply smog.

Each of these problems will be discussed morefully below.

Problems in the Air

Many Latin American cities are slowly becominguninhabitable because of air pollution. Santiago,one of the most polluted urban areas in the world,is often forced to declare environmentalemergencies on days of extreme air pollution,resulting in school closures and a severe reductionin outdoor activities. The emissions measured inother South American metropolises can reachdizzying heights. In Mexico City, for example,around 5 million gallons of gasoline and diesel fuelare consumed every day. As a result, 53,000 metrictons of gaseous substances are generated.Unfavorable topographic and meteorologicalconditions in some cities, like Mexico City, furtherexacerbate the impact of pollution: as the Valley ofMexico obstructs the dispersal of pollutants fromits metropolitan area, the hills surroundingSantiago do the same. Thus the air pollutionconcentrates above such cities, seriously increasingboth the visible and palpable effects of thepollutants.

When pollutants are emitted into the air, thearea surrounding the source of emission is the firstto experience effects; the most acute impacts ofurban air pollution generally occur in this vicinityor region. However, since the atmosphere is alwaysin motion, emissions from one area eventuallydisperse and mix with the flowing air. Hence, theimpacts of air pollution extend beyond theimmediate areas and become problems forneighboring locales and, indeed, the rest of theworld.

The rapid and sustained growth of many cities

in Latin America aggravates the problems of airpollution. Without a sustainable policy frameworkto guide development, this growth is occurring at aconsiderable and often increasing cost. Morepeople, more industry and more motor vehicleswill continue to produce ever-worsening airpollution, unless serious changes are made to thepractices and policies of city dwellers.

Below we will discuss four main phenomenathat are caused by air pollution. These problemsare found in geographic regions all around theworld, some have severe implications for the futureof life on this planet, and all are the result ofhuman activity.

Smog or Ground-level OzoneOzone is the same molecule regardless of where itis found, but its significance varies depending on ifit is up high (stratospheric) or closer to the ground(troposheric). Stratospheric ozone is found in theregion between 10 and 50 km high. This is calledthe ‘ozone layer.’

On the other hand, a high accumulation ofozone gas in the lower atmosphere closer to groundlevel is air pollution and can be harmful to people,animals, crops, and other materials. Ground levelozone is a secondary product created by thereaction of different types of pollution. Nitrogenoxides and hydrocarbons (VOCs) are known as thechief ‘precursors’ of ozone. These compounds reactin the presence of sunlight to produce ozone. Thesources of these precursor pollutants include cars,trucks, power plants and factories, or wherevernatural gas, gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, and oilare combusted.

These gaseous compounds mix like a thin soupin the atmosphere, and when they interact withsunlight, ozone is formed. Ground level ozone isgenerally called ‘photochemical smog’ or simply,‘smog.’ Smog is the gas responsible for the hazycloud that often surrounds cities. The generalreaction is:

VOC+NOX+HEAT+Sunlight=Ozone

Ozone pollution, or smog, is mainly a daytimeproblem during summer months because sunlightplays a primary role in its formation.

Global Warming or Greenhouse GasEmissionsLike light hitting a mirror, the sun’s heat bouncesoff the Earth, back towards space; however, like the

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Chapter 2: Air

18


roof of a greenhouse, carbon dioxide and certainother gases (called greenhouse gases) trap some ofthe heat inside the Earth’s atmosphere. Withoutgreenhouse gas, the Earth would be frozen; butwith too much of it, temperatures rise around theglobe. This phenomenon is called ‘global warming.’Global warming is happening at an alarming rateas you read this, largely on account of humanity’scombustion of fossil fuels. The ramifications ofglobal warming are predicted to be severe: highertemperatures mean many areas will becomedeserts; ocean levels will be significantly higher,flooding coastal regions, and reducing the amountof available fresh water; weather patterns will beaffected, potentially causing greater naturaldisasters. Scientists continue to speculate aboutand observe many other significant consequences.Scientists and world governments have beentaking these consequences very seriously, and onaccount, have entered into several internationalagreements like the Kyoto Protocol, which hasbeen signed by over 140 countries. For thesecountries, and for citizens throughout the world,reducing greenhouse gas emissions is nowconsidered a necessity.

Making the situation more critical is the factthat Nature’s own method of ‘scrubbing’ CO2 outof the atmosphere—trees and other plants—issimilarly being assaulted by human activity, in theform of deforestation. Deforestation, or the large-scale cutting down of trees, is a major problemthroughout the world, and especially in LatinAmerica. Lush forest land is destroyed or‘developed’ so that humans can use the wood fromthe trees, or extract resources from under the trees,or utilize the land for grazing cattle or growingcrops, while little or no effort is made even toreplant some of what has been cut down.

Acid RainAcid rain is caused primarily by emissions ofsulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Whenthese chemicals mix with water, they become acidiccompounds. Acidic precipitation kills plants andanimals in bodies of water. It eats away the surfaceof buildings and structures, and damages soils andforests. It can also cause respiratory problems forhumans. As a lake becomes more and more acidic,many of its small life forms die. This removes thefood source for fish which then die as well. As soilbecomes more acidic, vegetation that draws waterfrom the soil can be damaged or die. Acid rainaffects human health when tiny drops of it enter

the lungs. This narrows air passages and irritate thelungs, thereby contributing to pneumonia andbronchitis and the weakening the body’s immunesystem.

Ozone Layer depletionThe ozone layer, i.e. stratospheric ozone located10-50 km in altitude, is extremely important to usbecause it is how the Earth shields us againstharmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, which wouldcause serious harm to living things if not filtered. Itis suspected that a variety of biologicalconsequences, including increases in skin cancer,damage to plants, and reduction of planktonpopulations in the world’s oceans would resultfrom increased UV exposure.

Unfortunately, the ozone layer is beingdestroyed, or depleted by chemicals that humansare releasing into the air. These chemicals includechlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as well as other ozonedepleting substances. Atmospheric levels of thesechemicals have increased dramatically in the last30 years, and consequences have been observed inthe ozone layer.

Worldwide public and governmental concernsabout ozone depletion led to the adoption of theMontreal Protocol in which it was decided thatchlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depletingchemicals, such as methyl chloroform, should havebeen completely phased out by the end of 1999.Some countries had proceeded to ban allproduction of chloroflurocarbons even before thisdate. Many consider this international agreementto have been the most successful agreement everimplemented, as most countries have fullycomplied and atmospheric levels of ozonedepleting substances have leveled off, and in somecases declined.

The health effects of air pollution

Air pollution is causing severe respiratory problemsamong city dwellers, with higher rates ofpneumonia and many premature deaths fromrespiratory diseases. The World HealthOrganization estimates that 100 million people inLatin America have health problems related to airpollution. In the case of particulate matter (PM),recent PAHO studies show that more than100,000 people die each year in the region due toPM exposure. For example, in São Paulo and Riode Janeiro alone, 27 million people are exposed tohigh levels of particulate air pollution, which is

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Chapter 2: Air

estimated to cause at least 4000 annual cases ofpremature mortality.

As with most social problems, urban airpollution generally has a higher impact on theurban poor than on the population in general. Thehealth of the poor is often below average to beginwith, and thus their resistance to disease isreduced, and the chances that they will sufferhealth effects from air pollution are increased.

Secondly, the housing of the poor is usually lowin quality, poorly ventilated, heated by very basicsystems using fuels and techniques which producehigh levels of indoor pollution; the same is true ofcooking facilities In some poor urban areas, indoorair pollution is the most serious health threat.

Lastly, the urban poor often live in the lessattractive areas which are often near air pollutionsources in heavily exposed down-wind areas; thistypically exposes them to highly localizedconcentrations of air pollution which are muchmore severe than the average levels measuredelsewhere in the city.

What’s causing the problems?

The vast increase in industrial facilities andactivities, large-scale agricultural operations, andpersonal transportation vehicles over the past 30years has been accompanied by a steady increase inairborne emissions. The increase of large-scaleagricultural operations has also meant a vastdecrease in the amount of forest cover. Since treesand other vegetation do a great deal to purify theair, the relationship between deforestation andagriculture is a particularly injurious one.

Industrial processes and Energy ProductionThe trends emerging from recent inventoriessuggest that more than 50% of emissions comefrom industrial production, most especially energygeneration. Industrial pollutants originate mostlyfrom fuel being combusted to generate electricity.In oil producing countries, emissions from therefining process are also significant— for example,in Mexico City, almost 60% of SO2 emissionsoriginate from industry, including oil refineries inthe metropolitan area. In many countries, miningactivities also result in local deterioration of airquality.

Use of Personal VehiclesDepending upon the city and the particular type ofpollutant in question, anywhere from fifty to

eighty percent of urban air pollution in the LACregion can be attributed to vehicle use. Vehicles aregenerally powered by either a gasoline or dieselengine, both of which spew a great deal of dirtyemissions into the air, including CO, VOCs, NOX,and CO2. In some areas of LAC, engines releasesignificant amounts of lead into the air (note,however, that leaded fuel is now illegal to use inmost areas). Furthermore, the sprawling nature ofcontemporary urban development compounds theproblem because residents must increasingly relyon personal vehicles for their needs. Publictransportation, which can be an environmentallysound solution to the problem, is rarelysuccessfully developed or implemented. Vehicleemissions regulations and on-board equipmentexist that can also do a great deal to curbemissions, but their implementation is problematicand tardy for a variety of reasons. Nevertheless, itis ultimately the vehicle operators who areresponsible for reducing and eliminating vehicularair pollution—and they can do a great deal simplyby properly maintaining their vehicle, andfollowing pollution-conscious driving practices.

Deforestation and agricultureNatural forests cover 47% of the land area of LatinAmerica, and the Amazon basin accounts for one-third of the world’s tropical forest area. Theseforests are an important source of products,fuelwood and employment for local people, amajor source of foreign exchange for governments,serve important functions in protecting watershedsand freshwater resources, act as a storehouse forcarbon and support a significant portion of theworld’s biodiversity.

Unfortunately, Latin America is losing around58 million hectares of natural forest per year, eventhough the rate of deforestation in, for instance,the Amazon has slowed considerably since themid-1990s. Most deforestation in Latin America isdue to expansion of the agricultural sector,considerably less is due to logging, and only about4 per cent is due to the construction ofinfrastructure. In addition, demographic pressure,unemployment and inequitable land distributionare important drivers for the further degradation offorests. At the same time, there is a gross imbalancebetween destruction and reforestation, with only 1hectare planted for every 25 hectares destroyed.The combination of these trends leads to theprospect of increased soil degradation, morefrequent flooding and the degradation of

freshwater resources. This conversion of primarytropical forests to agriculture and to secondaryvegetation is a significant change on a global scale.

What’s being done?

Fortunately, urban populations are becomingbetter informed about the nature of the airpollution, and are increasingly unwilling to let itworsen. In many cities, both popular and officialattitudes have changed and there is a growingpolitical commitment to the need for change.

In LAC, there are at least three regional urbanair quality programs that represent internationalpartnerships. The first is the Clean Air Initiative inLatin American Cities, supported by a partnershipthat includes donor agencies, private companiesand foundations, NGOs and a technical secretariatat the World Bank. One of the main goals of thisinitiative is to promote the integrated developmentor enhancement of action plans to improve airquality in metropolitan centres. Six cities arecurrently participating: Buenos Aires, Lima-Callao,Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, and SaoPaulo.

The second regional initiative is the ProgramAire Puro in Central America, supported bySwitzerland. The main goal of this program is toimprove urban air quality through the training ofprofessionals in the automobile industry sector,establishment of inspection and maintenanceprograms for automobiles, and public awareness.

Third, PAHO’s Regional Plan on Urban AirQuality and Health proposes activities to beundertaken by countries to improve indoor andoutdoor air quality. It covers areas such as policy,standards and regulation; environment and healthsurveillance; and education, training and publicawareness.

Besides these international partnerships, eachcountry and region generally has some intiatives,policies, or dedicated organizations that areintended to curb society’s airborne emissions.

For example, the Brazilian program of addingalcohol to gasoline has reduced their carbondioxide emissions by some 30 per cent, and hassignificantly decreased other pollutants as well.Despite this, Brazilians do not believe their effortshave been sufficient, and São Paulo now restrictsprivate car circulation, as do Mexico City andSantiago.

What can we do?

When environmental scientists talk about airpollution, they talk in terms of millions of tons ofpollutants. It is not easy to relate such figures tothe smoke that comes out of your chimney or theexhaust coming out of your car. However, ourindividual contributions to air pollution, whenadded to hundreds or thousands of other smallsources, do great harm to the environment and aredangerous to health. This means that we are allresponsible for the pollution that occurs.Conversely, however, every habit that we changeand teach to someone else is a direct benefit to theenvironment.

If we all do our share to reduce air pollution, thebenefits will be tremendous—see the exampleopposite.

The following inventory is meant to evaluateyour community’s contribution to atmospheric(i.e. outdoor) airborne emissions, as well as toindicate several alternatives for more sustainablepractice.

Outdoor Air Pollution: Inventory

1. Vehicles

Does your community own and operate any vehicles? Yes / No

If Yes then complete the following questions foreach vehicle—if more than one vehicle, use extrapaper:

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How to reduce air pollution

• If 190,000 car owners started to getregular tune-ups, they will keep some 40million kilograms of carbon dioxide out of theatmosphere.• If consumers set their air conditioners sixdegrees higher, it will save 190,000 barrels ofoil a day—and eliminate all those pollutantsthat come from burning the oil to produce theelectricity involved.

(Source: US EPA)

Year of manufacture of vehicle:

Make and Model of vehicle:

Record the distance driven by the vehicle, and theamount of fuel used over the course of a week:

Kilometers driven (km):Liters of fuel used (L):

Now calculate the fuel efficiency by dividing the distancedriven by the amount of fuel used: (for example 100 km/10 L = 10 km/L)

Fuel efficiency (km/L):

What type of fuel is used to power the vehicle?c Gasolinec Diesel Fuelc Ethanol or methanol (alcohol)c Bio-Dieselc Natural gas or Propanec Electricity Other (name):

What pollution control, or emission control devices arepresent on the vehicle? (if unsure, you may need to aska mechanic)

c Catalytic converterc Positive crankcase ventilation valvec Exhaust gas return valvec Electronic fuel injectionc Evaporative collection and purgec Fuel tank cap Other (name):

Observe the vehicle with the engine running and notethe characteristics of the exhaust smoke:

Amount:c Visible plumesc Light wispsc Not visibleColor:c Bluec Whitec Black/grey

Who operates the vehicle?

Does the operator check the following fluid levels eachtime the vehicle is refuelled?

c Motor oilc Transmission fluidc Engine coolant

Is there a person in your community responsible for themaintenance of the vehicle(s)?

Yes / NoName of person responsible:

Contact the mechanic that maintains and servicesthe vehicle (may or may not be the person listedabove):Is the vehicle regularly maintained according to themanufacturer’s suggested schedule?

Yes / No(if maintenance schedule is unknown, you may contact the

manufacture to request the information)

Has the mechanic been trained to service vehicles thathave emissions control devices?

Yes / No

Are the maintenance expenses of the vehicle(s)incorporated into the regular budget?

Yes / No

2. Community Transportation Practices

What is the cumulative distance that your communitymembers drove through the course of one month?

(This can be determined by listing all community vehicles,reading their odometers, waiting a month, reading their

odometers again, subtracting the two readings, and adding allthe distances together)

Does your community make an intentional effort (e.g.by use of policy or established protocol) to minimize theamount of distance driven?

Yes / No

In which of the following practices does your communityparticipate?

c Car-pooling / ride sharingc Trip planningc Public Transitc Bicycling or WalkingOther (name):Other (name):

Are the members of your community educated aboutdriving habits that reduce fuel efficiency?

Yes / No

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Chapter 2: Air

3. Public Transportation

Is/are there any form(s) of public transportationavailable for use in your larger community?

Yes / NoIf so, which modes are available?:

For each of public transportation modes available,determine the party that is responsible for themanagement of the service.

Name of Service:

Name of contact person:

Contact information:

What percentage of the population uses the transitservice?

What problems is the service facing? Or, what restrictsthe expansion of these services?

If applicable, does the service enforce—or must theservice comply with—emissions regulations for their fleetof transportation vehicles?

Yes / NoIf so, describe:

What avenue(s) do(es) the public have to influence themanagement decisions affecting the service?

4. Other Internal Combustion Engines

Does your community own and operate any otherinternal combustion engines? (consider generators,tractors, power equipment, motorized bicycle/ cart, etc)

Yes / No

If Yes then complete the following questions foreach vehicle (if there are more than one engine,additional paper will be required):

Item (type of equipment):

What type of fuel powers the engine (tick all thatapply):

c Gasolinec Diesel fuelc Ethanol or methanol (alcohol)c Bio-dieselc Natural gas or Propanec Electricity Other (name):

Who is responsible for the maintenance of this engine?

(name of person)

Is the engine maintained according to the scheduleprovided by the manufacturer? (if maintenance scheduleis unknown, you may contact the manufacture to requestthe information)

Yes / No

According to the operators of the equipment, as well asthe community consensus, how important or essential isthis equipment?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(Luxury item, unnecessary……Critical for community life)

Do the operators of the equipment make an effort to runthe engine only when necessary, and turn it off when notin use?

Yes / No / Sometimes

Are the maintenance expenses of the engine(s)incorporated into the regular budget?

Yes / No

5. Other Combustion

Besides a cooking fire or other indoor uses, does yourcommunity burn fuel or rubbish for any other purpose?

Yes / No

According to the community’s consensus, how importantor essential is this practice?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(Useless/unneccessary…Critical for community life)

(Refer to the next section, ‘Indoor Air QualityAssessment’ to evaluate indoor uses ofcombustion)

Is there a community policy that prohibits the burning

22


of the following materials?c Plasticsc Motor oilc Rubberc Other petrochemicalsc Painted itemsc Electrical equipment

6 Ozone depleting substances

Does your community use any aerosol products (i.e.products that have a propellant that sprays the productthrough a nozzle, and contained within a metal can)?

Yes / NoIf so, does the product contain a chlorofluorocarbon(CFC) propellant?

Yes / No

Does your community use any refrigerators or airconditioners?

Yes / NoIf so, does your community have a trained technicianservice this equipment, in the interests of preventingthe release of refrigerant into the atmosphere?

Yes / No

7. Herbicides and Pesticides

Does your community, or a nearby agriculturaloperation (farm, plantation, etc.) regularly spraypesticides or herbicides on fields?

Yes / NoIf so, do members of your community experience anyof the following symptoms around the time ofpesticide application?

c Irritated eyesc Headachesc Fatiguec Difficulty breathingc Incidence of asthmac Disorientation

8. Community Tree Preservation

How would you rate the tree cover of the landscape ofyour geographical vicinity?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(Densely urbanized…Some tree cover…Wooded areas…Dense

forest)

Does your community have a policy that is intended topreserve any trees that are on community grounds?

Yes / No / Not applicable

Does your community intentionally plant trees, ororganize tree-plantings in your larger community?


Is your community active in the struggle to stop thedeforestation that is occurring throughout forestedregions in Latin America?

Yes / NoIf Yes describe how:

9A. Expert Environmental Information Source

It will be helpful to contact an environmentaladvocacy organization or agency that can providereliable, expert data about the atmosphericpollution occurring in your area.

Name of Organization:



According to these experts, what are the main sources ofatmospheric pollution in your area?

According to these experts, what policies (i.e. laws orlegislation) exist regarding airborne emissions that areapplicable to your locale?

According to the organization, what are the mostimportant actions people can take to reduce thepollution?

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Chapter 2: Air

9B. Expert Public Health Information Source

It will also be helpful to contact a public healthadvocacy organization or agency that can providereliable, expert data about the incidence of diseaseamongst the population.

Name of Organization:



According to these experts, what is the incidence ofpulminary and/or heart disease attributable toatmospheric pollution in your municipality?

According to the organization, what can people do toprotect themselves from the harmful effects of airpollution?

Outdoor Air Pollution:Evaluation

At the end of each discussion section, there will bestatements and a list of numbers from which to choose.Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessmentof how well your community represents the statementgiven. (1= disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9= agree completely, no change needed)

1. Community Vehicles

Vehicular air pollution is one of the largestenvironmental problems in Latin America,especially in urban and peri-urban areas, and it islargely due to the practices of individual citizens.All vehicles emit some amount of pollution, andmost vehicles operated in Latin American emit asignificant amount. Thus it is that Latin Americanvehicle operaters and users can do a great deal toprevent atmospheric pollution.

If we are to preserve the Earth’s air forourselves, the Earth’s other creatures, and futuregenerations, we must prevent as much vehicular airpollution as we can. There are three primary waysto reduce vehicular air pollution: (1) Minimizedistances driven, (2) Maximize fuel efficiency, (i.e.drive more distance per unit of fuel), and (3)Reduce emissions: Emit fewer pollutants per unitof fuel or unit of distance.

1. Minimizing distances driven: The best way to reduceemissions is to eliminate them by not generatingthem in the first place. Refer to point 2 on page 28for a more in-depth look at reducing use ofcommunity vehicles.

2. Increasing Fuel Efficiency: Fuel efficiency can be easilycalculated by determining how many kilometerswere driven in between fuelings, and then dividingthis number by the volume of fuel consumed.Greater fuel efficiency means that the amount ofpollution emitted during a vehicle’s trip is reducedsimply because less fuel is used. Several factorsinfluence a vehicle’s fuel efficiency, includingproper maintenance, engine wear, driving style,vehicle condition, engine calibration, as well asenvironmental considerations such as road surfacecondition and the relative flatness of terrain.Basically, the harder an engine has to work, the lessfuel efficient it becomes. It is a good idea to keeprecords of the vehicle’s fuel consumption, and toreview them regularly so the person responsible forthe vehicle’s maintenance can be made aware ofsudden changes in fuel efficiency. If there is asudden change, take corrective action. The vehiclemay have a leak or be in need of service.

3. Reducing Vehicular Emissions: Vehicular emissions canbe reduced in many ways. The main factors thatinfluence a vehicle’s emissions are: (a) Type of fuel,(b) Emissions control devices, and (c) Preventativemaintenance.

(a) Fuel Type: The type of fuel used to power theengine is probably the most important factor toconsider. Emissions are greatest for the combustionof gasoline, a bit reduced for diesel fuel, and moreso for bio-diesel; they are considerably reduced foralcohol, and minimal for vehicles powered bynatural gas or propane. Electric vehicles do notemit air pollutants directly; however, theproduction of the electricity used to charge thevehicle does (See Chapter 5, Electric EnergyAssessment).

24


Often different fuels are blended to reduceemissions without requiring equipmentmodification. The box on the next page describessome of the most common alternative fuels used toreduce emissions.

A note about leaded gasoline: It is now internationallyillegal to manufacture or sell new vehicles requiringleaded gasoline. Similarly, the sale of gasolinecontaining lead or lead additives is also illegal. Thisregulation has dramatically reduced the amount oflead that enters the atmosphere. Lead was onceone of the most prevalent pollutants, and also oneof the most hazardous.

(b) Emissions control devices: In many countries,vehicles are required by law to be equipped withproperly functioning emission control devices.Although similar legislation exists in some LatinAmerican countries, in the few places where it doesexist, the regulations are often not enforced.Nevertheless, with or without legislation, vehicleowners have the option to only purchase vehiclesthat are equipped with emission control devices.

The main emission control device is a catalyticconverter. This device looks similar to a muffler,but is positioned nearer to the engine than amuffler. The catalytic converter does the most toremove a range of pollutants like carbon monoxide(CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), andsometimes nitrogen oxides. However, the life of acatalytic converter is not infinite, and it can beeasily damaged by an engine that is not runningproperly. Furthermore, since the catalytic converteronly functions properly when the engine’s air/fuelmixture ratio is adjusted appropriately, this factnecessitates electronic engine controls and sensors.

Other emissions control components include anexhaust-gas return valve, which functions to reducethe amount of nitrogen oxides that the engineproduces; a positive crankcase ventilation valvewhich prevents internal engine gases from beingreleased; a fuel tank cap and evaporative vaporreturn valve, which both work to prevent VOCsfrom being released by the fuel; as well as a varietyof sensors and actuators which function tocontinuously control the efficiency of the engine’soperation.

Most modern cars are equipped with someemission control devices. However, not every newvehicle available in Latin America is guaranteed tobe equipped with such components. Look forvehicles that are OBD-II compliant, as thisindicates that the vehicle has a full range of suchdevices.

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Chapter 2: Air

Alternative Fuels

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a diesel fuel that is produced fromorganic materials. It can be processed from anynumber of suitable plant oils. Biodiesel offersthe advantages of not releasing sulpher oxides,and does not release prehistoric carbon into theatmosphere in the form of greenhouse gases(CO2). Bio-diesel is often sold as a blend withregular diesel fuel.

Alcohol

Ethanol is widely available and produceablethroughout Latin America, and much is alreadyproduced from sugar cane, particularly in Brazil.Each ton of sugar cane has the energy potentialof 1.2 barrels of oil. Between 2003 and 2004,Brazil produced 1.4 billion liters of alcohol. Ofthe 17 million light vehicles circulating in Brazil,some 3 million use bio-fuels or some othermixture.

Methanol is another liquid alternative fuel.However, methanol is corrosive, and thus it isexpensive to convert existing vehicles to use thisfuel. Today, it is sold as a blend of 85% methanoland 15% gasoline, commonly called M85.

The easiest way to integrate the use of alcohol isby using a low-level blend of ethanol andgasoline commonly referred to as ‘gasohol.’Most conventional automobiles and trucks canuse gasoline blended with up to 10% ethanol,without any modification to their fuel systemsor engines, while still being covered by themanufacturer’s warranty.

Propane and Natural Gas

Propane is currently the most widely available ofthe alternative fuels. Most vehicles produced inNorth America can be converted to propaneoperation. Propane is stored under pressure incylinders that are located under the vehicle or inthe trunk or rear compartment. It is alsopossible to leave the original gasoline system inplace as a backup.

Natural gas (methane) is generally considered tobe the cleanest of all the commercially availablefuels and produces low tailpipe emissions. Mostof the vehicles produced in North America canalso be converted to operate on natural gas. Aswith propane, the gas is stored in high-pressurecylinders that are located under the vehicle, orin the trunk or rear compartment. Because thefuel has a low energy content, you need to refuelthe vehicle more frequently. For convenience,most conversions leave the original gasolinesystem in place in case you need to refuel in alocation where natural gas is unavailable.

Finally, be aware that pollution will increasedramatically if a vehicle’s emission control systemis tampered with or leaded gasoline is used in avehicle designed for unleaded gasoline. In manycountries these activities are illegal—for individualvehicle owners as well as for fleet operators andauto technicians. Any tampering with emissioncontrol components may not only drasticallyincrease emissions but is likely to have a negativeeffect on vehicle performance and durability.

(c) Preventative maintenance: A vehicle’s emissionscan be reduced, and its performance enhanced ifthe manufacturer’s recommended maintenanceguidelines are followed. The owner’s manualspecific to a particular vehicle contains a wealth ofinformation. It outlines recommendedmaintenance intervals, product specifications, andoperating procedures. The manual also explainsthe manufacturer’s warranty of the emissioncontrol system, if so equipped. Contact the

manufacturer or a nearby dealer to obtain a copyof the owner’s manual if your community does nothave one.

By taking proper care of a vehicle, its life isextended, its resale value increased, and its fuelefficiency optimized. Records should be kept of thepreventive maintenance carried out to ensure thatthe manufacturer’s recommendations are followed.

Like all material creations, combustion-poweredvehicles naturally tend to deteriorate with age andusage, and as a result, emission levels can risesignificantly as the engine ages. Good maintenanceis required to keep emission levels at or near designlevels. A preventative maintenance programspecifically targeted toward emissions control canespecially identify problem vehicles and assuretheir repair. If a modern car has high emissions, itis usually due to a defined malfunction that needsto be fixed.

Every vehicle has some items that need to be

26


Source: Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, 2002

Common Causes of Vehicle Smoke(Note: it is normal for smoke to appear during only the first few seconds after engine startup)

Gasoline engines

Color of smoke Diagnosis Probable causes

WhiteCoolant or water leaking intocombustion chamber

• Bad head gasket• Cracked block or cylinder head

Blue Engine oil being burned

• Oil leaking into combustion chamber• Worn piston rings, valves or cylinders• Bad exhaust manifold• Bad head gasket

Black/Gray Incomplete fuel combustion

• Clogged air filter• Carburetor, choke, fuel injection, or emission systemmalfunction• Ignition timing off• Low compression due to engine wear

Diesel engines

White Improper air/fuel mixture

• Faulty fuel injection system• Incorrect fuel injection and valve timing• Engine overheating• Faulty fuel pump and/or injection pump

Blue Engine oil being burned• Excess engine oil• Worn piston rings, valves or cylinders

Black/Gray Incomplete fuel combustion

• Damaged air filter• Faulty fuel injection system• Clogged air filter• Wrong grade of fuel• Incorrect fuel injection pump timing• Engine overheating• Low compression ratio

checked on a regular basis and others that need tobe replaced periodically. These include the air filter,vacuum and coolant hoses, oil, oil filter, fluids,belts, and so on. It’s also important to keep thetires inflated to the recommended pressure. Thiswill minimize tire wear and help your vehicle getthe best possible fuel economy. Check the tirepressure at least once a month and maintain themaximum tire pressure specified by the vehiclemanufacturer. This will decrease fuel consumptionand emissions.

The most important maintenance requirementis regular oil changes. Oil is the vehicle engine’s‘life blood.’ It reduces wear caused by frictionbetween the moving parts of the engine andremoves acids, sludge and other harmfulsubstances. Oil helps to cool the engine, provides aseal between the cylinder walls and the pistons,and prevents the engine from rusting. Eventually,oil becomes contaminated and its performanceadditives deteriorate, so it is important that the oilbe changed regularly. Neglecting to replace worn-out oil can result in severe damage to the engineThe oil filter should be changed with every oilchange. (Refer to the Hazardous Products andWaste section of the Waste Handling chapter, page138, for a discussion regarding the proper disposalof used motor oil, as well as other fluids andmaterials used on your vehicle.)

In addition to having the vehicle servicedaccording to the maintenance schedule a quickwalk-around inspection to check for fluid leaks,low tire pressure, and exhaust smokecharacteristics should be performed every timesomeone uses the vehicle. Routinely inspect thespot where the vehicle is parked for evidence offluid leaks. Leaking fluids are not only a sure signthat the vehicle needs repair, but the fluids are alsoharmful to the environment. Below are commonfluids that can leak from a vehicle:

colour of drippings fluidBlack or dark brown: motor oil or greaseYellow or green: coolant or antifreezePink or red: transmission fluidClear: brake fluid, power steering fluid or gasoline

The table on the previous page describes someof the most common causes for vehicle smoke—avehicle’s exhaust should normally be very light,almost invisible.

Compulsory emissions inspections are requiredby law in some countries and are beginning to be

required in Latin American cities as well.Nevertheless, with the proper instruction andcomprehension of engine controls, any individualcan perform their own inspection. But, it remainsimportant that a vehicle be serviced by a skilledtechnician who understands modern emissioncontrol systems. See the resources provided at theend of this chapter for more information regardingvehicle emissions inspection education programs.

Regular vehicle maintenance and inspections are animportant priority in our community

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community includes emissions reduction as acriterion for fuel choice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community includes emissions reduction as acriterion for vehicle purchases

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Community Transportation Practices

Reducing cumulative distance drivenThe most important way that your community canreduce their atmospheric pollution is to simplydrive less—this means reducing the cumulativeamount of distance that your community membersdrive. The world now realizes that vehicles aredriven too much. Since most vehicles are compactto mid-sized sedans, they generally hold only 2-5passengers, and are often operated for the purposesof only a single individual. This pattern of vehicleuse is extremely inefficient. Thus, the most basicway to reduce your community’s cumulativevehicle use is to reduce the need for individualtrips.

While reducing cumulative distance mayrequire a higher degree of coordination andplanning than is presently practiced in yourcommunity, the benefits are numerous. Less wear-and-tear on community vehicles means lessmaintenance, less fuel expenses, more cooperationamongst community members, and less pollution.Probably the easiest ways to reduce distance are:advanced planning of trips, sharing rides, andusing other means of travel besides the smallpollution generators known as cars. Each arediscussed below.

Trip planning: By planning errands such thatseveral tasks are undertaken during a single trip,your community can get the most out of the time

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Chapter 2: Air

any one members spends behind the wheel.Several tasks can be accomplished when you gosomewhere by simply driving to a central locationand parking, and then walking, biking, or usingpublic transit between destinations.

Ridesharing: Ridesharing can also be an ideal wayto reduce your community’s contribution topollution. Every time a ride is ‘shared’ (i.e. two ormore people with their own itineraries use thesame vehicle), at least one individual trip iseliminated.

Other modes of travel: Briefly, the main alternatemodes of transportation to small vehicles are:public transport, pedestrian travel, and bicycling.Because public transport greatly reduces thenumber of individual trips needed by many people,the use of public transportation is a great way toreduce cumulative mileage. See question #3 for amore in-depth look at public transportation.Biking or walking to a destination creates nopollution at all. These activities have the benefit ofalso increasing a person’s physical fitness level.

Unfortunately, as roads expand in cities,walking options are often reduced substantially.Limited investment in sidewalks combined withspace constraints mean that sidewalks along streetsare often either non-existent or very narrow,forcing individuals to walk in the streets, wherethey must compete for space with motorizedvehicles. In addition, as motorized vehicle trafficgrows, it becomes increasingly difficult forindividuals to cross by foot without somesupporting infrastructure such as stoplights. Theseproblems are only exacerbated if decisions aremade to widen the streets to accommodate morevehicle traffic.

Bicycles also face growing impediments. They,too, must compete for space with motorizedvehicles, and are often outlawed altogether onmajor streets. Moreover, even if they can be used toreach a public transportation stop, there is no safemeans of storing the bicycles, either by lockingthem up or by taking them onto the publictransportation vehicles. In addition, bicycles areoften treated as a luxury item and are assessedsubstantial tariffs, if imported.

Driving efficientlyEven a perfectly maintained car will pollute morethan necessary if it is driven carelessly. Your car’semissions will be lower if you apply common senseto your driving and follow some basic rules likethese below:

Avoid unnecessary idling: Do not allow a vehicle’sengine to run when it is not being driven. Ifpractical, this may extend to any situation in whichyou are going to wait for more than 30 seconds. Toaccomplish this, several car manufacturers nowproduce ‘hybrid-electric’ vehicles that incorporatean automatic shut-off into their design. ‘Hybrid’vehicles also reduce emissions by supplementingthe combustion engine with an electric motorwhich is charged by the vehicle’s own brakingenergy.

Plan your route to reduce ‘stop-and-go’ driving: Drivingin traffic is not always avoidable. But wheneverpossible, plan trips outside rush hour and peaktraffic periods. Try to ‘smooth’ your driving byaccelerating and decelerating gradually,anticipating stops and starts for traffic lights,changing traffic speeds, and so on. A vehicle that iscrawling along releases about three times moresmog-producing VOCs than one cruising at themost fuel-efficient speed. Also, avoid rough roadswhere possible: smooth road surfaces can reducefuel consumption by 10 to 30%.

Reduce the use of air conditioning: Use of a vehicle airconditioner increases load on the engine. This canincrease emissions and decrease fuel economy. Tryopening the window or the fresh air vent to coolthe inside of your vehicle. Also, park in the shadeif you can to prevent the car from heating up in thesun. Besides keeping the interior temperature ofyour car more comfortable, you will lessen thepollution and waste that occurs when gasolineevaporates from the engine and gas tank.

Reduce vehicle weight: Your car burns more gas andemits more pollution when the engine is operatingunder high load; that is, when it is workingespecially hard. Extra load is created by carryingextra weight. Thus, remove excess weight fromvehicle and keep the vehicle free of unnecessaryobjects which would add weight.

Drive vehicle as smoothly as possible: Maintainmoderate speeds and accelerate smoothly—i.e.avoid speeding and abrupt starts and stops. Theoptimum fuel economy for most vehicles isachieved at a steady speed of between 80 and100km per hour. Tests show that most cars useabout 10% less fuel when driving at 90 instead of100km/hr. Avoiding speed changes saves fuel.Accelerate and decelerate gradually. (This will alsoreduce engine wear.) Anticipating trafficmovement will help you avoid frequent brakeapplications. Stepping on the accelerator tooheavily can use up to four times as much fuel as

28


moderate acceleration. Refer to the owner’smanual to determine optimum gear shift points formanual transmissions. When going up hills, let thevehicle’s speed drop off gradually or shift to alower gear when necessary. When driving downhill, ease up on the accelerator and let gravity movethe vehicle.

Members of our community strive to minimize theamount of distance driven

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Members of our community make every effort to driveefficiently

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Public Transportation

Good public transportation systems used by a largefraction of urban citizens are critical in terms ofminimizing costs, air pollution, oil dependence andtraffic congestion. Yet, presently these systems areinadequate in most cities; they tend to be poorlymaintained, highly polluting, often uncomfortable,and limited in accessibility.

There are many varied forms of publictransportation, including buses, rapid transit buslines, trains, subways, mono-rails, trolleys, taxiservices, as well converted pick-up trucks.

The larger-scale public transit systems are found

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Chapter 2: Air

Transformation of Bogotá

In just a few years, innovative planningtransformed Bogotá, Colombia into the world’sleading model for sustainable urban design. Theonce polluted and congested city, where manypeople were unable to reach vital destinations,now has one of the world’s most efficient andaccessible transportation networks.

Latin America’s largest network of bicycle routes,150 miles long (250 km)

A world-class Bus Rapid Transit system ofdedicated bus lanes called TransMilenio

The world’s longest pedestrian-only street,spanning 10.2 miles (17 km); and hundreds ofmiles of sidewalks, many through the city’spoorest neighborhoods

Car-Free Sunday, when many streets are closed tomotorized traffic to make space for thousands ofcyclists and pedestrians

(Source: Institute for Transportation and DevlopmentPolicy, 2003)

The Case of Mexico City

Using Transport Policy to Combat Air Pollution

Mexico City may well have the most polluted airof any city in the world. The city is nestled in avalley 2,300 meters high, surrounded bymountains and subject to frequent inversions.The thick layer of ozone and other air pollutantsthat blanket the city, 83% of which are producedby the area’s 2.5 million vehicles, has reachedsuch levels that the quality of life has beenseverely affected. To reverse the steadilydeteriorating situation, in 1990 the governmentlaunched a comprehensive program centering onimproved transportation. This involves reducingthe number of private cars, cleaning the gasolineproduced in the country’s refineries, andreplacing the engines on 3,500 old diesel publicbuses. In addition, the 1995-2000 Program toImprove Air Quality in Mexico City (Proaire)introduced new activities in the field ofmonitoring, education and public participation.Other initiatives included the establishment ofthe Valley of Mexico Environmental Trust Fund,which is maintained with tax revenue from petroland finances air quality improvement activities,the Automatic Environmental MonitoringNetwork, Environmental Emergency Programs, ‘ADay Without a Car’ Program, a reforestationprogramme and environmental education in themetropolitan area of Mexico City. Some of thekey actions being introduced to reduce urban airpollution include:

• Requiring drivers to leave their cars home oneworking day per week• Setting emission standards in biddingdocuments for new bus engines the same as thosein effect in California• Raising subway fares to cover the costs of thenew bus engines as well as subway improvements• Rationalizing the routes of the 60,000 privatemini-vans that carry riders from low-densitysuburbs to the city center• Raising the price of gasoline by 12.5% andusing ensuing revenues to fund theenvironmental program• Requiring that, by the end of 1990, all newvehicles sold must be equipped with catalyticconverters• Regulating that all vehicles be inspected twice ayear to check auto emissions, with a monitoringprogram to detect and penalize cheaters.In addition, the program involves tree planting,creation of new parks, substituting less-pollutingfuels in power plants and other industries, andimproving industrial efficiency.

(Source: Leitmann, 1991)

particularly in large metropolitan areas, whilesmaller systems exist in other areas. On any scale,there are problems that such service systems face.In some cases the problems overwhelm the service,and it becomes lost to the public. In other cases,the cost of the service prohibits the general public,from using it. In addition, a lack or deficiency oflogistical control can severely affect the reliabilityand usefulness of the service. Thus, to be effectiveand beneficial, a public transit system should bewell planned, accessible, and equitable.

In LAC, as in other parts of the world, thetraditional pattern for developing urbantransportation systems has been first to invest inroad infrastructure. Public transportation systemsand their associated infrastructure, whether road-based or not, are rarely planned for or invested induring this initial period. Such an investmentstrategy, similar to what has occurred in most ofthe cities in North America, breeds the creation ofa personal automobile-based transportationsystem. As cities grow, the existing infrastructurefosters transportation demands being met bypersonal automobiles, further fueling demand forexpanding the road-based system, which, in turn,stimulates the development of urban sprawl. As aresult, when attention turns to designing publictransportation systems and their associatedinfrastructure, the sprawling nature of a city’sdevelopment limits the applicability of publictransportation. Either only a small portion of acity’s residents are able to make use of the publictransportation system, or the cost of developing atransportation system sufficiently extensive toserve a large fraction of the city’s population isprohibitively expensive. The consequence,inevitably, is to fortify and expand the personal car-based system instead. Because there are powerfulinterests (e.g. car manufactures, oil companies,etc.) that actively, if covertly, oppose publictransportation initiatives, sometimes politicalaction is necessary to oppose these forces. In thesecases, as well as in areas where there is no publictransit available, but there is a need, politicalaction is often required to motivate the municipalleaders to commit to a project, or to keep themcommitted to the sustainability of an existingservice. Your community should be aware of theseand other issues surrounding the sustainability ofpublic transportation in your area, and becomeactively engaged in ways your community feelsappropriate.

For the areas in which public transportation

services do exist, the movement should be towardreducing the emissions from this service. Considerthat a fleet of diesel-fueled buses driving incongested urban traffic use more fuel and emitconsiderably more pollutants than, e.g. the samebuses driving in their own unobstructed lanes, orthe same buses using a cleaner fuel.

Our community utilizes public transportation wheneverit is a feasible alternative to driving

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community publicly supports the development ofand sustenance of public transportation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Other Combustion Engines

The evaluation information for this question canbe reasonably adapted from the informationprovided in question number 1, as the operativeprinciples are the same.

Our community strives to minimize emissions from theengines we use besides those belonging to vehicles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Burning

In some areas, particularly those that lack acomprehensive system of waste collection, openburning of waste by residents can be a majorcontributor to air pollution. Open burning of wastecan produce mixed and very toxic fumes. Burnbarrels often emit acid vapors, carcinogenic tars,and ‘heavy metals’ such as lead, cadmium andchromium, as well as dangerous levels of carbonmonoxide. The closer you stand to the burn barrel,the more of these harmful chemicals you inhale.

Residual ash is another result of incompletecombustion. Frequently, a significant portion ofmaterial in the barrel—especially at the bottom—is not burned up. Ash disposal outside of a sanitarylandfill can cause problems sooner (for thoseimmediately exposed) or later (for example, ifwater contacting the ash becomes contaminatedand gets into groundwater and/or surface water).

See the Waste Handling Assessment, Chapter 4to take a closer look at your community’s wastedisposal practices.

Materials that absolutely should not be burnedin a burn barrel are tires, plastics, electricalequipment, and rubber. These also should not be

30


burned in a furnace, wood stove or similar homeheating system. Painted surfaces as well as variouspetrochemicals also release a great deal ofpollutants into the air, so they also should not beburnt.

Even the smoke generated by a large number ofsimultaneous leaf fires can cause significant healthproblems. Leaf smoke can irritate the eyes, noseand throat of healthy adults. But it can be muchmore harmful to small children, the elderly, andpeople with asthma or other lung or heart diseases.

Our community strives to eliminate the use of fire as awaste disposal option

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6. Ozone Depleting Substances

A single chlorine atom, released by the action ofUV radiation on chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, iscapable of destroying tens of thousands of ozonemolecules during its residence in the stratosphere.CFCs are found mainly in either (1) aerosol cansthat were manufactured more than a decade ago,(2) industrial processes, or (3) refrigerants used inair conditioners and appliances.

Prior to 1976, the most common propellantsused for aerosol spray cans were CFC’s, but theiruse has been subsequently banned by manygovernments. Therefore, many aerosol cans stillhave on their label, ‘Does Not Contain CFC’s’.CFC propellants were replaced by propane andother gases, most of which contribute to VOCemissions and pose other dangers like flammability.It is best if your community chooses not to use anyaerosol products. However, if your community hasany, be sure to use the product up before disposal.Refer to Chapter 4 for more information regardingwaste handling. If your community possesses anyCFC aerosol sprays, the best thing to do is to locatea service that is capable of safely handling theCFCs and turn the products over to them fordisposal.

Vehicle air conditioning systems in modelsearlier than 1994 contain, and leak, CFCs. The airconditioners of most later models use refrigerantsthat are less harmful to the ozone layer than CFCs.If a vehicle air conditioner contains CFCs, ensurethat it is properly maintained. Have the airconditioner serviced by a facility that is certified tocapture, clean and recycle the used CFCs ratherthan simply venting them into the air and refillingthe unit.

Refrigerant found in appliances should also bereclaimed before disposal of the appliance. Atrained technician is capable of emptying arefrigeration system without leaking any refrierentinto the atmosphere. This refrigerent can then bere-used. Thus, it would be helpful for yourcommunity to locate a technician that is capable ofperforming this work.

Our community strives to eliminate the use of CFCs1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7. Pesticides

Pesticides and herbicides that are sometimes usedin agricultural operations are generally verybiologically toxic substances. This means that theyhave many negative health and environmentaleffects. In general, these products should not beused unless they are deemed absolutely necessary.

Nevertheless, several farms—particularly largerscale operations—do use these products on aregular basis. Besides reaking havoc on theecosystem within which the product is used,airborne particles of the product can be inhaled andmay cause problems in humans. Health problemsare exacerbated in cases of chronic exposure. Thus,if pesticides or herbicides are used in your vicinity,inventory the community for signs of exposure, andseek help or advice from environmental or healthagencies if several people display similar symptomsassociated with these chemicals.

Our community is aware of the dangers of pesticide andherbicide usage

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives, through whatever means, toprotect ourselves and our larger community frompesticide/herbicide use

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8. Community Tree Preservation

It would be hard to overstate the value of trees.Trees are an extraordinarily valuable and essentialcomponent of a healthy environment. Trees areone of the largest sources of oxygen, which we needto breathe. One acre of trees generates enoughoxygen each day for 18 people. Alternately, treesalso consume and store carbon dioxide, the gaslargely responsible for global warming; a single treestores on average 28 kilograms of carbon annually.

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Chapter 2: Air

Besides affecting these critical gases, trees alsodirectly reduce pollution by filtering pollutants outof the air; they cleanse the air by intercepting andslowing particulate materials causing them to fallout of the air, and by absorbing pollutant gasesinto leaf surfaces. Pollutants abated by treesinclude nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxides, carbonmonoxide, carbon dioxide (required for treegrowth), ozone, and small particulates less than 10microns in size.

Trees are a critical part of the water cycle; oneacre of trees on a summer day transpires close to4000L of water back into the atmosphere. Treesprevent soil erosion, while increasing groundwaterrecharging by intercepting, slowing, evaporating,and storing water through normal tree functions. Itis estimated that trees alone could reduce by 95%the amount of sediment that erodes from‘developed’ landscape.

Trees provide shade and wind breaks, loweringthe temperature in areas that would otherwise beunder direct sunlight, and offering shelter againststrong winds. Similarly, trees also reflect andabsorb sound energy, while adding a natural ‘whitenoise’ through the movement of branches andleaves.

Trees are living systems that interact with otherliving things in sharing and recycling resources—assuch, trees are living centers where living thingcongregate and are concentrated. It is a fact thatpeople feel more comfortable and at ease when inshaded, open areas of trees as compared to urbanareas surrounded by non-living things. People’spreferences for locating areas of social interactionsin calming, beautiful, and nature-dominated areasrevolve around the presence of community treesand forests. Furthermore, people are not the onlyones who thrive in an environment replete withtrees; many forms of wildlife need trees as part oftheir habitat, and such bio-diversity increases thehealth of any ecosystem.

Thus, it is advisable that your community do allthat it can to preserve and augment the number oftrees on your grounds, as well as throughout thelarger community.

Our community holds the preservation of trees andforest on our grounds as a priority

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community makes explicit efforts to enddeforestation throughout Latin America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

9. Expert Information

It is important to be involved in local efforts toreduce air pollution. Aside from the air pollutionthat your community members may generate,there may be industries, utilities, or practices ofyour larger community that greatly contribute tothe deterioration of air quality but that are beyondyour community’s direct influence. For this reason,it is important to educate yourself about theoverall quality of air in your area, and to discoverthe main causes behind the pollution present in it,as well as what policy framework exists withinwhich polluters must operate.

Expert agencies like environmental protectionorganizations and public health organizations arelikely to have considerable knowledge about theprevailing environmental conditions, and they mayalso have ideas regarding action steps to take inorder to correct problems. Unfortunately, funds areoften limited, so the information that theorganizations have to share does not end up beingbroadcasted throughout the population. Thus,your community, for example, can help spark morewidespread citizen engagement by sharing anyeducation that you receive from theseorganizations.

In general, it is a wise idea for your communityto have relationships with such organizations. Letthem know that you care. Learn about local effortsand issues, and what the agencies are doing aboutthem. One of the driving forces behind reducing airpollution is citizen concern and involvement.Besides educating citizens, community membersmay speak up at public hearings to let officialsknow how they feel about air pollution problems inyour community, they may report problems, orthey may actually serve on administrative oradvisory boards that work directly to solve airpollution problems.

Tackling urban air pollution requirescoordinated actions at many levels. Nationalgovernments are the level at which many neededpolicies and regulatory frameworks are set; theresponsibilities for implementation are dividedbetween several ministries including energy,industry, transport, trade, finance, environmentand health. Sub-national authorities often havemajor enforcement responsibilities forenvironmental regulations, and local governmentstypically manage key areas such as land use andurban transport planning. There are also other,non-governmental stakeholders with important

32


roles. For example, of the approximately US$1.3Billion invested in the Santiago MetropolitanRegion over the last decade, 90% was from theprivate sector.

The development of a comprehensive strategyfor tackling air pollution requires a level ofinformation and understanding that is oftenlacking. Thus, an important role that national andlocal authorities can also be influenced to play is todevelop capacities and support activities to collectreliable air quality data, develop emissionsinventories, model air quality and its impacts,identify measures for improving air quality andassess costs across sectors, besides drafting andenforcing environmental legislation.

It is important that the surroundingcommunities be aware of what is being released bymanufacturers in their area. All appropriatemeasures should be taken to eliminate the releaseof hazardous substances into the air.

Our community has developed relationships with andutilizes the information available from expertorganizations in our area

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions

Now enter the scores from each of the precedingsections in the column on the right:

score

1 Community Vehicles: maintenance

Community Vehicles: fuel choice

Community Vehicles: purchasing

2 Transport: minimizing distance

Transport: efficient driving

3 Public Transportation: use

Public Transportation: advocacy

4 Other Combustion Engines

5 Burning

6 Ozone depleting substances

7 Pesticides/Herbicides: education

Pesticides/Herbicides: action

8 Tree Preservation: community land

Tree Preservation: deforestation

9 Expert Information

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourcommunity’s contribution to air pollution, how wouldyou rate, overall, your community’s practices in theseregards?

Excellent / Satisfactory / Poor / Criticallydeficient

If you found that problems exist, list them below:Category (I-III)

Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4

Now categorize each problem listed above into oneof the following three categories:

I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,must be addressed immediatelyII = Important, but not immediately dangerous.Must be addressedIII = Current practice should be improved, but isnot immediately important

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Chapter 2: Air

Indoor Air Pollution: Assessment

Air pollution—Inside

Air pollution can affect our health in many wayswith both short-term and long-term effects.Different groups of individuals are affected by airpollution in different ways. Some individuals aremuch more sensitive to pollutants than are others.Young children and elderly people often suffermore from the effects of air pollution. People withhealth problems such as asthma, heart and lungdisease may also suffer more when the air ispolluted. The extent to which an individual isharmed by air pollution usually depends on thetotal exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e. theduration of exposure and the concentration of thechemicals must be taken into account. Considerthat indoors, gases can rapidly become much moreconcentrated than outdoors.

Examples of short-term effects include irritationto the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratoryinfections such as bronchitis and pneumonia.Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea,and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution canaggravate the medical conditions of individualswith asthma and emphysema.

Long-term health effects can include chronicrespiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, andeven damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys.Continual exposure to air pollution affects thelungs of growing children and may aggravate orcomplicate medical conditions in the elderly.

Indoor air pollution, like atmospheric pollution,is generally a result of combustion. Combustion isa chemical reaction that lets off a great deal ofenergy. We experience this energy as the light andthe heat that comes off a flame. Harnessing thisenergy has been very useful to us. Fire is a reactionwhich breaks ‘organic’ matter down into smallerbits. (Organic matter is anything that has theelement ‘carbon’ in it.)

‘Incomplete combustion’ means that the fuel isnot being fully broken down. We see evidence ofincomplete combustion whenever we see smoke.Most of the pollution from fire comes fromincomplete combustion.

Smoke is made up of a wide variety of particlesand gases. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a very deadlygas that is a result of incomplete combustion.There are many other dangerous components likenitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, andsuspended particle matter. In general, all these

pollutants add up to a great deal of disease andenvironmental degradation; however, when smokeis concentrated by walls and a roof, the dangersbecome much more critical.

Inside most Latin American households, thestove or cookstove is the major source of emissions.The indoor air pollution that comes fromcookstove fires is the most harmful and deadlyproblem facing most people of the countryside,especially the women and children.

Indoor Air Pollution: Inventory

The following sections are designed to help yourcommunity make an inventory of its indoor airpollution. This is so that the community can assessboth the sources of indoor air pollution, as well aswhat is being done (or can be done) to helpimprove the community’s practices.

The following inventory is based around thelikely main sources of a community’s indoor airpollution: cooking/heating, and smoking; thus, itwill especially examine the kitchen area. However,the principles of efficiency and ventilation of acookstove readily apply to any other use of firethat your community might have. Each question isdiscussed in the section following the inventory,where you will be provided a means to evaluateyour responses, and directions to go forimprovement.

1. Types and uses of community fuel

Here is a list of fuels you might be using:Biomass Fuels:

DungWoodAgricultural residuesOther residuesResidue briquettesCharcoal

Liquid and Gas Fuels:Kerosene (Paraffin)Bottled gas (LPG)Biodiesel or other liquid bio-fuelBiogas

Solar Energy:Solar cookerSolar electric (solar PV)

Other Fuels:Grid electricity

34


BatteriesWax candle

Any other fuel (specify):

Using the list above, what types of fuel do you use forthe following purposes?

main fuel secondary fuelCooking:Lighting:Keeping warm:Heating water:Cooking for selling:Cooking animal feed:Electrical equipment:Other task 1 (specify):

Other task 2 (specify):

2. Getting fuel; buying and gathering

What is the source of your main type(s) of fuel?c Raw biomass (wood, dung)c Petroleum productsc Converted biomass (e.g. Biogas, biodiesel,

plant oil, residue briquettes, etc)c Grid electric—if so, is it generated from

coal, oil, nuclear or hydro?

c The sun c Other source (specify)c Fuel 1c Fuel 2

If you buy fuel, how much do you pay for it per week?(show unit of currency)

Wood:Charcoal:Kerosene (paraffin):Bottled gas:Grid electricity:Batteries:Wax candles:Other (e.g. gelfuel):Total cost:

If your fuel is gathered, who is responsible for gatheringit?

How many hours a week are spent gathering fuel?

Check any problems encountered by those collecting fuel:c Supply is scarce

c Falling down with loadc Twisted/sprained anklec Broken bonesc Cuts/lacerations from blades or sawsc Back strainc Dehydrationc Dizziness or faintingc Other problem reportedOther problem reported:

3. Fuel drying (for biomass fuels)

Do you ever use ‘green’ fuel (i.e. wood or plants that arestill growing, or have been growing very recently, whencollected)

c not applicable—do not use biofuelc neverc occasionallyc usuallyc always

The main fuel that you use – about how dry is itusually?

c not applicable—do not use biofuelc Very dryc Dryc Dampc Wetc ‘Green’

Definitions: Very dry: wood that is completely dry having been outdoorsin very dry weather for a long period, or kept to dry in thehouse for some weeks at least;Dry: wood that does not feel damp, was gathered when theweather was variable and has needed to be dried in the housefor several days; Damp: wood that feels slightly damp, has not been dried inthe house; Wet: wood that is wet due to prevailing rain and dampnessrather than because it is green (see below), and not havingbeen dried to any degree in the house; Green: wood that was cut while still growing, or was doing sovery recently, so that the wood contains sap.

Do you dry your main fuel before use?c not applicable (not biofuel or always very

dry)c alwaysc usuallyc occasionallyc never

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Chapter 2: Air

4. Health and Wellbeing

Survey the members of your community and anyworkers that work there. In what ways does smoke affecttheir health? Answer each question by indicating thepercentage of people that report each symptom, i.e.:

1 = 0-25%2 = 26-50%3 = 51-75%4 = 76%-100%

How many people are being interviewed for thisquestion?

What percentage report itchy, watery or irritated eyes?

What percentage report a persistent cough?

What percentage presently have a chest illness?

What percentage report having a shortness of breath?

What percentage report having frequent headaches?

5. Smoking

How many members of the community smoke?

Do people smoke inside?No / Occasionally / Yes, regularly

Has your community been educated about the healthand environmental effects of smoking?

Yes / No

Does the community have a smoking policy? (e.g. smokeonly in designated areas)

Yes / No

Is the community policy explained to all members andguests?

Yes / No

Are there designated smoking areas?Yes / No

If Yes where are these areas located?

6. Ventilation of the Kitchen area

Is the kitchen: c Enclosed

c Semi-open

Permanent ventilation in roof of kitchen:c Nonec Small holes (less than 10cm in diameter)c Large holes (more than 10cm in diameter)c No roof, or very open roof

Does the kitchen area have eavespace?c nonec All round roomc Along outside wallsc Along walls within house

How many windows are in the room where cooking isdone?

How many doors are there in the kitchen?

Are the door(s) usually open or closed?

Can any black soot or residue be found on the walls,ceiling, or other locations?

7. The stove

Type of stove—main stove and secondary stove (choosefrom the following):

main secondaryc c Three-stone or two-stone fire (i.e.

open fire)c c Shielded (from wind or air currents)

mud fire or mud stove (includingchimney stove)

c c Wood-burning ceramic stove (madeof fired clay)

c c Metal stovec c Improved charcoal stovec c Pressurized kerosene stovec c Non-pressurized kerosene stovec c Gas stovec c Solar cookerc c Grid-powered electric stove

If unsure, or if you have ‘other’ type of stove, pleasedescribe:

If the stove burns biomass fuels, does the stove (or firepit) have a grate upon which the fuel is placed?


36


Is the space between the flame and the burner plate(s)or pots minimized?

Yes / No

Does the burning area have insulation to absorb andretain heat? (e.g. Clay, sand, brick, etc.)


Can the burning chamber be closed, excepting an inletfor air?

Yes / No

If the stove has spaces for multiple pots, are there platesto block unused burner areas?


If the stove has spaces for multiple pots, can the air flowto each be controlled with internal baffles?


If the fire is internal, are there dampers on the air inletto control the size of the flame?


Is there a flue (i.e. chimney) built into the design of thestove?

Yes / No

Observing the stove in operation, answer thefollowing questions:

How much smoke does the fire produce?c none visiblec light wispyc gray and steadily producedc fairly heavy with some sootc thick with black soot

What color is the flame?c Bluec Yellowc Orangec Redc Occasional flame, mostly smoldering coals

How many people usually sleep in the room with themain stove?

Is this stove usually kept alight at night?

Is a stove used in any other room in the house otherthan the kitchen?

Yes / No

If Yes do people sleep in that room?

(list who sleeps there)

8. Smoke extraction

Is there any type of smoke extraction in the kitchen(chimney stove, hood etc)?

Yes / No

If the answer is Yes rate the condition of each type ofextraction device on a scale from 1-5 (1 being ‘poor’).Consider things like rust, holes, cleanliness, state ofrepair:

Extraction method: 1-5Chimney (built into structure of building):Smoke hood (semi-permanent fixture):Other (specify):

If ‘other’ smoke extraction method, please describe orsketch it:

If there is a smoke extraction device, watch thestove in operation and answer the followingquestions:

Can or does the smoke reenter the building througheaves, windows, or doors?

Yes / No

Does the smoke drift toward another home?Yes / No

Maintenance:Is there someone in your community that is chargedwith maintaining all exhaust systems (chimneys, etc)?

Yes / No

Does your community have a regular maintenanceschedule for chimneys and vents?

Yes / No

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Chapter 2: Air

9. Education, Policy, and Civic Engagement

Has everyone in your community been educated aboutthe dangers of indoor air pollution?

Yes / No

Does your community have a policy on indoor airpollution?

Yes / No

Does your community have an active plan to helpeducate the public about air pollution, deforestation,and better practices?

Yes / No

Is your community taking steps to address or changepublic policies which affect air quality (e.g. forest use,emission standards, fuel standards, etc)?

Yes / No

Indoor Air Pollution: Evaluation

At the end of each discussion section, there will be a statementand a list of numbers from which to choose. Choose a numberfrom 1-9 to indicate your assessment of how well yourcommunity represents the statement given (1= disagree,community practices unhealthy; 9= agree completely, no changeneeded).

1-2. Types, Uses, Costs of Community’s Fuel

The purpose of these questions is to inventory thetypes, uses, and costs of the community’s fuel.

Making an inventory of the types of fuels usedfor various purposes helps your communitydevelop a clear picture of your community’spractical fuel choices. It is often the case thatseveral different fuels are used within a community,but each for their own purposes. It should be yourcommunity’s goal to maximize the efficiency andcleanliness of fuel for each purpose that fuel isneeded, with the priority being set on those fuelswhich are used most often.

The choice of fuel has perhaps a greater effectupon the amount of pollution emitted by burningthan any other single factor. Basically, the hotterand cleaner that a fuel burns, the less pollution itlets off. The gradient of efficient burning is asfollows (this is general and does not include factorslike dryness or stove capabilities): dung (leastefficient), crop residues, wood, charcoal or

compressed residues, liquid fuels, gaseous fuels,solar energy (most efficient).

Thus, using dung as fuel (without firstconverting it into biogas) releases the greatestamounts of particulate matter, carbon monoxide,and several other pollutants. Burning corn cobs orstalks, or other crop wastes is slightly cleaner thandung. Cleaner yet is wood, charcoal, coal, or othersolid fuel types. However, all these ‘biomass’ fuelsrelease a great deal of pollutants because they donot often burn completely. This is why liquids andgases release much less air pollution.

Bottled gas, kerosene, and other heating liquidsand gases are much cleaner relative to wood.Nonetheless, all of these fuels let off carbondioxide and usually carbon monoxide, which areboth pollutants that can concentrate intodangerous levels indoors. In addition, if the fuel ispetroleum based, there are still a number ofpollutants released besides carbon dioxide andcarbon monoxide, like sulfur oxides and volatileorganic compounds. ‘Biofuels’—for example, gasesmade from the digestion of dung, or ethanol madefrom corn, or diesel made from seeds—release farfewer pollutants than their petroleumcounterparts.

If your community uses electric power (fromthe grid) for heating or cooking, refer to thechapter in this manual about energy, Chapter 5.

By far, the cleanest, most efficient means ofheating and cooking is the sun, or solar energy. Theuse of solar energy releases no pollution and usesno fuel. You can use passive solar warmers to bakebread, to boil water, to heat vegetables, as well asmany other tasks that would normally require theburning of fuel. Solar technology is rapidlyspreading throughout Latin America because therequired materials are generally available andinexpensive, and, of course, because there is a lotof sun!

The cost is an important aspect to keep track of,because it measures how much of the community’sresources are being used for fuel. These resourcesmay be monetary or they may be in the form ofpersonal labor. If a decision is made to changefuels, or to include the use of solar heating, keepingtrack of the fuel costs becomes an importantmeans of judging the efficiency of the fuels.

Refer to the resources at the end of this chapterto find additional information regarding bio-gas,cooking fuels, and solar cookers. Resources for bio-gas production can also be found in the WasteHandling, Chapter 4.

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Our community strives to use very efficient sources offuel and monitors how much of our resources we spendon fuel

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Fuel Drying

In some cases, the use of wood or other biomassfuels is unavoidable. In these cases it is mostimportant to create situations in which the fuelburns as hot and completely as possible. This canbe accomplished by using an efficient cookstove,and by drying the fuels being used.

If your community uses wood or other residuesfor fuel, be sure to have a sheltered area availablein which to store recently collected wood or cropwastes. Fuels should be dried until they are as dryas possible (preferably a week or more).

There should be a regular program in place torotate the fuels so that the driest are always whatare burned, and recently collected fuels have ampletime to dry before use.

Our community takes steps to ensure that any biomassfuels are thoroughly dried before attempting to burnthem

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10(choose 10 if not applicable)

4. Health and Wellbeing

It is important to survey the members of yourcommunity, including any workers that spend timethere, especially those that spend a lot of time in ornear the kitchen.

Shared health problems (especially respiratorydiseases) may indicate that indoor air pollution isa real problem in the community that should beaddressed immediately.

The presence of smoke may immediately causeirritated eyes, headaches, or coughing. Longer termexposure may lead to upper and/or lowerrespiratory infections like pneumonia. In addition,long term exposure to smoke may lead toemphysema, lung cancer, chronic obstructivepulmonary disease, and other debilitating diseases.

Those most at risk are those who do thecooking, or those who sleep near sources of smoke.

Our community shows no signs of health problemsrelated to smoke inhalation.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Smoking

Research has proven without a doubt that smokingis very injurious to both the smoker’s health and tothose who inhale second-hand tobacco smoke. It isextremely harmful to one’s health, particularly toone’s lungs and heart. Since the environmentaltobacco smoke let off by smokers is as harmful toothers in poorly ventilated areas as it is to thesmoker, it is important to the health of thecommunity to have a smoking policy that restrictssmoking to open areas that are well ventilated.

Although adopting such a policy may representa divergence from the normal cultural habits, it isvery important that the policy be explained toeveryone affected by it: community members,workers, and guests alike. The explanation ofpolicy may serve as an opportune time to educateabout the dangers of smoking. Educating smokersand non-smokers alike about the dangers ofsmoking is an important step to take to reduce thenumbers of people smoking.

Our community strives to eliminate the dangers ofenvironmental tobacco smoke

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6. Ventilation of the kitchen area

The purpose of these questions is to provide therational background to deciding how important itis for your community to increase the ventilationof your cooking areas.

A properly working cookstove will have theability to pull in as much air (i.e. oxygen) as itneeds to burn the fuel, and it will vent all exhaustoutside into the atmosphere away from people orconfined spaces; however, the ventilation of thekitchen area is also very important.

Roof vents (not including flue pipes orchimneys) and eavespaces are important in orderthat vapors are able to escape. However, anyventing near the ceiling or roof must be coupledwith venting closer to the ground, like doors,windows, or other openings. In addition, windowsand doors also serve the important function ofproviding light to the working areas of the kitchen,which makes operating in the kitchen much safer.

Poorly ventilated kitchens will most likely showevidence of soot or smoke residues on the walls,ceilings, or settled on surfaces. If any evidence ofpoor ventilation is found, structural improvementsshould be considered.

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Chapter 2: Air

Nevertheless, since several of the structuralimprovements that could be made to increaseventilation are costly and/or labor intensive, thesequestions about kitchen design can be used toindicate the relative importance of upgrading theefficiency of the cookstove, or the installation of achimney or vent hood. For example, if your kitchenhas no windows, only one door, and very littleeavespace, it is very important that the smoke isvented. However, if there are roof vents, eavespace,windows, and a door, replacing a chimneyless stoveis less important than making sure that the stove isburning efficiently.

It is important to include the comments of allthose who work in the kitchen (not only those whoare community members) in this inventory, sincethey may have a more intimate knowledge of thekitchen, stove and ventilation problems thananyone else.

Our community’s kitchen is very well ventilated. It hasadequate eavespace, is well lit, and shows no signs ofsoot or smoke build-up

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7-8. The stove and smoke extraction

The cookstove and its smoke extraction device arethe crux of the indoor air pollution matter. Thecookstove should be as efficient as possible.Efficiency not only makes the operation of itcheaper, it greatly reduces the amount of airpollution released by it. There are a few simpleprinciples to keep in mind when designing orupgrading a cookstove.

There are an incredible variety of cookstovedesigns; but the qualities of a good cookstove areas follows:

1. Maximize combustion of the fuel by keepingthe temperature high and ensuring the presence ofsufficient oxygen

2. Maximize radiative heat transfer from thefire to the pot(s) by keeping the pot as close to theflame as possible

3. Maximize convection from the fire to thepot(s) with a stove design that passes as much ofthe hot gases over the pot(s) as possible; reducedrafts

4. Maximize conduction to the food pot(s) byusing an insulating material for the stove so thatthe heat is retained and concentrated near thepot(s)

5. Maximize user satisfaction by making thestoves convenient to use (with local fuels, cookingpots, and utensils) and able to easily prepare localdishes well

6. In summary, only a stove with what might becalled robust efficiency will consistently save fuelunder conditions of actual use. Stoves must beeasy to use and fuel efficient under a variety ofconditions: when it is boiling, simmering, baking,or frying food; when it is using only one opening ofa large, three-pot stove; and when it is dirty orworn. Cookstoves are workhorses, not racehorses,and must be designed accordingly.

It is absolutely essential that all fires are vented.That is, each stove should have either a built-inchimney vented outdoors, or a vent hood which issimilarly vented outside. If any fire in yourcommunity is not equipped with such a device,installing one is the highest priority in order toimprove indoor air quality. Ample kitchenventilation (with eaves, windows, roof vents, etc.)reduces the danger of concentrated exhaust smoke,but does not completely alleviate it. Consider thaton a day where the air is stagnant, air currents donot flow through the kitchen, and thus do little toremove the smoke. References to resources to helpyou in this can be found in the categorizedreference section in the back of this manual.

It is important that all chimneys, vents, stoves,or other heating device be checked on a regularschedule to ensure proper operation. Theinspection schedule might be as infrequent as oncea season, but it is very important that it occur. Anyvent must be intact (without holes), clean and freeof obstruction. All burners must be functioningproperly, smoke shouldn’t be escaping into thekitchen with a well designed cookstove. It isprobably best if one person is put in charge of theregular maintenance of cooking, heating, andventilation systems within the community.

Refer to the resources at the end of this chapterto find more information regarding indoor airpollution, cookstove designs, and ventilation.

Some care and thoughtfulness has been put into thedesign of our community’s stove(s). All stoves aredirectly vented with either a chimney or a vent hood.They are as efficient as they can be for the primary typeof fuel used

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

40


9. Education, Policy, and Civic Engagement

Reducing indoor air pollution is everyone’sresponsibility. Therefore it is important thateveryone be aware of the dangers of smoke andhow to avoid its concentration inside confinedspaces. Reducing indoor air pollution should notonly be a personal policy, but a community policyas well, since it affects all members of thecommunity.

Spreading the principles of clean air needs tohappen not only within your community, butwithin your municipality, country, and throughoutthe world. Thus to protect God’s creation, it isimportant that your community work at all levelsto educate and change policies regarding airpollution.

Our community has made a point to create policies toprotect the quality of air both within and outside thecommunity buildings. We are actively engaged ineducating each other and the general public about airquality issues

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions

Now enter the scores from each section:score

1-2. Fuel types, uses and costs

3. Biomass fuel drying

4. Health and well being

5. Smoking

6. Kitchen ventilation

7-8. Cookstove and smoke extraction

9. Education, Policy, Civic Engagement

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourprotection of indoor air quality, how would you rate,overall, your community’s practices in these regards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4



41

Chapter 2: Air

Some suggestions for reducing Indoor Air Pollution

Fuel types / Alternate fuel-cooker combinations:

• Briquettes and pellets• Charcoal, Kerosene• Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)• Biogas, Producer gas• Solar cookers (thermal)• Other low smoke fuels• ElectricityDrying biomass fuels:

• All biomass is thoroughly driedTobacco smoking:

• Only in well ventilated areas or outdoorsKitchen design and placement of the stove:

• Shelters/cooking huts• Windows/ventilation holes• Eavespaces• Stove at waist heightImproved ventilation

• Hoods/fireplaces and chimneys (built into structureof house)Improved cooking devices:

• Chimneyless improved biomass stoves• Improved stoves with flues attachedKitchen practices:

• Use of pot lids• Good maintenance• Sound operation• Partially pre-cooked food

Source: ITDG, 2004

Chapter 2: Acknowledgements

The information contained in this chapter has been adapted from thefollowing sources:

The Origin, Fate, and Health Effects of Combustion By-Products: A Research Framework. Avakian, Maureen D.,Dellinger, et.al. Environmental Health Perspectives.VOLUME 110, NUMBER 11, November 2002.Emissions of Rural Wood-Burning Cooking Devices, Athesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Ballard-Tremeer, Grant, University of the Witwatersrand,Johannesburg, 1997. Available online:http://www.wits.ac.za.Smoke, Health, and Household Energy, Volume 1. Bates,Liz and the Smoke Team, UK Department forInternational Development, 2005. Available online:http://www.itdg.orgUrban Transportation: Challenges facing Latin America.Bleviss, Deborah Lynn, 1999. Available online:http://www.iadb.org/sds/doc/UrbanTransportBleviss.pdfCentral America: Environmental Issues. EnergyInformation Agency, United States Department ofEnergy, 2002. Online:http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/centamenv.html

Your Car and Clean Air: What YOU Can Do to ReducePollution. EPA, Office of Mobile Sources, United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency, document 420-F-93-002. Available online: http://www.epa.gov.Energy-Environment Linkages in the Urban Sector.Leitmann, Josef, UNDP/World Bank/UNCHS UrbanManagement Program (UMP). Discussion paper, 1991.Environmental Issues Information Sheet: Air Pollution.Smith-Sebasto, University of Illinois Extension. 2000.Full text available online:http://www.nres.uiuc.edu/outreach/pubs/info-sheets.html.Urban Air Quality Handbook. Prepared and written bythe staff and consultants of the Sustainable CitiesProgramme, UNCHS, Kenya. Available online:http://www.unchs.org/scpGEO3: Global Environmental Outlook. UNEP, 2002.Available online: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3Smoke – the Killer in the Kitchen. Warwick, Hugh andAlison Doig, ITDG Publishing, London, UK; 2004Ecological Cookers: An essential element in BetteringHousehold Health. Whitfield, David, FundaciónCEDESOL. Available by request online:[email protected].

Chapter 2: Resources for Air Quality

Sustainable Urban Transport Project for Latin America:http://sutp.org/esp/espindex.htm Cra. 14 # 94a- 24 of.409; Bogotá, Colombia; Tel: (+571) 635 9048; Fax:(+571) 635 9015. SUTP is dedicated to advancingsustainable transportation practices throughoutdeveloping countries. They are a great resource forpolicy makers and concerned citizens. Their freeSourcebook for Policy Makers in Developing Countries(modules available in Spanish and English) provides atremendous amount of information and guidance ontopics such as: vehicle maintenance and inspection,cleaner fuels, eco-driving, mass transit options, andraising public awareness.Clean Air Initiative: http://www.cleanairnet.org. TheClean Air Initiative is a project of the World Bank thatadvances innovative ways to improve air quality incities by sharing knowledge and experiences throughpartnerships in selected regions of the world. LaIniciativa de Aire Limpio en Ciudades de AméricaLatina (IAL-CAL) tiene como propósito revertir eldeterioro de la calidad del aire urbano en AméricaLatina, que es el resultado de la creciente urbanización,aumento del transporte vehicular, y de la producciónindustrial.Environmental Protection Agency of the United States:http://www.epa.gov/Many pages available in spanish.Many resources on air pollution, mobile sources, andpollution prevention.Resources for the Future: http://www.rff.org/ Offerseveral articles and reports on air pollution, climatechange, and pollution prevention.Drive Green - Environmental guide to driving:http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/epb/factsheets/drive.html FromEnvironment Canada, a guide to better drivingpractices.GREENTIE: http://www.greentie.org/ GREENTIE was aninternational directory of suppliers whose technologieshelp to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. GREENTIE

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ceased collecting new information at the end of March2005. Nevertheless, the information will remainavailable through this web site’s search facilities as itrepresents one of the World’s most detailed repositoriesof such information. Diesel Emissions Evaluation Program:http://www.deep.org/reports/ Check under their listedresearch projects for diesel maintenance guidelines andbest practices.Emissions of Rural Wood-Burning Cooking Devices:http://www.ecoharmony.com/thesis Ph.D thesis byGrant Ballard-Tremeer which offers a detailed analysisof cookstove designs and their emissions.Renewable Energy Policy Project (Center for RenewableEnergy and Sustainable Technology):http://www.repp.org REPP’s goal is to accelerate the useof renewable energy by providing credible information,insightful policy analysis, and innovative strategiesamid changing energy markets and mountingenvironmental needs by researching, publishing, anddisseminating information, creating policy tools, andhosting highly active, on-line, renewable energydiscussion groups.Biomass Cooking Stoves discussion forums:http://www.crest.org/discussiongroups/resources/stoves/This site exists to help people develop better stoves forcooking with biomass fuels in developing regions.http://www.repp.org/discussiongroups/resources/stoves/Countries/country.htmlLinks to biomass cooking stoveresources in different countries.

Energia: International Network on Gender andSustainable Energy: http://www.energia.org/ Tel:+31.(0)33.4326044 (Netherlands). ENERGIA is aninternational network on gender and sustainable energywhich links individuals and groups concerned withenergy, sustainable development, and gender.ENERGIA’s goal is to contribute to the empowermentof rural and urban poor women through a specific focuson energy issues. ENERGIA provides numerouspublications and resources toward improving cookingpractices.Aprovecho Research Center: http://www.aprovecho.net/The Aprovecho Research Center website containsconstruction plans for many different cook stovedesignsSPARKNET: http://sparknet.info/home.php SPARKNETis an interdisciplinary interactive Knowledge Networkfocusing on energy for low-income households in Southand East Africa.HEDON Household Energy Network:http://www.hedon.info/ The HEDON HouseholdEnergy Network is an informal forum dedicated toimproving social, economic, and environmentalconditions in the South, through promotion of local,national, regional and international initiatives in thehousehold energy sector.Professor Kirk R. Smith: University of California,Berkeley: http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/krsmith/ Excellentresource on the effects of indoor air pollution fromcookstoves.

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Chapter 2: Air

44


Water: Catalyst and Crisis

Water: The Catalyst of Life

Water is essential to all forms of life onearth. It is a critical part of anyecosystem. Without water, neither

vegetation nor animal life can survive. Our ownbodies are made up of over 70% water.

Water is unique in that it is the only substanceto naturally exist in all three of its physical stateswithin the Earth’s atmosphere. Water can be foundas ice or snow in its solid form, as liquid water, andas gaseous water vapor.

Perhaps more importantly, water is the keyingredient that allows the environmental elementsof the Earth to keep moving and intermingling.Water is the ‘universal solvent’ capable ofdissolving almost everthing. In an organism, wateris needed as a medium for the transport ofnutrients, minerals, and ions, as well as forhydration.

Unfortunately, this property of water meansthat both beneficial and harmful substances can bedissolved in and dispersed throughout a body ofwater, and then ingested by living organisms.

The Earth’s water is continually cycling fromthe atmosphere, where it exists as water vapor orprecipitation, to the earth’s surface, where it eitheris absorbed as ground water or ‘runs off ’ the landto become surface water. This cycle is called thehydrological (or ‘water’) cycle. Once upon thesurface, the water returns to the air either throughthe process of evaporation, or via biologicalprocesses. Thus, plants, and animals (including us)help to return water back to the air.

Of the Earth’s water supply, only 2.5% is freshwater; the rest is salt water. Of this amount, closeto two-thirds is locked in glaciers or permanentsnow cover. This means that less than one percentof the Earth’s water is available to us to drink.

If the polar ice caps and glaciers are notconsidered (since their waters are locked in place),groundwater accounts for nearly all usablefreshwater. Lakes, swamps, reservoirs and rivers

account for 3.5 per cent and soil moisture accountsfor only 1.5 per cent.

Fresh water is a limited resource. Our demands on itcan not be unbounded.

Water: Global Crisis

The Earth, with its diverse and abundant lifeforms, including over six billion humans, is facinga serious water crisis. All the signs suggest that it isgetting worse and will continue to do so, unlesscorrective action is taken. This crisis is one ofwater governance, essentially caused by the waysin which we, as humans, mismanage water.

Despite its limited supply, the human demandfor freshwater is increasing exponentially. Humansare now using groundwater at a rate much fasterthan the Earth can replenish it by absorbingprecipitation. There are two main factorsresponsible for the increasing demand: 1) Thehuman population is continuing to skyrocket,rapidly approaching 7 billion people; and 2)Individuals, per capita, are using more water.

While there are several factors affecting thepopulation increase, per capita consumption isdirectly affected by our personal practices.Especially in urban areas, people tend to have verywasteful water-use habits. In rural areas,agricultural practices may make wasteful use ofwater; however, in many rural areas the criticalproblems are water scarcity and inadequate supply.

Adding to the crisis, the health or quality ofexisting water supplies is rapidly deteriorating. Theenvironment has a natural absorptive, self-cleansing capacity. However, this capacity can be,and is being exceeded. Humans are polluting watermuch faster than the Earth can clean it.

As a result of these problems: millions of peopledie each year from thirst, or water-based illnesses;biodiversity is lost; livelihoods are affected; naturalfood sources (e.g. fish) are damaged; and highclean-up costs result.

This reduction in both water quantity andquality has serious impacts on not only ourselves,but on ecosystems, and the Earth’s life in general.

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Chapter 3

Drinking Water—Quality and Source Protection

In many areas of the world water has become avery scarce resource, and safe water has trulybecome a rarity. Correcting these criticalimpairments is of global significance.

Therefore, to ensure their own health, and the health ofthe environment, communities must:• Ensure source adequacy and quality of drinking water• Take care to safely handle and/or treat drinking water• Identify and eliminate wasteful and polluting practices• Ensure sustainable protection of its water source

Uses and Abuses of Water Resources

Humans affect the quality of the Earth’sgroundwaters, surface waters, and atmosphericwaters. Ground and surface waters are beingoverconsumed and polluted, while atmosphericwaters are greatly affected by air pollution. Thus,below we will discuss the uses and badmanagement practices that adversely affectgroundwater and surface water, while reserving adiscussion of air polluting habits for anotherchapter. (See the Outdoor Air Quality Assessment,Chapter 2).

GroundwaterOften the importance of groundwater isunderestimated. It is customary to think ofgroundwater as being more important in arid orsemi-arid areas and surface water as moreimportant in humid areas. However, inventories ofgroundwater and surface water use reveal theworldwide importance of groundwater. The reasonsfor this include its convenient availability close towhere water is required, its natural quality which isgenerally adequate for potable supplies, and therelatively low capital cost of development.

A principal feature of groundwater bodieswhich distinguishes them from surface water is therelatively slow movement of water through theground. This means that residence times ingroundwaters are generally orders of magnitudelonger than in surface waters. Once polluted, agroundwater body could remain so for decades, oreven for hundreds of years, because the naturalprocesses of through-flushing are so slow.

As groundwater in its natural state is often ofgood microbiological quality, it is often thepreferred source for drinking water. In many cases,groundwater sources do not receive any form oftreatment, as they are low-cost supplies designedfor community-management. Where boreholes or

other groundwater sources are linked to pipeddistribution, limited disinfection is usually carriedout prior to consumption.

In addition to its use as drinking water, waterfrom beneath the ground has been exploited fordomestic use, livestock and irrigation since theearliest times. Groundwater use has grownconsistently ever since successful methods ofbringing the water to the surface have beendeveloped.

In Latin America, many of the continent’slargest cities, Mexico City, Lima, Buenos Aires andSantiago, obtain a significant proportion of theirmunicipal water supply from groundwater. In thevalley of Mexico City, over 1,000 deep wells supply3.2 billion cubic meters per day, which is about 95per cent of the total supply to a population ofnearly 20 million people. (WHO)

Unfortunately, while groundwater may becheap and abundant, the critical measure of thesesources is not their volumes, but their renewability.When groundwater sources are tapped beyondtheir capacity for renewal, water levels drop,aquifers become brackish through salinization,pumping costs increase, and sooner or later theresource is depleted.

The dominant role of groundwater resources isclear and their use and protection is, therefore, offundamental importance to human life andeconomic activity.

Surface waterHumans use surface water for a large variety ofreasons. Some of the major uses of surface waterare:

1. sources of drinking water supply2. irrigation of agricultural lands3. industrial and municipal water supplies4. industrial and municipal waste disposal5. navigation6. fishing, boating and body-contact recreation7. aesthetic valueRivers are our most important freshwater

resource. Social, economic and politicaldevelopment has, in the past, been largely relatedto the availability and distribution of fresh waterscontained in riverine systems.

Upstream use of water must only be undertakenin such a way that it does not affect water quantity,or water quality, for downstream users. Use of riverwater is, therefore, the subject of major politicalnegotiations at all levels.

In addition to the above list of uses, lakes are

46


prime regions for human settlement andhabitation. It has been commonly believed thatlarge lakes have an infinite ability to absorb ordilute industrial and municipal waste, and it islargely as a result of human waste disposalpractices that monitoring and assessment areproving to be necessary in many large lakes.

Good surface water quality is essential for providingdrinking water, maintaining fisheries, and for theprovisions of recreation and bathing. The degradation ofwater induced by agricultural use and by industrial andmunicipal waste disposal practices must be stopped. It isincumbant upon every stakeholder in a watershed toprotect it from degradation.

Assessment of Community Practices

We have seen that in order for communities toensure their health, the health of their largercommunity, and the health of ecosystems, it isnecessary that they:

• Ensure source adequacy and quality• Take care to safely handle and/or treat

drinking water• Identify and eliminate wasteful and polluting

practices• Ensure sustainable protection of their water

sourceCommunities in rural areas may not have

wasteful habits, but may instead be faced with aninadequate supply. Assessment of source selectionmay thus be more important to consider for ruralcommunities; however, communities in urbanareas may have to focus more on their wastefulwater use habits.

Safe handling of water is most important toassess in poorer communities, where source or tapsharing is more frequent, or compromised watersources are more prevalent.

Ensuring sustainable source protection iseveryone’s concern and responsibility. Aside fromdirect measures, (for example, protection of aspring,) source protection means becominginvolved in all levels of water management.Communities should be aware of what decisionsare being made that affect their water source, andbecome advocates for its protection. Politicalaction may be necessary to ensure that protectivepolicies are both made and enforced.

The inventories that follow are designed to helpyour community assess how well it strives towards

achieving these goals. In addition to theseinventories, Chapter 4 on Waste Managementprovides information regarding safe sanitationpractices and preventing diffuse chemicalpollution, and the Outdoor Air QualityAssessment in Chapter 2 provides informationabout the ways in which our air pollution affectswater quality.

Drinking Water Quality andSource Protection: Inventory

1. Main Drinking Water Source

What is/are the main source(s) of your religiouscommunity’s drinking water? Check all that apply:

Surface Water Ac Springc River/ Streamc Pond/ Lakec Dam

Dug Well Bc Private wellc Open public well

Borehole Cc Private wellc Public wellc Mechanical pump C1c Handpump C2

Spring Dc Open springc Protected spring

Rainwater Ec Covered containerc Open Container

Commercial Water Vendor Fc Small water vendorc Tanker Truckc Bottled Water

Piped water Gc House connectionc Public standpipesc Gravity fed G1c W/service reservoir G1

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Chapter 3: Drinking Water

c Water Provider G2c Other (specify):

Is the water collected off-premises?Yes / No

If so, how often is water collected?c Everydayc Once a weekc Longer—how long does it take to travel to the source, collectthe water, and return?

Do water shortages often occur in your community?Yes / No

In the case of a water shortage:

Where will water be collected?

Does your community share water with neighbors?Yes / No

How far away are alternative sources of water andhow long does it take to collect the water?

Are there known problems with the alternativesource’s water quality?

Yes / No

Now proceed to the section entitled ‘Site-SpecificSource Assessments,’ found on pages 60-64 tofurther develop information regarding the safety ofyour water source. Use the capital bold-facedletters A-G next to your selections above to locatethe questions pertaining to your source(s).

2. Potential sources of pollution:

Identify which activities occur within the vicinity of yourwater source. Remember to consider activities that occurupstream, if a moving body of water:

Distance Comment

c Residential

c Construction

Other (specify):

Distance Comment

Agricultural activityc Livestock

c Crops—commercial

c Crops—small scale

c Chemical storage

Other (specify):

Distance Comment

Industrial activityc Food processing

c Textiles

c Tanneries

c Brewery

c Small scale industry(including garages)

c Slaughterhouse

c Mining

Other (specify):

Distance Comment

Miscellaneousc Deforestation

c Erosion

Other (specify):

3. NGO involvement

Is there an NGO, committee or group within yourlarger community that attends to the maintenance,preservation, and/or protection of your water source, e.g.a groundwater or watershed protection group?

Yes / NoName of Organization:

Does an individual from your religious community serveon this committee?

Yes / No

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4. Community Water Governance

Does your larger community have a body (i.e.Committee, organization, corporation, governmentbureau, etc.) which is in charge of water governance?

Yes / No

Is there an individual from your religious communityserving as a member of the governing body?


How reliable is the governed water supply?c Very Reliable (uninterrupted supply)c Reliable (no disruptions for months)c Fair (some disruptions in the past few

months)c Intermittent (disruptions on a weekly

basis)c Sporadic (only available a few times a

week)c Inadequate (supply is critical concern)

Are fees established for the water supply?Yes / No

How were the fees established?c Votec Decree with community inputc Decree without community inputc Other (specify):

Was everyone’s interests represented in the vote?c Yes, everyone was represented or could votec Only men were represented / could votec Only landowners were represented/ could

votec Other restriction (specify):

What happens if someone does not pay on time?c Receives a reminderc Access refusedc Collector visits againc Water turned offc Other (specify):

Does your community include water expenses as partof the budget?

Yes / No

5. Water Quality Testing

Has a government regulatory agency, or other qualifiedentity (besides the Water Provider, if one exists) tested

the water source for drinking water quality?Yes / No

Was the testing:c A one time occurrencec Part of a regular testing cycle Testing interval:

Are the results of the tests made available to the public?Yes / No

Does the water source have any chemical pollutionproblems?

Yes / No

Does the water source have any biological problems?Yes / No

Explain the problems identified with the water source:

What are the recommendations for improving the watersource, if any are known:

Does your community test source water quality itself?Yes / No

6. Water Treatment by the Community

Does your religious community treat your water in anyway to make it safer to drink?

Yes / No / Not applicable (water treated by supplier)

If you do, what methods do you use?c Boilc Solar Distilled/Disinfectedc Add Bleach/Chlorinec Sedimentation/Settling c Sieve it through clothc Candle filtersOther (specify):

Is water treatment a standard protocol?Yes / No

If bleach or chlorine is used, does your communitychemically test the water?

c Yes, chlorine levels are tested

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c We have test kit, but do not use itc We do not have test kit

Is there someone in charge of overseeing watertreatment?

Name of supervisor:

Does the community include water treatment expenses aspart of the budget?

Yes / No

7. Water Storage

Is drinking water stored in containers?Yes / No / Sometimes

What type(s) of container(s) is/are used to storedrinking/ cooking water?

c Narrow-mouthed vesselsc Wide-mouthed vesselsc bowls or pots

Are the containers covered?All / Some / None

Are the containers clearly labeled or recognizable?All / Some / None

How often are the water storage container(s) cleanedwith soap?

c Once a dayc Once a weekc Less than once per weekc Never

Is this a regular habit/protocol?Yes / No

How do you draw water from the water container(s)?c Pouringc Spigot/Tapc DippingOther (specify):c Both pouring and dipping

If drawn by dipping, what is used to remove water?c Same receptacle/cup used to drink fromc Special receptacle only for drawing drinking

water

Drinking Water Quality andSource Protection: Evaluation

At the end of each discussion section, there will be astatement and a list of numbers from which to choose.Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessmentof how well your community represents the statementgiven. (1 = disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9= agree completely, no change needed)

1. Water sources

Each water source listed as an option in thisquestion is followed by a capitalized, bold-facedletter. This letter is meant to indicate theappropriate inventory to complete in the nextsection, called ‘Site-Specific Source Assessments,’found on page 60. The sets of questions foundtherein help you determine the safety of yourwater sources, and describe standard protectionmethods. Following the inventories andevaluations, there is a list of things to consider ifyour community decides to improve its watersource. The inventory for your source(s) should becompleted at this point, and the results assessedbelow.

To promote community health, an easilyaccessible water supply should be available thatprovides sufficient safe water to meet communityneeds. There are many types of low-risk watersupplies for drinking and other domestic uses.Often, communities have unprotected watersources, such as springs, traditional wells andponds, which are open to contamination and posea potential health risk. To ensure that the water ispotable, the water supply should be protected andthe water should be treated before use.Unprotected sources can be improved, and thismay be preferable to constructing completely newsupplies.

In general, it is best to be able to rely upon onesource for all your community’s drinking waterneeds. Relying only upon one source minimizes theamount of resources a community must spendmonitoring the safety of their sources.

If your main source often goes dry,consideration should be given to undertaking theconstruction of an additional water supply. In casesof water shortages, water is often obtained fromalternative sources, or from neighbors. In suchcases, it is important to treat the water as if it werecontaminated, since you cannot be sure of itsquality.

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Our community’s drinking water source is nearby andmeasures are in place for its protection*. The sourceconsistently provides an adequate and safe supply.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9*NOTE: Source Inventory must be completed

before answering this question.

2. Water Source Pollution Hazards

There are a number of hazards to the sustainability ofboth groundwater and surface water resources. The WorldHealth Organization points out these followingpertaining to groundwater:

i. Unsewered sanitationContamination of groundwater supplies byunsewered sanitation. Problems usually arise wherethe water table is so shallow that on-site sanitationsystems discharge directly into the saturated zone.Often the most serious problems arise in mediumto smaller sized towns and in densely populatedperi-urban and rural areas where local, shallower,and often untreated, groundwater sources are used.In these circumstances, direct pollution of thesource at the wellhead by the users, by livestockand by wastewater can be a serious problem.

ii. Contamination at sourceUnprotected extraction points allowscontamination to enter well/ spring waters directly.

iii. Leaks in sanitary sewersLeakage is a common problem, especially from oldsewers, and may be caused by defective pipes, poorworkmanship, breakage by tree roots, settlementand rupturing from soil slippage or seismic activity

iv. Disposal of wasteThe most common method of disposal of solidwaste is by deposition in landfills. Also,municipalities and factories will sometimes createponds for liquid waste . Unfortunately, very fewlandfills or ponds are built to sanitary standards,and many are simply raw dumps. Contaminatesleach from the landfills (dumps) into thegroundwater.

v. Industrial accidents and spillsGroundwater pollution incidents from majorindustrial complexes are becoming more commonand are often the subject of major, expensiveinvestigations and clean-up activities. The causesinclude accidents during transportation, spillages

due to operational failures and leaks due tocorrosion or structural failure of pipes or tanks.Petroleum and petroleum products are the mostimportant because they are widely used.

The cost of aquifer restoration measures and/orprovision of alternative water supplies after majorincidents of this type can be extraordinarilyexpensive. All too often the expense is not paid,and the disasters do not get cleaned up.

vi. Agricultural habitsAgricultural land-use and cultivation practiceshave been shown to exert major influences ongroundwater quality. Under certain circumstancesserious groundwater pollution can be caused byagricultural activities.

vii. Mining activitiesA range of groundwater pollution problems can beassociated with mining activities. The nature of thepollution depends on the materials being extractedand the post-extraction processing. Coal, salt,potash, phosphate and uranium mines are majorpolluters

viii. General sources of contaminants to riversand lakes:

a. Direct point sourcesMunicipal and industrial discharges.

b. Diffuse agricultural sourcesWash-off and soil erosion from agricultural landscarrying materials applied during agricultural landuse, mainly herbicides, pesticides and pesticides.

c. Diffuse urban sourcesWash-off from city streets, from horticultural andgardening activities in the sub-urban environmentand from industrial sites and storage areas. Streetlitter, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, pet andyard waste, motor oil, anti-freeze, householdhazardous wastes, and paint are just a few of thepollutants that find their way into storm drains.This water travels from storm drains into localstreams, ponds, and lakes, and ultimately into localstreams and rivers.

d. Waste disposalPollution from solid and liquid industrial wastedisposal sites and from municipal and householdhazardous or infectious waste.

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e. Fecal contaminationThe primary water quality issue in rivers. Althoughthis applies to both rural and urban areas, thesituation is probably more critical in fast-growingcities where the population growth rate still farexceeds the rate of development of wastewatercollection and treatment facilities

f. SalinisationIncreased mineral salts in rivers may arise fromseveral sources: (i) release of mining wastewaters,(ii) certain industrial wastewaters, and (iii)increased evaporation and in the river basin(mainly in arid and sub-arid regions) resulting fromreservoir construction, irrigation returns, etc.

g. AcidificationOccurs as a result of: (i) direct inputs of acidicwastewaters from mining or from specificindustries, either as point sources (e.g. sewers) ordiffuse sources (e.g. leaching of mine tailings), and(ii) acidic precipitation (acid rain) mainly from theburning of fossil fuels.

The hazards to our community’s water source have beeninventoried and no significant risks exist.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Water resource protection committee

Water resources are shared resources. The activitiesof many people affect the quality of the watersource, and it is easy for the actions of just a fewpeople to affect the entire community’s watersupply. Thus, it is important that all thestakeholders, (those people that use or affect thewater source) are aware of the health of the waterbody and how their activities might affect thequality of the water.

It is also important that a group of local people,local stakeholders, are able to communicate bothto other stakeholders, and to larger regulatorybodies (e.g. governments) about the conditions oftheir water resources, and about the problemsfacing it.

Although national or regional governmentsoften have divisions whose stated purpose is theprotection of water or environmental resources,these governmental entities are often slowed bytheir internal beaurocratic processes, and/or have ageographical region to cover that far exceeds thecapacity of the staff.

For these reasons, it is advisable that each body

of water (surface water or ground water) have acommittee consisting of stakeholders that attendto the environmental quality of the water resource.The committee should have broad participationfrom the surrounding populace, and should not belimited by gender, occupation, education, orincome.

Your religious community could have at leastone person serve on such a committee, if oneexists, so that your community is able tocontribute to the betterment of local waterresources. This member can serve as a liasonrepresenting your religious community’s intereststo the committee, and the committee’s interestsback to the community.

If no such committee exists, a motivatedindividual of your community could be encouragedto organize one.

There is a committee that attends to the health of ourwater source and our religious community is representedin that committee.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Water Governance

Local water management is everywhere valuable,especially in times of water scarcity, but it requiresgood governance to fulfill its potential. Goodgovernance is open, participatory, and responsible.It undertakes careful research so that decisions aremade based on factual evidence, and worksdeliberately to better the lives of its poorest andmost vulnerable members. The condition ofwomen, minorities, and the landless poor is aspecific responsibility of the institutional authority.It is now recognized that women in poorcommunities must be involved in local water andsanitation management. They work longer hoursthan anyone else on domestic water and hygiene,and they are experts.

Participation in the water management bodyshould be broad, with the interests of allstakeholders represented. Thus, it is importantthat your religious community have a memberserve on the body, if that is possible.

To make and carry out sustainable resourcedecisions, good governance requires institutionalcapacity. That includes the capacity to gather andassess relevant information, to deliberate, toexecute policies, and to answer responsibly tomembers of the community. On the smallest,simplest scale, institutional capacity represents a

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neighborhood’s ability to build and maintain ashared network that stores and distributesrainwater around a few city blocks. It is the forumwhere villages up and down a hillside canapportion seasonal runoff for maximum usage andminimum losses of water and soil. It is themechanism that can mobilize a community’scapital investment in a wastewater recycling plantor in new-technology groundwater pumpingsystems. It is the recognition that managementinvolves administrative and financial tasks, as wellas technical ones, that regular maintenance is asimportant as initial construction, and that fromtime to time enforcement of rules and regulationswill be necessary. It is the deliberation in whichenvironmental quality is acknowledged as a value,and where the interests of future generations areheard and accepted.

Communities attempting local watermanagement need supportive links with their‘senior’ governments. This is especially importantin the management of watersheds and aquifers thatmust be shared with others. Creating coherentrelationships between local management and widerwatershed approaches goes to the heart of goodwater management. Governments can encouragethe diffusion of new and helpful knowledge,especially to its agencies and extension services.These arms of government have the organizationwith the expertise and resources to speeddissemination and promote education. Bydiffusing the results of research and development,governments multiply many times the value of newknowledge to local communities. So doing, withNGOs and others, they enlarge the national wealthand the welfare of citizens.

Unfortunately, there is a trend in Latin Americatoward the ‘privatization’ of water management.Meant to reduce the burden placed upongovernment, privatized water supplies aremanaged by corporate managers, with the goal ofmaking a profit for the corporation’s stockholders.The stockholders are most often not thestakeholders, and quite often live in distantcountries. In most scenarios of privatized watersupplies, the corporate management is not open,participatory, and not responsive to the needs ofthe poor.

Activism at all levels becomes essential if yourcommunity is suffering hardships due to poormanagement of water resources.

Our water supply is managed with good governance

principles, and our religious community is represented inthe management body.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Water quality testing

Water of poor microbial quality can have asignificant impact on the health of communitymembers by causing disease and contributing tothe spread of epidemics. Water quality shouldtherefore be monitored on a regular basis. Ideally,it should be tested by staff working with qualifiedbodies such as a governmental HealthDepartment/ Ministry of Health, or Ministry ofEnvironment. There are also both national andinternational NGO’s that provide water qualitymonitoring services. The community shouldrequest such support, particularly if it suspectedthat the community water supply is contaminated.The test results should be provided to thecommunity and if any problems arise, thecommunity should request recommendations forsolutions.

Microbial qualityThe principal method of assessing the microbialquality of water is to test for bacteria whosepresence indicates that feces may be in the water.An analysis of the test results is usually beyond theresources of communities and will be carried outby health or water officials. Some kits have beendeveloped for community use, but the results ofthese tests should be analysed with caution.

Water quality tests look at the microbiology ofwater samples to identify viral, bacterial andparasitical agents linked to hepatitis A, diarrhea,typhoid and other illnesses. The major concern ofmicrobiological testing is whether feces havecontaminated the water supply, as most of theinfectious water-related diseases, such as choleraand dysentery, are caused by fecal contamination.Although these diseases can also be transmittedthrough poor hygiene and inadequate sanitation,control of drinking-water quality is one of the mainways of preventing their spread.

Microbiological testing should be conductedwhenever a new water source is put into use.Regular monitoring should continue afterward, onat least a monthly cycle. More frequent testingshould be conducted if a problem is identified untilthe problem has been corrected and the quality hasstabilized. Furthermore, it is advisable to test waterafter a heavy rain, as flooding and increased flow

53


can change the properties of a water body.

Sanitary inspectionAn analysis of water quality usually also includes asanitary inspection. This is a visual assessment ofthe water supply, using standard forms to recordinformation, to see whether fecal pollution existsand whether such pollution could reach the watersource. Sanitary inspections can be undertaken bycommunities on a regular basis as part of operationand maintenance, and forms have been developedin several countries to help communities undertakethese inspections. Many of the risks to the watersupply relate to improper operation andmaintenance activities in the area around the watersource, and sanitary inspection can be used toensure that these tasks are carried out to keep thewater supplies safe. Refer to Chapter 7, WasteHandling Assessment, for more informationregarding sanitary inspections.

Chemical qualityIt may also be necessary to test community watersupplies for harmful chemicals. Certain chemicals,such as fluoride, nitrate and arsenic, represent ahealth risk, whereas others, for example iron,manganese and sulfate, may cause consumers toreject the water because it is unpleasant to drink orstains clothes and causes other problems. Testing isusually done by health or water officials, butcommunity members can play a key role bydemanding that such analyses are carried out, andby informing officials of any developments thatmay cause contamination of the water supply.When a water supply is first developed, a full waterquality analysis should be carried out. Thecommunity should request feedback regarding thisanalysis and ask for guidance concerning thesuitability of the water source for drinking.

You should be able to find much informationabout water quality testing from the resourceslisted at the end of this chapter. For example, theWorld Health Organization promotes waterquality monitoring through its Healthy Villagesprogram.

We are satisfied that our community’s water source isregularly tested for microbial quality, and has also beentested for chemical quality. The community is informedof the test results and no problems exist.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6. Water Treatment

Sometimes the best option for improving waterquality is to treat water in the home, by boiling,filtering, chlorinating or leaving the water to settle.These options are discussed in more detail below.

BoilingBringing water to a rolling boil will destroypathogens in the water and make it safe to drink.Boiled water tastes ‘flat’, but if it is left for a fewhours in a partly filled, covered container, it willabsorb air and lose its flat taste.

Canvas filtersCanvas bags are the simplest type of home filter.The bag is filled with water and the water iscollected as it seeps out of the bag. This makes thewater cleaner and, although it does not remove allpathogens, is particularly useful for removingCyclops containing guinea-worm eggs. Bags thathave been specially treated to prevent them fromrotting are available.

Candle filtersCandle filters are hollow, porous ceramiccartridges. Although they do not filter out allpathogens, they should remove the larger onessuch as protozoa, worms and bacteria (but notviruses). Ceramic candles need carefulmaintenance and should be cleaned and boiled atleast once a week, even if they are not clogged. If acandle filter becomes clogged, it should bescrubbed under running water with a stiff brushfree of soap, grease or oil. To reduce the risk thatwater will pass through a candle without beingfiltered, such as through a small crack, candlefilters should be regularly inspected and replaced ifnecessary. In some countries it is common to bothfilter and boil water. Where this is done, the water

54


Household water treatment

In Bolivia, household water treatment wasintroduced into two communities where waterquality was generally poor... After the treatment wasintroduced, fecal contamination of water sampleswas reduced by over 90% and the incidence ofdiarrhea dropped by almost 50%. Similarimprovements have been observed in othercountries, such as Bangladesh, demonstrating thathousehold treatments can be effective.

Source: Diarrhoea prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use water treatment and safe storage,

Epidemiology and Infection, 122:83-90, Quick RE et al, 1999

should be filtered first and then boiled. Somefilters incorporate silver into the candle, but thisdoes not disinfect the water and the candle actssimply as a normal filter.

DisinfectionOne method of treating water in households is toadd chlorine. This will kill most bacteria and someviruses. Since the taste of chlorine disappears whenwater is left in open containers, a very small lumpof bleaching powder or one drop of householdbleach can be added to a 20-liter water containerand the mix left to stand for at least 30 minutes.After this time, if a faint smell of chlorine can bedetected in the water, it should be low-risk andpalatable to drink. Chlorine should only be addedto clear water otherwise it will be absorbed by thedirt in the water. Moreover, chlorine that has beenstored for some time will lose potency. The use ofdisinfectants as a household treatment system hasbeen successfully implemented in Latin Americaand Asia.

Despite its effectiveness, the use of chlorineposes several risks that may be avoided by usingother disinfection methods. Many of thecompounds formed when chlorine reacts withcontaminates in water are carcinogenic, and/or are‘persistent environmental pollutants,’ meaningthat they do not decompose and remain in theenvironment, often accumulating to unsafe levels.In addition, sodium hypochlorite (chlorine bleach)is very toxic, and poses severe health risks ifconsumed undiluted. Extreme caution should betaken whenever chlorine is used.

Other disinfection systems have beendeveloped for treating household water,particularly the use of solar radiation. Simplemethods of solar disinfection (e.g. SODIS, whichrequires little more than a capped plastic bottleand some tape or paint), can effectively treat water,although they may take longer than chlorinedisinfection. Performed correctly, solar disinfectionis very safe and ecologically friendy, and thus is apractical and preferable alternative for watertreatment.

Sedimentation/SettlingWhere water is cloudy or muddy, a simpletreatment is to allow particulates in the water tosettle overnight. Clear water at the top of thecontainer is then poured into a clean container.Adding certain chemicals can help settling, such asa pinch of aluminium sulfate (alum), or powder

from the ground seeds of Moringa oleifera(horseradish tree) and Moringa stenopetala,sprinkled onto the water surface.

It should be stressed that settling does NOTremove all pathogens, silt or clay. The settling ofparticles may reduce pathogens but some willremain, and water should be boiled or disinfectedbefore it is consumed.

Many of the resources listed at the end of thischapter will help you identify the various watertreatment technology options that may bereasonable for your community.

Our community treats our water to ensure that it is safeto drink. We strive to use environmentally friendlytreatment methods.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7. Water handling

Frequently, water collected from a communal pointand transported back to houses for use becomescontaminated because of poor handling.Community members should therefore be aware ofthe risks of contaminating the water and how itcan be prevented.

All water containers should be clean, especiallyinside. It is always best to clean the insides ofstorage containers with either detergent orchlorine. Leaving a capful of bleach in a sealedplastic or metal container full of water for 30minutes will kill most pathogens. If detergent orchlorine is not available, the insides of clay potscan be cleaned with ash. If ash must be used, itshould be from a fire of organic fuel, not metals,plastics, paints, or electronic equipment. Plastic ormetal containers should be cleaned weekly byputting clean sand and water inside them andshaking for a few minutes. The top of the watercontainer should be covered to stop dust and othercontaminants falling into the drinking-water. Forthe same reason, water containers should also havea narrow neck. It is best for water to be pouredfrom the container to prevent contact with dirtyfingers and hands. When scoops are used to takewater out of the storage container they should beclean and kept inside the water storage jar. Theyshould never be placed on the floor.

Our community takes the utmost care to preserve thequality of our drinking water any time that it is storedfor use.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

55


Conclusions

Now enter the scores from each section in the column atright:

score

1. Water source adequacy and safety

2. Water source pollution hazards

3. Water resource protection committee

4. Water governance

5. Water quality testing

6. Water treatment

7. Water handling

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourdrinking water quality and source protection measures,how would you rate, overall, your community’s practicesin these regards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4



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Site-Specific Source: Assessment

Below, each method of water extraction, as indicated by theboldface letters A-G found on page 50 in the precedinginventory, has an associated set of questions. Answer theinventory questions, and then continue to the discussion section.If at first some of the terminology used in the questions is unclearto you, go back and read over the previous discussion sectionassociated with your source before completing the inventory.

The purpose of the following inventories is toassess the level of protection that exists at thepoint of extraction. Included within these analysesare abbreviated sanitation inspection questions,since the major cause of poor drinking waterquality is poor sanitation.

In order to ensure that water supplies canprovide water that represents a limited risk tohealth, adequate source protection measuresshould be in place that prevent pathogens orharmful chemicals from entering the supply.Source protection measures should be in place forall water sources that are used for domesticconsumption, and different measures will berequired at different levels.

It may be necessary to identify what basicmeasures are required at local and broader scales,and to identify the people responsible forundertaking protection work. This may includecommunities and users as well as water suppliers,planners and environment protection bodies. Thepreceeding inventory should help you to assess thelevel of protection afforded by NGOs and/or watergovernance bodies, as well as what environmentalproblems may threaten your water source quality.

Following the inventories and discussions, there

is a list of questions to be considered if yourcommunity decides to improve its water supply.

A Surface Water

1) Is there excessive logging or visible erosion on thebanks/ shore of the water body?

Yes / No

2) Is there run-off from urban area(s), or other humansettlements entering the water body?

Yes / No

3) Are there any farm animals or crop productionupstream, polluting the source?

Yes / No

4) Is the water body used for public bathing?

5) Are industrial waste streams or sewage dischargedinto the water body?

Yes / No

6) Must people enter the water in order to withdraw it?Yes / No

7) Is the intake (if one exists) unprotected?Yes / No

8) Is the intake unscreened?Yes / No

9) Is the means of intake protection in need ofmaintainence or repair?

Yes / No

10) Are algae blooms a problem in the water body?Yes / No

Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘SurfaceWater (A)’, on page 61.

B Dug Well

1) Is there a latrine within 10m of the well?Yes / No

2) Is the nearest latrine uphill of the well?Yes / No

3) Is there any other source of pollution within 10m ofthe well? (e.g. Animal breeding, cultivation, roads,industry, etc)

Yes / No

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Characteristics of low-risk water sources

• The water source is fully enclosed or protected(capped) and no surface water can run directly intoit.• People do not step into the water while collectingit.• Latrines are located as far away as possible fromthe water source and preferably not on higherground. If there are community concerns about this,expert advice should be sought.• Solid waste pits, animal excreta and otherpollution sources are located as far as possible fromthe water source.• There is no stagnant water within 5 metres of thewater source.• If wells are used, the collection buckets are keptclean and off the ground, or a handpump is used.

4) Is the drainage faulty, allowing ponding within 5mof the well?

Yes / No

5) Is the drainage channel cracked, broken, or in need ofcleaning?

Yes / No

6) Is the fence missing or faulty?Yes / No

7) Is the well uncovered or is the cover faulty ormissing?

Yes / No

8) Does the well lack a cement pad (apron) or is thecement less than 1m in radius around the top of thewell, or are there cracks in the floor?

Yes / No

9) Does spilt water collect in the apron area?Yes / No

10) (if applicable) Is the handpump loose at the pointof attachment to the well head?

Yes / No

11) Does the water change colour after heavy rain? Yes / No

Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘GroundWater Overview’ and then continue to ‘GroundWater: Dug Wells (B)’, on page 66.

C1 Borehole: Deep with Mechanized Pumping

1) Is there a latrine or sewer within 100m ofpumphouse?

Yes / No

2) Is the nearest latrine unsewered?Yes / No

3) Is there any source of pollution within 50m?Yes / No

4) Is there an uncapped well within 100m?Yes / No

5) Is the drainage around the pumphouse faulty?Yes / No

6) Is the fencing damaged, allowing animal entry?Yes / No

7) Is the floor of the pumphouse permeabe to water?Yes / No

8) Does water form pools in the pumphouse?Yes / No

9) Is the well seal unsanitary?Yes / No


C2 Borehole with Handpump

1) Is there a latrine within 10m of the borehole/well?Yes / No

2) Is there a latrine uphill of the borehole?Yes / No

3) Are there any other sources of pollution within 10mof borehole/well? (e.g. Animal breeding, cultivation,raods, industy, etc)

Yes / No

4) Is the drainage faulty, allowing ponding within 2mof the borehole?

Yes / No

5) Is the drainage channel cracked, broken, or in need ofcleaning?

Yes / No

6) Is the fence missing or faulty?Yes / No

7) Is the apron less than 1m in radius?Yes / No

8) Does spilt water collect in the apron area?Yes / No

9) Is the apron cracked or damaged?Yes / No

10) Is the handpump loose at the point of attachmentto the apron?

Yes / No


Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘GroundWater Overview’ and then continue to ‘Ground

58


Water: Boreholes (C)’

D Spring

1) Is the spring unprotected (i.e. unimproved)?[If the answer is yes, skip to 5. Answer yes to 2-

4)]Yes / No

2) Is the masonary protecting the spring faulty?Yes / No

3) Is the backfill area behind the retaining wall eroded?Yes / No

4) Does spilt water flood the collection area?Yes / No

5) Is the fence absent or faulty?Yes / No

6) Can animals have access within 10m of the spring?Yes / No

7) Is there a latrine uphill and/or within 30m of thespring?

Yes / No

8) Does surface water collect uphill of the spring?Yes / No

9) Is a diversion ditch above the spring absent or non-functional?

Yes / No

10) Are there any other sources of pollution uphill ofthe spring (e.g. Solid waste)

Yes / No


Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘GroundWater Overview’ and then continue to ‘GroundWater: Springs (D)’.

E Rainwater Collection and Storage

1) Is rainwater collected in an open container?Yes / No

2) Are there visible signs of contamination on the roofcatchment? (e.g. Plants, excreta, dust, etc.)

Yes / No

3) Is guttering that collects water dirty or blocked?Yes / No

4) Is the top, or the walls of the tank cracked ordamaged?

Yes / No

5) Is water collected directly from the tank (no tap onthe tank)?

Yes / No

6) Is there bucket in use and is this left where it canbecome contaminated?

Yes / No

7) Is the tap leaking or damaged, or absent?Yes / No

8) Is there any source of pollution around the tank orwater collection area?

Yes / No

9) Is the tank clean inside?Yes / No

Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Rainwater(E)’

F Vendors (Tanker Trucks)

1) Is the discharge pipe dirty?Yes / No

2) Can the discharge pipe touch the ground?Yes / No

3) Is the delivery nozzle dirty or in poor condition?Yes / No

4) Is the tanker ever used for transporting other liquids?Yes / No

5) Is the inside of the tanker dirty?Yes / No

6) Does the tanker fill through an inspection cover?Yes / No

7) Does the tanker leak?Yes / No

Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘WaterVendors (F)’

59


G Piped Water (General)

1) Do any tap stands leak?Yes / No

2) Does surface water collect around any tapstand?Yes / No

3) Is the area uphill of any tapstand eroded?Yes / No

4) Are the pipes exposed close to any tapstand?Yes / No

5) Is there any human or animal waste within 10m ofany tapstand?

Yes / No

6) Is there a sewer within 30m of any tapstand?Yes / No

7) Has there been a discontinuity in the last 10 daysat any tapstand?

Yes / No

8) Are there signs of leaks in the main pipes?Yes / No

9) Is the main pipe exposed anywhere?Yes / No


11) Is the system’s water source untreated before beingdistributed?

Yes / No

G1 Piped Water (from Storage Tank)

12) Does the pipe leak between the source and storagetank?

Yes / No

13) Is the storage tank cracked, damaged, or does itleak?

14) Are the vents and covers on the tank damaged oropen?

15) Is dirt or other debris present on the vents orcovers?

Yes / No

Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Piped Water(G)’

G2 Piped Water (from Water Provider)

Name your Water Provider:

Contact the Water Provider and answer thesefollowing questions:

1. Who is the contact person?

2. When there is a problem with your water supply,who do you contact, and how?

3. Does the provider treat the water?Yes / No

4. If Yes, what treatment method(s) do they use?c Chlorinationc Sedimentation c FiltrationOther (specify):

5. What are the most common water supply problems?c Leaksc Sedimentsc Broken pipesc Smellsc Illegal withdrawalc Bacterial contaminationc Broken metersc Treatment not workingc Fees not paidOther (specify):What is being done to correct these problems?(explain)

6. Do they test water quality?Yes / No

7. How often is it tested?

8. What percentage of tests conform to standards (e.gWHO Drinking Water Quality standards)?

Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘G PipedWater’

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Site-Specific Source: Evaluations

At the end of each discussion section, there will be a fewstatements and a list of numbers from which to choose.Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessmentof how well your community represents the statementgiven. (1 = disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9= agree completely, no change needed)

Surface water (A)

Surface water sources are always more vulnerableto contamination than groundwater sources and asa result should always be treated beforeconsumption.

While protection measures are less effectivethan for groundwater, it is still important thatcatchments for reservoirs, river and lakes areprotected as far as possible from pollutingactivities. Typically, pollutants will includemicrobiological contamination, suspended solids,inorganic and organic pollutants.

Defining protection of surface watercatchments is often difficult as they often drawwater from large areas. Critical components ofsurface water protection should include theprevention of excessive logging in upper reaches ofrivers and lake catchments, prevention ofuntreated discharges of domestic and industrialwastes, control of urban run-off and prevention ofencroachment into the immediate area around anintake or a reservoir. The latter is often a particularproblem in Latin American countries andrepresents a major source of pollution.

In many water bodies, there are naturalmechanisms that may reduce the pollutant loadsuch as aquatic plants and the formation of heavymetal complexes in sediments. However, whilethese often provide reasonable protection, itshould be stressed that a pollution-reductionstrategy should be developed. Aquatic plants maydie, and if not harvested, may releasecontaminants during decay. Sediments maybecome disturbed and release pollutants back intothe water.

Sometimes aquatic life is hazardous to waterquality, as is the case with algae blooms. When thewater body is heavily loaded with nutrients (fromagricultural run-off, sewage, etc.) fast-growingaquatic plants may bloom. These blooms may addunpleasant, and sometimes poisonous, tastes tothe water. As well, they may deplete the water’sdissolved oxygen, and destroy the ecosystem that

normally would be keeping the water healthy.Surface waters have traditionally been used as

sources of drinking-water. Although they are easilycontaminated, the water quality can be improvedby careful use. For example, if platform steps orramps are constructed at the water edge, peoplecan be encouraged not to walk into the pond orlake when collecting water. This improvementhelps to stop the discharge of guinea-worm eggsinto the water. Nevertheless, dirt deposited onthese structures can enter the water, especiallywhen it rains. Preventing urination and defecationclose to or in a pond may reduce schistosomiasis.

Pumps mounted on the banks of ponds can alsosupply water to people away from the pond, butthese may be difficult to maintain. Alternatively, aprotected intake with a layer of sand as filter canbe constructed in the pond or lake and beconnected to a handpump. It is important to keepthe intake protection works in good repair toprevent damage to the pump or clogging of pipes.Whichever method is used, however, domesticwater drawn from ponds and lakes must always betreated before consumption.

Our community’s water source has a protected intakewhich is well maintained.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to make the point of waterextraction, and the surrounding area sanitary.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to maintain a zone of protectionaround the body of water used for drinking water.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community is satisfied with the quality andquantity of water provided by this source.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Ground Water: Overview

Groundwater sources, whether small community-managed point sources or utility-operatedboreholes supplying distribution networks, oftenbecome contaminated. This may result fromwidespread contamination of an aquifer frompollutant sources or because the point ofabstraction or discharge has been poorly protectedor maintained and allows direct routes forcontaminated surface water to enter the source.

The first level of ground water source protection

61


is the immediate sanitary protection works at thesource. These works are primarily designed toprevent contaminated surface water or wastewaterfrom directly entering the water source andpreventing other hazards that may allow directcontamination of the aquifer.

Such works include measures such as castingconcrete aprons on the ground surface and sealingof upper levels of boreholes and dug wells, and theconstruction of diversion ditches and covering ofthe backfill area of springs. Good source protectionat this level depends in part on good design andconstruction, but the maintenance of suchmeasures when put in place is extremelyimportant. Well-designed sanitary protectionmeasures may easily deteriorate if they are notmaintained.

The next stage of source protection is to defineareas where land-use and in particular the releaseof contaminants will be controlled—a processusually referred to as groundwater protectionzones. Several zones may be defined, typicallyincluding an inner zone to protect againstmicrobiological contaminants, a second zone tocontrol chemical contamination and a final zone toprotect recharge. All zones are usually determinedby a travel time – i.e. the time expected for amicrobe to reach a water source from the groundsurface. Such zones must take into account thevulnerability of the aquifer, the nature of thehydrogeological regime and the likely hydraulicload applied.

For the inner zone, a value of 50 days is oftenused. Some research may need to be persued inorder to determine the characteristics of yourgroundwater aquifer. The hydrogeologicaldepartment in the national water resourcemanagement body should define travel time safetyzones based on hydrogeological surveys.

The further zone may be defined for chemicalcontaminants, again based on an estimated traveltime that will reduce contaminants to acceptablelevels. Where natural chemicals represent aproblem, it is important to identify whether certainparts of the aquifer represent a higher risk and todefine depths of abstraction that may reduce theproblem.

A final zone may be defined to cover therecharge area to provide protection for both qualityand quantity of water. The purpose of all thesezones is to control land-use in such a way that itdoes not create a significant deterioration in sourcewater quality.

Ground water: Dug wells (B)

Dug wells are usually shallow wells dug by hand,although some may be quite deep. Wells are oftenlined with bricks.

Unless artesian water is tapped, many dug wellsgo dry or have very little water in dry periodsbecause it is difficult to sink wells below the watertable without using more sophisticated excavationtechniques.

Dug wells are often more vulnerable tocontamination than other point sources because itis difficult to make the lining of the wellimpermeable and the means of withdrawing watercan easily become unsanitary. In some cases, dugwells are constructed to reduce the specific risk ofguinea worm transmission and therefore only havean headwall to prevent people from entering thewell. However, such wells may still becontaminated and it is therefore preferred that dugwells should be covered and either a handpump orwindlass installed to withdraw the water.

Where water is collected by a bucket, this maycontaminate the well, particularly if each personuses their own bucket and the area is not wellfenced to prevent animals from having access tothe well. Dug wells can be improved by using aprotected intake. This may use a filter box installedat the base of the well. Where wells are used, youshould ensure that these are covered, have aheadwall of at least 30cm above the apron and ahandpump or windlass is used.

Ponding around the well provides a greatenvironment for insect breeding which contributesto the spread of disease. Furthermore, pondingaround a well which does not have a concreteapron (or one that is cracked), can easilycontaminate the well water.

Rainwater may also affect the water quality of adug well. If the water turns a different color after aperiod of rain, this indicates an unsanitarycondition. Water is seeping into the well from areasof the ground that it usually doesn’t, or is movingthrough the earth faster than it is able to befiltered.

The shaft of an improved dug well should havea concrete lining above the dry-season water tableand a series of concrete rings (caissons) sunk belowthis level to ensure a year-round supply of water.The lining acts both to protect the shaft fromcollapse and to prevent surface water frominfiltrating into the well at shallow depths.

The top of the well (the wellhead) should be

62


built up by at least 30 cm and an apron castaround it to prevent surface water from enteringthe well directly.

Generally, a permanent cover should be putover the well and water drawn by a handpump orwindlass and bucket. A communal rope and bucketattached to the well can be used to draw water, butthe bucket and rope should be kept off the ground.One way to do this is to put a hook inside the welland always store the bucket on it. Once a dug wellis completed it should be cleaned with chlorineand the pump installed.

The advantage of improved dug wells is thatthey can be deepened and, if the handpump orwindlass fails, water can still be collected, althoughcare should be taken not to contaminate the waterby using individual buckets. However, dug wellsare more likely to go dry in prolonged dry periods,or if large volumes of water are pumped fromnearby deep boreholes, and they are easilycontaminated. Nevertheless, they provide a low-cost water supply and communities can be activelyinvolved in their construction.

In some arid areas, dug wells have traditionallybeen constructed in sandy riverbeds. Whereflooding is rare, such wells can be improved toprovide dry-season water sources. To protect thewell from river damage during the rainy seasonsthe well opening can be covered with a concreteslab and a concrete barrier built upstream from thewell. In sandy riverbeds with water-resistantbedrock beneath, walls can be constructed underthe sand to create sand dams. These collect theriver water and can ensure that nearby wells areproductive for longer periods in the dry season.However, keep in mind that changing the structureof the riverbed may have unwanted environmentaleffects and should be done only after anenvironmental impact study.

Abandoned wells should be closed to avoidpolluting groundwater.

Our community’s dug well has well maintainedprotection measures.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to keep the point of waterextraction, and the surrounding area sanitary.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to maintain a zone of protectionaround the well.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Ground water: Boreholes (C)

Boreholes are narrow holes drilled into the groundthat tap into groundwater. Boreholes can be drilledusing motorized rigs operated by trained staff, butthis is expensive. Boreholes can also be drilled byhand using an augur, or by forcing water into theground under pressure (‘jetting’). If a community isinvolved in the actual sinking of the borehole, it islikely to use auguring or jetting because these areless expensive methods, but it is not possible tosink deep boreholes with these methods.Depending on the depth of the groundwater, ahandpump may be required to bring the water tothe surface. The practical limit for mosthandpumps is 45 metres; beyond this a motorizedpump (diesel, electric, wind or solar powered) maybe required.

As the borehole is drilled, a lining of plastic,steel or iron is sunk to protect the hole fromcollapse. The lining has slots in the bottom sectionto allow water to enter the borehole and gravel isplaced around the bottom of the lining to improveflow and provide filtration. The top few metresaround the borehole should be sealed usingconcrete, and a concrete apron is cast around thetop of the borehole to prevent surface water fromflowing into the lined shaft. A stand is usually castinto the apron to provide a stable base for thepump. Once the borehole is completed it should becleaned with chlorine and the pump installed.

Unfortunately, many boreholes worldwide areno longer working because simple repairs have notbeen carried out. Consequently, if a borehole isdrilled in a village, it is important thatmaintenance costs and activities can be met by thecommunity. Finances should be managed to ensurethat funds can be raised for maintenance. Inaddition, it is particularly important to make surethat all required spares can be purchased within areasonable distance from the village. For majorrepairs beyond the skills of the community, clearinformation as to how these repairs will be carriedout should be requested from the relevant agency.

Boreholes usually provide good quality water,but the water sometimes contains harmfulchemicals, such as fluoride and arsenic, or nuisancechemicals such as iron. Community membersshould either carry out chemical tests, or request

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that tests be carried out by the government agencyor otherwise, and the results fully discussed withthe community.

While it is often found that boreholes have abetter water quality than other point sourcesbecause they are sunk deeper into the ground andoften have greater protection againstcontamination, problems may exist which mayreduce the quality of water from a borehole.Because of their depth, a larger protected areaaround them is required than for a dug well. In thegeneral case, 10 meters surrounding ahandpumped borehole, and 100 m surrounding amechanized pump are recomended. However, the

actual recomended size for protection zones isdependent upon many factors. An expert’s adviceshould be sought to determine the protectionzones necessary for your particular borehole.

Such problems may include poor drainage ofwastewater that allows stagnant water to formpools close to the borehole; the deterioration in theapron leading to undercutting of the borehole; or ahandpump being loose at the base where it isattached to the apron. These all require attentionto prevent future problems and the communityshould be encouraged to make minor repairs andclean the environment close to the borehole toprevent contamination. Again, where fences arelacking and there is no means of ensuring surfacewater cannot flood the apron area, the risks ofcontamination will increase and the communityshould work to address these problems.

For boreholes, it is often important to preventlatrines and animal enclosures from beingconstructed close to the borehole as these mayallow direct contamination of the groundwater.You should always try to ensure that such hazardsare a protecting distance away from the boreholeand if there are latrines uphill, you should increasethis distance if possible. Boreholes where the top ofthe rising main (the pipe that comes out of theground) cannot be sealed represent a particular

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Handpump on a boreholeSource: World Health Organisation

Operational and Maintenance Tasks for a Borehole

Source: Howard, Guy. Water Supply Surveillence, 2002

Activity Dry season Wet season—routine Wet season—afterheavy rainfall

grease working parts of thehandpump at least once per week at least once per week at least once per week

check hand pump to see whetherworn parts need replacement

at least once perquarter



make sure fence is in goodcondition and make repairs




check drainage channels and clean at least once per month at least once per week clean if required

clear rubbish away from areaaround borehole, particularly uphill at least once per week at least once per week clean if required

keep paths and grassed areas aboceborehole clear of rubbish at least once per month at least once per month clean if required

check whether any water collectingclose to the borehole and clear ifrequired

at least once per month at least once per week clean if required

carry out regular inspections of theborehole and note any faults at least twice per week daily after every heavy rain

hazard as this means that surface water may beable to directly enter. In this case, try to create aconcrete ring around the top of the pipe and ifpossible seal this by making a small plinth for thehandpump to rest on and extend the rising maininto the base of the handpump.

Our community’s borehole has well maintainedprotection measures.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to maintain a zone of protectionaround the borehole.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Ground water: Springs (D)

A spring is where underground water flows to thesurface. Springs may occur when the water tablemeets the ground surface; these are called gravitysprings. Other times water is forced to the surfacebecause the water-carrying layer meets animpermeable layer (gravity overflow springs orcontact springs). In some cases, groundwater is heldunder pressure and springs come to the surfacebecause of a natural break in the rock, or because ashallow excavation is made (artesian springs).

Springs can make very good water suppliesprovided that they are properly protected againstcontamination. If springs are found above thevillage, they can feed a pipe system for providingwater close to homes. When a spring is at thesame, or lower, level than the village, it can still beprotected, but greater care is needed and it isunlikely that water will flow through the pipesystem by gravity. The first step in decidingwhether a spring should be protected is todetermine whether it provides enough water forthe expected number of users. This can be done bymeasuring the time it takes for the spring to fill abucket of known volume, and estimating howmany liters are used per day.

To protect a spring, a retaining wall or box isconstructed, usually with concrete, around the‘eye’ of the spring, where the water emerges from

the ground. The area behind the wall or box isbackfilled with sand and stones to filter water as itenters the box and help remove contamination inthe groundwater. The backfill area is capped withclay and grass is planted on top.

The whole area should be fenced and a ditchdug above the spring to prevent surface water fromeroding the backfill area and contaminating thespring. The collection area should be covered withconcrete and sufficient space left beneath theoutlet pipe for people to place jerry cans andbuckets. A lined drain should be constructed tocarry spilled water away from the spring. Thewater could be used for laundry, to feed an animal-watering trough or for irrigating a garden. In othersituations spilled water may be drained to a soak-away pit or to the nearest surface water body. Toprevent mosquito breeding, water from the springshould not be allowed to form pools.

For protected springs, it is important to look atthe state of the protection works—including thebackfill area—to see whether these show anydeterioration, like cracks, tilting, leaks, crumbling,etc... In many cases, the deterioration in theimmediate sanitary protection works is moreimportant in causing contamination than thehazards such as pit latrines. However, thedeterioration in the sanitary protection measuresare important to improve irrespective of what thequality of water is like from any samples taken. Forinstance, the catchment area may become erodedand lose its vegetation cover and at the same timethere is no fence and the uphill diversion ditch iseither absent or faulty. The erosion of thecatchment areas results from two major factors: (1)The lack of a fence means that both people andanimals can get access directly onto the catchmentarea and may cause erosion by creating footpathsor by making holes in the ground. (2) The lack ofa diversion ditch allows surface water to rundirectly onto the backfill area that not only causeserosion but also may allow water to directly enterthe water source. If only the backfill area isimproved without putting in place the fence anddiversion ditch, the risk of contamination in thelonger-term will remain.

Designs for protected springs should be usedthat enclose the area for where backfill media willbe placed, which enables both flow to be directedtowards the outlet pipes and to ensure thatfiltration is maximised during flow through thebackfill media. The backfill media should be gravelwith a nominal diameter of less than 25mm. This

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provides greater filtration potential than largeraggregates that are often used, thus increasing thepossibility of removing contaminants that mayenter the structure. The gravel pack should beoverlain by layers of clay and sand to provideadditional protection against the entry ofcontaminated surface water with a top layer of soil,which is essential to be able to support anadequate vegetation cover.

The spring box should always be protected fromerosion and inundation. This can be done byproviding an uphill diversion ditch that has aconcrete lining, stone pitching or well-compactedclay and putting a fence around the protected area.The number and size of outlets of the springshould be carefully considered. In many cases,there is a problem of congestion at the source andthis may lead to significant problems. This may beovercome by increasing the number of outlets byconstructing a spring box with outlets on severalsides. Where this is not possible, several fillingpoints can be fitted to a single delivery pipe byusing a ‘T’-junction. It is also usually better to usesmaller diameter pipes for the outlets. When largepipes are used, a large proportion of the water maybe lost during collection and this may increaseproblems with congestion. By using a smaller pipediameter, not only can the water be directed moreeffectively into the collection vessel, but may alsoallow more pipes to be used.

An example of a well-protected spring is shownopposite. Although protected springs require verylittle maintenance, far less than a borehole withhandpump, basic checks should be carried out (seetable).

Our community’s spring has well maintained protectionmeasures.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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A well-protected springSource: World Health Organisation

Operational and Maintenance Tasks for a Protected Spring

Source: Howard, Guy. Water Supply Surveillence, 2002

Activity Dry season West season—routine

Wet season—afterheavy rainfall

Clear uphill diversion ditch at least once permonth

at least once perweek clean if required

Clear drainage ditch fromoutlets

at least once permonth


Slashing grass inside fence at least once per dryseason

at least once permonth not necessary

Make sure steps are clean andnot broken

at least once perweek


Clear rubbish away fromaround spring, particularlyuphill

at least once perweek


Keep paths and grassed areasabove springs clear of rubbish

at least once permonth

at least once permonth clean if required

Trim hedge once it reaches aheight of 4 feet

do not trim in dryseason

when hedge reaches 4feet not necessary

Carry out regular inspectionsof the spring and note anyfaults

at least twice perweek daily after every heavy

rains


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to maintain a zone of protectionaround the spring.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Rainwater (E)

Although rainwater can be a good source of waterfor drinking and domestic use, it may be seasonal,and it is often difficult for a community to rely onrainwater alone. Collecting sufficient rainwater foran entire community also requires relatively largeroofs and tanks, and the supply may still not besufficient. Nevertheless, using rainwater is a freeand low-impact means of satisfying at least part ofthe community’s drinking water needs.

If the rainwater is to be used for drinking it isbetter to collect it from a roof, rather than from aground catchment where it may becomecontaminated. Ground catchments are moreappropriate for agricultural use.

Using roofs to collect rainwater is relatively easyand a lot of water can be collected. For example, 50mm of rainfall on a 4 m2 roof yields 200 litres ofwater. All that is required are gutters around theroof that discharge into a collection tank. Theroofing material is important and hard surfaces,such as iron sheets or tiles, allow more rain to becollected than softer surfaces such as thatch andgrass, which absorb water. Hard surfaces are alsoeasier to keep clean and are less likely to haveinsects and animals living in them.

Any roof used to collect rainwater for humanconsumption must be thoroughly cleaned at thestart of the rainy period. Birds and animals mayleave feces on the roof and these can be a source ofpathogens. There should be a system for divertingthe flow of water in gutters away from the tank, sothat the first rains (which are more likely to pickup contamination from the roof) are not collected.A small filter may be added to the top of thecollection tank as an added protection. The tankshould also be cleaned every year and any silt oralgal matter removed. After cleaning and beforeuse, the tank should be scrubbed using a chlorinesolution (bleach).

Water should be drawn from a tap at the baseof the tank, rather than with a bucket, which maycontaminate the water. It is better not to bury thecollection tank, even partially, since contaminatedwater from the soil can enter the tank. Coveringthe tank is also essential for preventingcontamination of the water and for reducingopportunities for disease vectors to breed.

The household should make sure that the roofis not overhung by trees or close to food stores asthis may encourage rodents and lead to excretabeing found on the roof.

Our community’s rainwater collection apparatus is wellmaintained and sanitary.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Water vendors (F)

In general, the better you know the source andhandling of your purchased water, the moreconfident you can be in its quality. A great varietyof water quality from various vendors should beexpected since the water in a tanker can becontaminated in many ways. If the inside of thetanker is not regularly cleaned, or becomescontaminated (e.g. by filling the tank with a tubethrough an inspection cover), the water quality iscompromised.

Nevertheless, if your country, province, or othergoverning body has enforceable standards formarketed drinking water, you may be reasonablyassured of its quality.

Our community is satisfied with the service of ourvendor, and are assured of its water quality.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Piped Water (G)

Many villages may have piped water systems thatsupply communal taps or yard taps. These pipedwater systems are often small and rely oncommunity management, and many use untreatedgroundwater sources. Small piped water systems areusually fed by gravity, either from protected springsor from surface water above the village, althoughsome may be supplied from boreholes fitted withmotorized pumps. Most piped water supplies

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include storage tanks so that water is alwaysavailable, even when demand is heaviest. Suchtanks are usually necessary because the rate ofwater use at peak times of the day (often earlymorning and early evening) is greater than theaverage rate of use throughout the day. The tanksalso provide emergency storage in the event of abreakdown. When planning a piped system,community members should consider carefullywhere to locate the taps, so that everyone hasrelatively easy access. However, the design of pipedsystems can be quite complicated and it may not bepossible to place taps where people would prefer.

It is important to determine that the water usedas the source for the pipe system is sanitary. Themain source water should be treated beforedistribution, in order for potable water to beavailable to the taps. If your water source is nottreated before distribution, be sure to treat thewater yourself.

Piped systems require regular maintenance.Pipe leaks need to be repaired rapidly to preventwater loss, and to prevent surface water fromentering the pipes and contaminating the supply.Also, communal taps are likely to be used heavilyand users may not be as careful as they would bewith their own taps. As a result, the taps are morelikely to break and will need frequent replacement.One way of dealing with these issues is to givesomeone in the community responsibility forchecking communal taps and making repairs. Toprevent the accumulation of stagnant water aroundcommunity taps, which could become mosquitobreeding sites, community members could build aconcrete ‘apron’ at the base of the taps and includea drain and a soakage pit. An example of astandpost is shown above.

Another problem with piped systems is thatusers often do not consider the impact of howmuch water they use, and may not think it isimportant to turn off the tap after use. When thereis a lot of water, this may not have negativeconsequences. However, where the amount ofwater available is limited, if users at the high endof the system leave taps running, users lower downmay suffer shortages or intermittent service. Thiscan force them to use less safe sources of water.Moreover, if the pipes are dry or have very lowflow rates, surface water may enter the pipes andcontaminate the piped water. Users of piped watersystems should thus be aware of the impact of theirwater use on others and good water use should bepromoted. This could be supported through villageregulations or by-laws that penalize people whopersistently abuse the system.

Sanitary risks often occur within theenvironment immediately around the tap. Theseare problems like the exposure of a pipe close tothe tap, finding stagnant water close to the tap orthe erosion of the area around the tap. In manycases, contamination occurs because of theseproblems rather than as a result of poor supplymanagement. In these cases, attention should befocused on ensuring that the area around the tapand the customer main is kept clean and that thepipe remains buried.

In many cases, the pipe that connects the tapriser to the supply main is buried at a very shallowdepth and therefore is easily exposed anddamaged. The particularly weak points are thejoints at the connection to the supply main (wherepressure may be highest) and the joint between thesupply pipe and the riser pipe at the tap itself. Inthe latter case, this is often damaged when manypeople use the tap and the riser pipe has nosupport. Where this is the case, users of the tapsshould be encouraged to put in a support for theriser pipe. Where there are existing taps, this mayhave to be a metal support, but for new taps, theuse of a concrete plinth should be encouraged.

Communities may sometimes put lengths ofhose on the tap to improve the direction of flow ofwater where the tap design cause a wide stream ofwater to flow from the tap. These attached hosesmay cause contamination and their use should bediscouraged. One way to reduce the need for usingsuch attachments is to use taps that have an insertthat directs water into a single stream even at highpressure.

An alternative approach is to reduce the

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Example of a standpostSource: World Health Organisation

distance between the tap outlet and the openingon the water container. The height of the riser pipecan be reduced to a level that is just above theheight of the usual container. Riser pipes do notneed to be 0.5m high if the usual container is only0.3m high. Another approach, which may beappropriate when the tap is already in place, is toconstruct a small plinth to rest the container onthat will raise the container up to close to theheight of the tap. This will also help to support thetap against damage.

For more information regarding sanitaryplumbing practices, refer to the WHO publicationlisted at the end of this chapter, ‘Health Aspects ofPlumbing.’

Our community is satisfied with the quality andquantity of water provided by the water system.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community does all it can to maintain the safetyand sanitary conditions of its tapstands and piping.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Water Conservation: Inventory

(These questions apply primarily to communities inurban areas with individually tapped piped watersupplies.)

1. Monitoring Water Consumption

Estimate the number of liters of water that thecommunity uses in a day. Try to minimize theguess-work by actually measuring as much aspossible. If your water is metered, you can simplydivide the amount of water used per period by thenumber of days in the period.

Amount of water used per day:

2. Leaks and plumbing fixtures

Is there a plumber (someone charged with maintainingwater lines, faucets, toilets, sinks, etc.) in thecommunity?

Yes / No

The following questions should be directed to theperson responsible for making plumbing repairs:

Are all faucets or taps free of leaks or drips?Yes / No / Not Applicable

Are all toilet fill lines free of leaks?Yes / No / Not Applicable

Are all garden hoses free of leaks?Yes / No / Not Applicable

Is all plumbing free of leaks?Yes / No / Not Applicable

Does the community have replacement parts that arecommonly needed (eg. washers, fittings,faucets/valves)?

Yes / No / Not Applicable

Are routine checks of pipes and faucets performed?Yes / No / Not Applicable

Is there a procedure in place for reporting leaks?Yes / No

Describe Procedure:

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Factors for communities considering watersupply improvements

• Have community members been fully consultedabout the type of water supply?

• Have community members had previousexperiences with water supply improvements andhave these been reviewed?

• How will the water supply be managed to ensurethat it is reasonably accessible to everyone in thecommunity?

• How will initial costs be paid and is thecommunity expected to provide labour?

• Will labour be provided free or will thecommunity have to raise funds to cover labourcharges?

• What are the long-term financial implications ofthe choice of water supply?

• Can the community afford to pay expectedoperation and maintenance costs?

• What spare parts are required and how oftenshould they be replaced?

• Who sells these spares and where are theyobtained?

• What tools are required and where can they beobtained?

• Who will be trained to operate and maintain thewater supply?

• What skills should operators have and whattraining will they receive?

• What long-term support can the communityexpect from the government and other agencies?

• If major repairs are required, whom should youcontact and who will pay?

• Will the quality of the water be tested?• How often will testing be done and how will the

information be communicated to the community?

If available, are water-conserving devices in use inthe community?


Does your community use composting toilets?Yes / No / Not Applicable

3. Water Provider’s Practices

Contact your water provider and to answer thefollowing questions.

Water provider:


Contact infromation:

How much water is lost from the system throughleakage?

What measure(s) is/are the provider taking to alleviateany leakage problems?

Has the provider assessed the effect that the watersystem’s intake has on groundwater levels? If so, describeit below; or if not, ask why it has not been done:

4. Education and Personal Habits

Is the community well-informed about the need for waterconservation, and about personal habits that could bechanged in order to not be wasteful of a valuableresource?

Yes / No

1. Is an effort made to reduce the amount of time spentin showers, or to reduce the amount of water used in theshowering process?


2. Is an effort made to shut off the tap/ faucet whenwater is not being used (e.g. When brushing teeth orwashing dishes, etc)


3. Is a mop and bucket or a broom used to clean theground/ floor, instead of a hose or dumped water.


5. Using Greywater

Is greywater (wash water, not contaminated with feces)collected and reused?


Used water is collected from the following sources: (checkall that apply)

c Showersc Kitchen sinksc Bath tubsc Bathroom sinksc Utility sinksc Dishwasherc Washing machines

Water Conservation: Evaluation

Communities need to conserve water resources forfuture generations; the following discussionaddresses several ways in which this can beaccomplished. Following the discussion section is areference chart filled with a variety of ways toconserve water.


1. Monitoring Water Consumption

There are good reasons to determine the amount ofwater your community uses on a daily basis. Forinstance, by comparing month to month changes,your community can continually assess theirconsumption of water.

How much does a person need? To sustain areasonable quality of living requires between 25 to80 litres of water per person per day. If theconsumption is much higher than this, much ofextra use is probably due to careless wasting. Insuch a case, it may be important to assess the waterneeds of the community. Although tedious, byinterviewing the various members of your

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community about their water usage, you manydetermine why the consumption is so high.Inessential uses of water should be identified andeliminated, and less consumptive practices shouldbe disseminated throughout your community.

Our community regularly keeps track of our waterconsumption and consistently strives to minimize theamount used.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


Check for leaks, especially faulty washers, andrepair them. It’s probably best if the communityhas at least one person that is responsible formaintaining plumbing and plumbing fixtures.

The community should keep a small inventoryof commonly needed parts and tools needed torepair the most common problems. A goodinventory is best stocked according to theaccumulated history of the community’s plumbingproblems (water leaks). The experience of acommunity plumber is one way to keep track ofthe history, but maintaining records is a wise ideaalso.

There should be routine inspections, especiallyin the most common problem areas, such as areasthat receive high amounts of useage (communitysinks, taps, etc.). In addition, all communitymembers can be a part of a continual inspection byreporting any leaks encountered. The reportingprocess should be easy, standard, and known to allcommunity members.

Fit water conserving devices. Many commonlyused appliances can be modified to conserve wateror bought specifically for their water conservingqualities:• Spray taps and faucet aerators are an

alternative to steady flow taps enabling a smallervolume of water to achieve the same results.• Low flow shower heads can be fitted to

maximise water coverage and minimise watervolume.• In the toilet: By adding a sealed plastic bottle

filled with water inside your toilet cistern or byadjusting your ballcock, the amount of water usedper flush can be reduced to a minimum.Alternatively a dual flush toilet system can befitted which discharges a small volume of water forliquid waste and a larger volume for solid waste,efficient flushing depends upon the velocity of thewater rather than the volume which tends to be

grossly out of proportion with the waste that thewater flushes.• Install a composting toilet, if appropriate, and

you can do away with using water to flush awayyour wastes. The added benefit to this simpletechnology is the rich compost at the end of theprocess, returning nutrients back to the soil thatwould otherwise end up in rivers. In China andJapan night soil (as it is called) has beenscrupulously collected for centuries to fertilise thefields. Composting toilets need no water anddepend on bacterial action to break down harmfulbugs in the waste.

(Consult the resources listed at the end of thischapter for more information regarding waterconservation technologies. More informationabout composting toilets can be found in theSanitation Assessment in Chapter 4.)

Our community has clear policies and proceduresregarding water leaks, so that any leaks are quicklyrepaired.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community also strives to use water conservingdevices whenever they are available.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Water Provider’s Practices

Write to, or call your local Water Provider and findout how much water it loses in its pipes throughleakage and what measures it is taking to alleviatethe situation. In some areas this figure is over onethird.

Communities should discuss with the WaterProvider the short- and long-term impacts of watersupply improvement on water resources. Forexample, sinking too many boreholes in an areamay cause serious depletion of water heldunderground and even cause water sources to dryup.

This can also lead to deteriorating waterquality: as the water table falls, domestic boreholesmust be sunk deeper into underground water thatmay contain harmful chemicals such as fluoride orarsenic.

Because community members are the principalstakeholders of local water resources, they shouldalways assess the longer-term effects of waterpumping on the environment and should beactively involved in evaluating the risks.

Especially if shortages occur, if costs rise, if

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metering is in place, if the water system is loosinga lot of water, or the groundwater table is beingrapidly depleted, the Water Provider is not beingmanaged in the best interests of the communitythat it is serving. In such a case, the communityshould do what is necessary to ensure that theWater Provider’s management practices arechanged.

Our community actively pressures our Water Providerto use the best management practices it can to conservewater.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Education and Personal Habits

Water conservationAlthough it is important that people use enoughwater for good hygiene, it is also important not towaste water. Piped water supplies are particularlyvulnerable to wastage; if they are not properlymanaged, the community as a whole may sufferwater shortages and people will have to wait longerto collect water. Most piped water systems leakand need to be checked regularly and repaired assoon as faults are discovered. Taps should also beturned off immediately after use and childrendiscouraged from playing with taps.

Why conserve water?Ultimately, the fresh water available to acommunity depends upon the amounts of rainfall,local hydrology and the geology of the area.

If the community takes out more water thanthe natural system will allow, then this leads to alowering of the water table and possible dramaticeffects upon water quality, future water suppliesand agriculture. It also has harmful consequencesfor the wildlife/amenity value of the landscape,reducing flowing rivers to muddy puddles.

Faced with the problems of over abstractionfrom natural water bodies the knee-jerk reaction isto construct more reservoirs. This solution impactsheavily upon the wildlife/amenity value of naturallandscapes and alters the hydrology of the area.The sane alternative to this tinkering response is touse the water you have in a sustainable way byconserving and recycling it.

A community must value their water supplyand ensure that the community’s demands upon itare not too great, so that the supply can last intothe future.

Think twiceMuch water conservation is common sense:

• Washing clothes: Use full loads in yourwashing machine, or if purchasing a machine lookfor economy features such as half load capability orreduced water consumption.

• Refrigerate drinking water in order to preventrunning the tap for long periods waiting for coldwater.

• Conversely, insulate hot water pipes toprevent running the tap for long periods waitingfor hot water.

• Wash dishes by hand, using one bowl forwashing and one for rinsing. Bowls are filled withless water than it takes to fill the sink.

• Use showers instead of baths. Have baths as atreat, a sensual experience to be relished once in awhile. Showers with low flowheads use far lesswater than the averag bath.

• Collect rainwater. This collected water can beused for most applications but care should betaken if you suspect any leaching of particles fromyour roof surface. If this is the case then the watercan still be used for washing your car, or bicycle,and watering ornamental, (non edible) plants.

• Car washing: It is possible to wash a car withonly one bucket of water. But does it really needwashing?

• Garden watering: To save water and to giveyour plants the maximum benefit it is best to waterout of direct sunlight, i.e., in the evening. This willcut down on water loss due to evaporation. Avoidsprinklers, which use water indiscriminately, andtry to target the water precisely where it is mostneeded. Grow plants in beds, not containers.

• Save cooking water and use it as stock or as abase for soups; it can be kept for several days in acooler or frozen.

Our community is well informed about the need forwater conservation practices, and our members adapttheir behaviour accordingly.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Using Greywater

Recycle greywaterAll the water used in the community, apart fromtoilet flush water, can be re-used to some degree.Water can be collected from seven main sources:

• Showers• Bath tubs• Bathroom sinks

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(These three together use 75% of non-flush waterused in the home and contain less than 10% of theparticulates)• Washing machine• Utility sinks• Dishwashers• Kitchen sinks

Making use of Waste WaterA temporary solution is to manually bucket thewater, usually termed greywater, from the source toits eventual destination. A more sophisticatedmethod is to re-route the drain pipes of the fixturesand appliances from which you intend to re-usewater into a common discharge buffer tank. Asmall electric or hand pump may be needed ifgravity feed is not possible, dishwashers andwashing machines have their own discharge pumpswhich are capable of delivering water to anelevated storage tank.

Greywater qualities & usesThe quality of the greywater the communitycollects ultimately depends upon what it iscollected from, and how well it is filtered before re-use. Greywater can generally be used as a flushwater without any treatment besides simplefiltration. Greywater can also be used on gardenand potted plants, although more filtration mightbe considered for this application.

Particles can be filtered out by using a simplemesh filter on the plughole. Soap and detergentresidues can be harmful to plants, so it is best touse bio-degradable cleaning products, sparingly.

If the greywater is passed through severalfiltering systems i.e a settling tank, then greasetrap, then sand filter, the resulting water can beused with little worry over the potentialaccumulation of harmful chemicals. It can beapplied to all types of vegetation.

If you do not possess the space or resources forthis kind of filtration the greywater that you haveso scrupulously saved can still be used to top upyour toilet system, or used selectively in thegarden. In this case, care should be taken to wateronly ornamental plants or mature well establishedvegetable plots, it is also advisable to avoid contactbetween the greywater and the vegetation itself, i.ewater the soil around the plants only.

Sodium, contained in detergents, can build upafter lengthy periods of application necessitatingadding gypsum to the soil to lower the alkalinitywhich sodium causes. This build up can easily be

detected by making a test for pH. Any possibleharmful effects can be minimised by diluting thegreywater with collected/fresh or filtered water.

Explore the resources listed at the end of thischapter to learn of inexpensive and safe ways toadapt your plumbing to reuse greywater.

Our community makes the most reasonable use of ourgreywater.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions

Now enter the scores from each section in the column atright

score

1. Water consumption monitoring


2. Water conservation devices

3. Water Provider’s practices

4. Education and personal habits

5. Using Greywater

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourcommunity’s water conserving habits, how would yourate, overall, your community’s practices in theseregards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

continued

73


Problem 3

Problem 4

Problem 5



46 WAYS OF SAVING WATER

1. Never put water down the drain when there may be

another use for it such as watering a plant or garden, or

cleaning.

2. Verify that your community is leak-free, because many

homes have hidden water leaks. Read your water meter

before and after a two-hour period when no water is being

used. If the meter does not read exactly the same, there is

a leak.

3. Repair dripping taps by replacing washers. If your tap is

dripping at the rate of one drop per second, you can

expect to waste over 5,000 liters per year which will add

to the cost of water and sewer utilities, or strain your

septic system.

4. Check for toilet tank leaks by adding food colouring to the

tank. If the toilet is leaking, colour will appear within 30

minutes. Check the toilet for worn out, corroded or bent

parts. Most replacement parts are inexpensive, readily

available and easily installed. (Flush as soon as test is

done, since food colouring may stain tank.)

5. Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Dispose of tissues,

insects and other such waste in the rubbish bin rather

than the toilet.

6. Take shorter showers. Replace you showerhead with an

ultra-low-flow version. Some units are available that allow

you to cut off the flow without adjusting the water

temperature knobs.

7. Use the minimum amount of water needed for a bath by

closing the drain first and filling the bath only 1/3 full.

The initial burst of cold water can be warmed by adding

hot water later.

8. Don’t let water run while shaving or washing your face.

Brush your teeth first while waiting for water to get hot,

then wash or shave after filling the basin.

9. Retrofit all wasteful household taps by installing aerators

with flow restrictors.

10. Operate automatic dishwashers and clothes washers only

when they are fully loaded or properly set the water level

for the size of load you are using.

11. When washing dishes by hand, fill one sink or basin with

soapy water. Quickly rinse under a slow-moving stream

from the tap.

12. Store drinking water in the refrigerator rather than letting

the tap run every time you want a cool glass of water.

13. Do not use running water to thaw meat or other frozen

foods. Defrost food overnight in the refrigerator or by

using the defrost setting on your microwave.

14. Kitchen sink disposals require lots of water to operate

properly. Start a compost pile as an alternate method of

disposing food waste instead of using a garbage disposal.

Garbage disposals also can add 50% to the volume of

solids in a septic tank that can lead to malfunctions and

maintenance problems.

15. Consider installing an instant water heater on your

kitchen sink so you don’t have to let the water run while

it heats up. This will reduce heating costs for your

household.

16. Insulate your water pipes. You’ll get hot water faster plus

avoid wasting water while it heats up.

17. Never install a water-to-air heat pump or air-conditioning

system. Air-to-air models are just as efficient and do not

waste water.

74


18. Install water softening systems only when necessary. Save

water and salt by running the minimum amount of

regenerations necessary to maintain water softness. Turn

softeners off while on vacation.

19. Check your pump. If you have a well at your home, listen

to see if the pump kicks on and off while the water is not

in use. If it does, you have a leak.

20. When adjusting water temperatures, instead of turning

water flow up, try turning it down. If the water is too hot

or cold, turn the offender down rather than increasing

water flow to balance the temperatures.

21. If the toilet flush handle frequently sticks in the flush

position, letting water run constantly, replace or adjust it

Saving Water Outdoors

22. Don’t over-water your lawn. As a general rule, lawns only

need watering every 5 to 7 days in the summer and every

10 to 14 days in the winter. A hearty rain eliminates the

need for watering for as long as two weeks.

23. Water lawns during the early morning hours when

temperatures and wind speed are the lowest. This reduces

losses from evaporation.

24. Don’t water your street, driveway or sidewalk. Position

your sprinklers so that your water lands on the lawn and

shrubs ... not the paved areas.

25. Install sprinklers that are the most water-efficient for each

use. Micro and drip irrigation and soaker hoses are

examples of water-efficient methods of irrigation.

26. Regularly check sprinkler systems and timing devices to be

sure they are operating properly. It is highly

reccommended that anyone who purchases and installs an

automatic lawn sprinkler system should also install a rain

sensor device or switch which will override the irrigation

cycle of the sprinkler system if inadequate rainfall has

occurred. To retrofit your existing system, contact an

irrigation professional for more information.

27. Raise the lawn mower blade to at least three inches. A

lawn cut higher encourages grass roots to grow deeper,

shades the root system and holds soil moisture better than

a closely-clipped lawn.

28. Mulch to retain moisture in the soil. Mulching also helps

to control weeds that compete with plants for water.

29. Plant native and/or drought-tolerant grasses, ground

covers, shrubs and trees. Once established, they do not

need to be watered as frequently and they usually will

survive a dry period without any watering. Group plants

together based on similar water needs.

30. Do not hose down your driveway or sidewalk. Use a

broom to clean leaves and other debris from these areas.

Using a hose to clean a driveway can waste hundreds of

liters of water.

31. Outfit your hose with a shut-off nozzle that can be

adjusted down to fine spray so that water flows only as

needed. When finished, ‘Turn it Off ’ at the tap instead of

at the nozzle to avoid leaks.

32. Use hose washers between spigots and water hoses to

eliminate leaks.

33. Check all hoses, connectors and spigots regularly.

34. Consider using a commercial car wash that recycles water.

If you wash your own car, park on the grass to do so.

35. Avoid the installation of ornamental water features (such

as fountains) unless the water is recycled.

General Water Saving Tips

36. Create an awareness of the need for water conservation

within your community.

37. Be aware of and follow all water conservation and water

shortage rules and restrictions that may be in effect in

your area.

38. Encourage your employer to promote water conservation

at the workplace. Suggest that water conservation be put

in the employee orientation manual and training program.

39. Patronise businesses that practice and promote water

conservation.

40. Report all significant water losses (broken pipes, open

hydrants, errant sprinklers, abandoned free-flowing wells,

etc.) to the property owner, local authorities or your Water

Management District.

41. Encourage your school system and local government to

help develop and promote a water conservation ethic

among children and adults.

42. Support projects that will lead to an increased use of

reclaimed waste water for irrigation and other uses.

43. Support efforts and programs to create a concern for water

conservation among tourists and visitors. Make sure your

visitors understand the need for, and benefits of, water

conservation.

44. Encourage your friends and neighbours to be part of a

water conscious community. Promote water conservation

in community newsletters, on bulletin boards and by

example.

45. Conserve water because it is the right thing to do. Don’t

waste water just because someone else is footing the bill

such as when you are staying at a hotel.

46. Try to do one thing each day that will result in a savings

of water. Don’t worry if the savings is minimal. Every drop

counts. And every person can make a difference. So tell

your friends, neighbours and co-workers to ‘Turn it Off ’

and ‘Keep it Off ’.

(Source: Water Ambassador)

75


Acknowledgements for Chapter Three

The information contained in this chapter hasprimarily been adapted from the works of GuyHoward, especially from the following threepublications:Howard, Guy. Water Quality Surveillance: A PracticalGuide. WEDC, Loughborough University, 2002.Available online from http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk.Howard, Guy. Water Supply Surveillance: A ReferenceManual. WEDC, Loughborough University, 2002.Available online from http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk.Guy Howard, with Claus Bogh, Greg Goldstein, JoyMorgan, Annette Prüss, Rod Shaw, Joanna Teuton.Healthy Villages: A guide for communities andcommunity health. World Health Organization, 2002.Available online from:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/settings/healthvillages/In addition, the World Health Organization’sGuidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 3rd Ed. wereused as a reference, as well as the WHO publication:Water quality assessments: a guide to the use of biota,sediments and water in environmental monitoring, 2ndedition. Edited by Deborah Chapman. Published onbehalf of UNESCO, WHO and UNEP. London, E &FN Spon, 1996.The information used in the discussion regarding watergovernance (Question 4 of the Drinking Water QualityAssessment) was adapted from: David B. Brooks,In_Focus: WATER Local-level Management . IDRC,2002. Available online: http://www.idrc.ca/water. IDRCID#21857

Resources for Chapter Three: Water

Capacity Building for Integrated Water ResourcesManagement http://www.cap-net.org/ Cap-Net is aninternational network for capacity building inintegrated water resource management. It is made up ofa partnership of autonomous international, regionaland national institutions and networks committed tocapacity building in the water sector.Department of Water and Sanitation in DevelopingCountries http://www.sandec.ch/ SANDEC’s mandateis to assist in developing appropriate and sustainablewater and sanitation concepts and technologiesadapted to the different physical and socio-economicconditions prevailing in developing countries.Life Water Canada http://www.lifewater.ca/ is a non-profit organization training & equipping the rural poorin Africa to drill wells and build washrooms.Inter-American Water Resources Networkhttp://www.iwrn.net/ IWRN is a network of networkswhose purpose is to build and strengthen waterresources partnerships among nations, organizations,and individuals; to promote education and the openexchange of information and technical expertise; and toenhance communication, cooperation, collaborationand financial commitment to integrated water and landresources management within the context ofenvironmental and economic sustainability in theAmericas.UNICEF: United Nations’ Children’s Fund

http://www.unicef.org internet page contains technicaland educational resources regarding water quality andhygiene.Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council(WSSCC) http://www.wash-cc.org/ By UN mandate,the Council seeks to accelerate the achievement ofsustainable sanitation, hygiene and water services to allpeople, with special attention to the unserved poorthrough: advocacy and awareness raising campaigns,and facilitating concerted action programmes focusedat improved sanitation and hygiene service delivery.Water, Engineering, and Development Centre(WEDC) http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/ is one of the world’sleading institutions concerned with education, training,research, and consultancy relating to the planning,provision, and management of infrastructure fordevelopment. Their internet site provides access tonumerous documents regarding safe water handling.WaterAid http://www.wateraid.org.uk/ is aninternational non governmental organisation dedicatedexclusively to the provision of safe domestic water,sanitation and hygiene education to the world’s poorestpeople. WaterAid helps local organisations set up lowcost, sustainable projects using appropriate technologythat can be managed by the community itself.WELL—Resource Centre Network for Water,Sanitation and Environmental Healthhttp://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/index.htm is a resourcecentre network providing access to information andsupport in water, sanitation and environmental healthfor the Department for International Development(DFID) of the British Government.World Water Councilhttp://www.worldwatercouncil.org/ mission is ‘topromote awareness, build political commitment andtrigger action on critical water issues at all levels,including the highest decision-making level, to facilitatethe efficient conservation, protection, development,planning, management and use of water in all itsdimensions on an environmentally sustainable basis forthe benefit of all life on earth.’Young Water Action Teamhttp://www.ywat.org/index.html is a global network ofyoung water professionals and students aged 18-30with members in more than 40 countries. Inpartnership with international water organisations,YWAT is creating a network of young people who arededicated to tacking the world’s challenges with water,sanitation and hygiene.International Water and Sanitation Center (IRC):http://www.irc.nl P.O. Box 2869; 2601 CW Delft; TheNetherlands. Tel: +31 15 219 2939. News andinformation, advice, research and training, on low-costwater supply and sanitation in developing countries.Information available in Spanish, including a largelibrary of documents.World Health Organization Water, Sanitation andHealth Division,http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/en/. WSHdivision’s aim is the reduction of water and wasterelated disease and the optimization of the healthbenefits of sustainable water and waste management,with an objective of assisting citizens to understandand act on the health impacts of their actions. WHOhas hundreds of full text manuals available on-line andby order.

76


Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)http://www.paho.org is the regional division of WHOwith contacts and offices present in most countries:Headquarters (USA): 1-202-974-3000Cuba- (53-7) 831-0245Nicaragua-(505) 289-4200Argentina- (54-11) 4312-5301Dom. Rep.- (1-809)562-1519Panama- (507) 212-7800 Bahamas- (1-242) 326-7390Ecuador- (593-2) 246-0330 Paraguay- (595-21) 450-495Barbados: (1-246) 426-3860El Salvador- (503)298-3491Peru- (51-1) 421-3030Belize- (501) 224-4885Guatemala- (011-502) 332-2032Puerto Rico- (787) 274-7608 Bolivia- (591-2) 241-2303Guyana- (592) 225-3000Suriname- (597) 471-676Brazil- (55-61) 426-9595Haiti- (509) 260-5700Trinidad- (1-868) 624-7524Chile- (56-2) 264-9300Honduras- (504) 239-0136Uruguay- (598-2) 707-3590Colombia- (57-1) 347-8373Jamaica- (1-876)967-4626Venezuela- (58-212) 267-1622Costa Rica- (506) 258-5810Mexico- (5255) 5089-08-60

Fundacion Sodis para America Latina, UniversidadMayor de San Simon, Cochabamba, Bolivia, Castilla5783 Telefono (+571) 4 454 2259www.fundacionsodis.org Fundacion Sodis is a non-profit organisation whose mission is to promote thelow-cost and effective Sodis method of water treatmentthroughout Latin America.

Print Resources

Cassinath, Natasha; R. Garcia; et.al. Trabajando Juntos:Un manual de campo para trabajar con proyectos deagua. (2nd Ed.). Red Centroamericana de Manejo deRecursos Hidricos (CARA), 2002. Available from theUniversidad NacionalAutónoma de Nicaragua: (505) 278-6981, or online athttp://www.caragua.org.World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines forDrinking-water Quality: 3rd ed. WHO Press, 2004.WHO. Health Aspects of Plumbing. Published jointlyby WHO, and World Plumbing Council. WHO Press,2006.WHO. Healthy Villages. WHO Press, 2002.

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78


Overview: Sanitation, MunicipalWaste, and Hazardous Waste

Since the dawn of humanity, people have notonly consumed the gifts of the Earth, buthave also left behind things of their own

creation. Important and ubiquitous items leftbehind include feces and corpses; furthermore,there are broken tools, clothes, vacated dwellingstructures, and a whole host of other things thatwe broadly refer to as ‘waste’. Many of these‘wastes’ pose significant health hazards to humans,but also to other animals, plants, and entireecosystems.

In many ways it is unfortunate that we considerthese ‘wastes’ as undesirable, as things to simply bedisposed of, as a burden, etc. As a consequence ofthis attitude, humans have had to contrive ways todispose of their wastes, and these means havegenerally consisted of concentrating (orcollecting/centralizing) the waste into one locationand burying it or piling it up. Landfills (i.e. garbagedumps), wastewater treatment plants, cemetaries,etc. are all examples of this response.

Unfortunately, as the human family has growntremendously in size, this type of response hascreated numerous catastophic messes around theglobe. Sprawling garbage dumps are plaguing thelandscape, they pollute groundwater and surfacewater, and are breeding grounds for many pests.Sewer systems have been responsible for poisoningthe earth’s waters, making them unfit to drink orswim in. Hazardous wastes have beenaccumulating not only in waters and soils, but alsoin the living tissue of organisms—including us!

Perhaps the time has come for us to change ourattitude into one in which we strive to recognizeour ‘wastes’ as the gifts and resources that wenaturally produce. A very great percentage of thewaste we generate can actually be reused in avariety of ways. It is our challenge to find or createways to recycle those wastes for which we haven’tcurrently any use.

In this chapter, three specific areas of wastegeneration and handling will be examined indepth. Each will be preceded with an introductory

section that provides background information onthe topic under discussion. The first assessmentdeals with your community’s handling of humanexcreta; the second deals with your handling of theother forms of solid waste that are generated byyour community; and finally some attention willbe directed to your community’s handling ofhazardous materials. The intention of the chapteris for you to assess with what level of respect yourcommunity regards its waste, and how ecologicallysound your waste handling practices are.

Community Excreta Handlingand Sanitation: Introduction

Ecological Sanitation

Sanitation refers to the supply of good-qualitydrinking water, proper disposal of excreta, hygienein the preparation of meals, cleanliness in thehome, and the collection and final disposal of solidwaste. Basically, sanitation consists of our means ofproctecting ourselves from the inherent dangers ofour own excrement, and the feces of other animals.

Sanitation practices, and sanitary habits arevery important for the prevention of many diseasesand parasitic infections. Parasites are livingcreatures that feed on other living creatures,causing the host organisms harm in the process.The eggs and larvae of parasites are often verysmall and are easily ingested. Similarly, many typesof harmful bacteria are present in fecal matter thatcan cause painful and mortal infections, and whichcan occur quite easily.

‘Sanitation,’ for the purposes of thisassessment, refers specifically to your system ofhandling and managing human excreta. A varietyof styles of latrines, flush toilets, and sewernetworks are all examples of sanitation technologythat is presently used. Ecological, or sustainablesanitation means that all elements of sanitation arein balance, and that the system poses no threat tohuman health nor to the earth’s health.

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Chapter 4

Sanitation and Waste Handling

Sanitation and Population Explosion: A DeadlyMix?

Unfortunately, sanitation is a critical problem inmany places around the world because of rapidpopulation growth and unsuitable technologicalresponses. Sanitary conditions for much of theworld’s population are not improving despite theenormous suffering caused by poor sanitation.

For as long as the human population was smalland dispersed over a large area, sanitation was notsuch a problem; however, the situation hasdramatically changed. The human population isnow 1000 times greater than it was 10 000 yearsago. Today 2.5 billion people live in urban areasalone. People are living closer and closer together;alternately stated, more and more people are livingin the same amount of space.

One consequence of this increasing populationdensity is that we (humans) are putting higher andhigher pressure on the environment, especially inthe most densely populated regions. The closertogether we live, the more important it is for us tohave access to, and make use of, good sanitationfacilities.

Excreta: Environmental Pollutant and HealthHazard

The failure to properly treat and managewastewater and excreta is directly responsible fornumerous adverse health and environmentaleffects. Poor sanitation gives rise to high rates ofdiarrheal diseases, to helminth (parasitic worm)infections like ascariasis and hookworm, and tovector-borne diseases like malaria, dengue feverand Japanese encephalitis. Human excreta hasbeen implicated in the transmission of many otherinfectious diseases including cholera, typhoid,hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, andschistosomiasis.

Besides direct contact or ingestion, one of themain pathways of disease is being spread byvectors, or other living creatures. Such creatures—e.g. flies, rats, cockroaches, etc.—are particularlydrawn to human excreta; and thus poor sanitaryfacilities are often the breeding grounds for severalsuch creatures.

Human excreta-transmitted diseasespredominantly affect children and the poor. Mostof the deaths due to diarrhea occur in children(accounting for nearly two million) and especiallyoccur in the poorest regions. Every year, 2.5

million children die of diarrhea, deaths that couldhave been prevented by good sanitation: millionsmore suffer the nutritional, educational, andeconomic loss through diarrheal disease thatimprovements in sanitation, especially humanexcreta management, can prevent.

Overall, the World Health Organizationestimates that nearly 3.3 million people dieannually from diarrheal diseases, and that astaggering 1.5 billion suffer, at any one time, fromparasitic worm infections stemming from humanexcreta and solid wastes in the environment.

Besides the infectious diseases associated withpoor sanitation, the wastewater from sewersystems also creates a host of environmental andhealth problems. Heavy metals, toxic organic andinorganic substances are also often present inwastewater. These pollutants can also pose seriousthreats to human health and the environment.Industrial wastewater and ‘municipal sludge’ (oneby-product of sewage treatment which consists ofthe solids settled out of wastewater) may containhigh concentrations of heavy metals such ascadmium, lead, nickel and chromium. Heavymetals concentrate in the tissues of many filter-feeding shellfish, fish, and in some cases terrestrialplants. For this reason, consumers of theseproducts face significant health threats.

Excessive nutrients (primarily nitrogen andphosphorus) in wastewater, sludge, and excretamay contaminate surface waters and causeeutrophication. Eutrophication is a processwhereby water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, orslow-moving streams receive excess nutrients thatstimulate excessive plant growth (algae, nuisanceplants weeds). This enhanced plant growth, oftencalled an algal bloom, causes other organisms todie. The eutrophication of freshwaters sometimesalso causes the growth of toxin-producingcyanobacteria. Toxins produced by cyanobacteriacan cause gastroenteritis, liver damage, nervoussystem impairment, and skin irritation.

Other chemicals such as pharmaceuticalresidues and potential endocrine disruptingsubstances have been identified in wastewater andexcreta, but the effects of these pollutants have notyet been fully determined.

Sewered Sanitation Technology: Problematicand Unsustainable

In an attempt to deal with the critical problems ofsanitation, humans have developed and built

80


sewerage systems, or networks of undergroundpipes, which are designed to convey human wastesaway from homes to a central outlet point. Intheory, a treatment plant is located at the outletpoint, ostensibly making the water safe againbefore being released into the environment. Thesesewer networks require the use of ‘flush’ toiletswhich are basically machines for mixing humanurine, faeces and water.

This technology has been considered the safestand most effective means of sanitation, and hasbeen championed by numerous influentialorganizations and people around the world.Unfortunately humans have discovered that thistechnology is unsatisfactory, unsustainable, and asource of serious environmental damage.

Although well-intentioned, flush-and-dischargesystems compound the problems of sanitation.With these systems a relatively small amount ofdangerous material—human faeces—is allowed topollute a huge amount of water. In spite of this,flush-and-discharge is almost universally regardedas the ideal option for urban areas. Almost withoutquestion it is promoted in cities and town aroundthe world, even in the pooreset regions wherepeople cannot afford it and in arid areas wherethere is hardly enough water for drinking.

This preference for flush-and-discharge is basedon a number of assumptions:

1. that the problem is one of ‘sewage disposal’2. that fresh water is an unlimited resource3. that at the end of the pipe the sewage is

treated4. that the environment can take care of the

discharge from the treatment plantHowever, none of these assumptions is correct.

The basic problem is the disposal of humanfeces and urine, not ‘sewage’.A human body does not produce ‘sewage’. Sewageis the product of a particular technology. Thehuman body produces urine and feces. These areoften referred to as ‘human excreta’ but it isimportant to remember that they are in fact twodifferent substances which leave the body throughseparate openings and in different directions. Eachperson produces about 500 litres of urine and 50litres of feces per year. Fifty litres of feces shouldnot be too difficult to manage. It is not a verypleasant product and may contain pathogenicorganisms. But the volume is small: whendehydrated it is actually no more than a bucketfulper person per year.

The real problem is that in the flush-and-discharge system feces are not handled on theirown. They are mixed with urine. This means thatinstead of 50 litres of a heavily polluted substancewe have to take care of 550 polluted, dangerousand extremely unpleasant litres. One of the reasonsbehind the unpleasantness of the mixture of urineand feces is that feces contain a bacterium,Micrococcus ureae, which when mixed with urineproduces a very unpleasant smell.

Outright shortage of water is often a majorproblem for Latin American cities.A flush system does not work without water. Toflush away the 550 litres of feces and urine in asewered toilet each person uses about 15,000 litresof pure water every year. In most cities in the worldthere is nowhere near enough water to provide thatamount for each of its inhabitants. The typicalresponse is to provide flush-and-discharge only tothe rich, which of course means that there is evenless water available to the poor.

Globally, some 80 countries with 40 per cent ofthe world’s population are already suffering fromwater shortages at some time during the year.Chronic freshwater shortages are expected by theend of the decade in much of Africa, the MiddleEast, northern China, parts of India and Mexico,the western United States, northeastern Brazil andin the former Soviet Central Asian republics.China alone has 300 cities facing serious watershortages.

Only a tiny fraction of all sewage produced inLatin America is treated.A very high percentage of all sewage in LatinAmerica is discharged completely untreated intosurface waters. Many cities do not have any sewagetreatment system at all, and of those that do, mostserve only a small fraction of the population.Estimates suggest that less than 5% of all sewage inLatin America receives any treatment before it isdischarged into the environment.

Even where there is treatment, the vast majorityof sewage treatment technologies in use today stillcontribute significant amounts of pollutants to theenvironment. Even modern treatment facilitiesusually do not cope with phosphates and nitrates.Nor are treatment plants designed to detoxifychemical wastes. Primary treatment simply filtersout floating and suspended material; secondarytreatment facilitates the biological degradation offeces and urine and other similar material; and

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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste

disinfection destroys infectious organisms. Most ofthe industrial and household toxic wastes releasedinto sewers are either discharged into receivingwaters, or remain in the sludge.

In addition to pathological pollution, otherpollutants found in sewer effluent are heavy metalsand possible toxic household substances. Heavymetals include copper, zinc, cadmium, nickel,chromium and lead. The content andconcentration are dependent on the pipe materialsemployed to convey drinking water, householdcleaning agents used, and, for stormwater, the typeof materials used for roofing and guttering. Toxicmaterials may also be disposed with householdwastewater. In high enough concentrations theseheavy metals are toxic to bacteria, plants andanimals, and to people.

All over the world we can find examples ofnatural ecosystems destroyed by the dischargeof untreated or partly treated sewage.In the past it was a common assumption that thepollution which results from conventionalsanitation technologies can be safely assimilated bythe environment. This assumption is not correct.Some chemicals will decompose and be removedby natural processes, but most will remain in theenvironment.

The inevitable end products of a sewage systemare polluted waters and toxic sludge. The fourconventional sludge disposal methods are oceandumping, landfilling, incineration and applicationon agricultural land. From an environmental pointof view all these methods are unacceptable andfrom all over the world we have reports of thedegradation of the environment due to sewagedischarge and sludge disposal.

Thus, conventional sanitation in the form ofsewered flush-and-discharge offers no solution tothe global sanitation crisis. A different approach tosanitation is needed.

Sustainable Approach to Sanitation, and thisAssessment

Environmentally sound practices in wastewaterand stormwater management are practices thatensure that public health and environmentalquality are protected. A range of technologies existthat can achieve this objective. Nevertheless, moreeffort must be extended towards findingsustainable approaches for reducing health hazardsassociated with wastewater, sludge and excreta,

and at the same time, closing the nutrient cycleand protecting limited fresh water sources and theenvironment.

The purpose of the following assessment is tohelp guide you in evaluating the state of yourcommunity’s sanitation practices, with the view ofmolding your community’s practices intosustainable, ecological sanitation. In addition tothis assessment, refer to the ‘Drinking WaterQuality and Source Protection Assessment’ inChapter 3 to evaluate water supply sanitation, andto the other two assessments in this chapter tofurther evaluate your community’s waste handlingpractices.

Community Excreta Handlingand Sanitation: Inventory

1. Mix or No-Mix

Considering your sanitation facilities (latrines, lavatory,etc), does your community combine or release feces andurine into the same receptacle (a ‘no-mix’ facility keepsthe urine and fecal matter separate)?

Mix / No-Mix

2. Soil conditions

One of the most important environmental factorsto consider in your choice of excreta disposal is thedepth of the water table in your area. The ‘watertable’ refers to the underground depth at whichfreshwater is found.

1) Rate the permeability or porosity of the soil in yourarea:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9stone or clay / humus / sand

2) What is the depth to the water table in your location(meters):

(can be estimated by determining the depth of local wells orboreholes)

3. Characteristics of Sanitation System:

Identify which of the following apply to yourcommunity’s sanitation system, or method of handlinghuman excreta:

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c Open air (no sanitation facility)c Overhung Latrine (directly into surface

water)c Bucket Cartagec Shallow Pit/Trenchc Borehole Latrinesc Other (specify):c Pit Latrine (simple covered)c Pit Latrine (ventilated)c Pit Latrine (raised)c Aquaprivvyc Pour Flushc Full Flushc Composting toilet

1) Does your sanitation system include the use ofplumbing?

Yes / No

If Yes then complete the following questions:

Is there someone in the community responsible for themaintenance of the community sanitatary plumbing?

Name of person responsible:

Inspect the system’s integrity. Is all plumbing free ofleaks?

Yes / NoIdentify the location of any leaks:

Do all toilets include a vapor lock, or ‘drain trap’ toprevent the backflow of gases?

Yes / NoIs there a protocol in place for reporting problems?

Yes / NoDescribe the protocol:

2) Identify if your sanitation system includes any of thefollowing components:

c septic tankc soakawayc drainage fieldc vaultc not applicable

3) Does your sanitation system require periodicemptying?

Yes / NoWhat method is used:c Manual shovelingc Pump

c Vacuum truck

How often is emptying performed?

Who does it?

If the service requires a fee, how much does it cost ?

If known, how is the removed excreta disposed of?

4. Resource Recovery

What form(s) of resource recovery does your communityuse to utilize excreta? Indicate all that apply

c Compost solid wastec Excreta-fed fish pondc Use of urine to water plantsc Biogas digesterc Other (specify):c None

5. Sewer Network

Does your community release its excreta into awastewater sewer network, or other system of plumbingthat is designed to operate with flush water?

Yes / NoIf Yes then complete the following questions:

Is your community’s sewer system:c Conventional (i.e. deep): consists of house

connections routed to main pipes that run alongstreets. System requires pipes, inspectionmanholes, pumps and pumping stations

c Simplified (i.e. shallow, a.k.acondominium): similar to deep sewering, exceptthat houses or individual connections are made toeach other, rather than to a the main line. Theshared connector pipes are smaller in diameterand do not need to be buried as deep

c Settled (a.k.a small bore): sewer systemincludes interceptor tanks, which are settlementtanks, and they require periodic emptying. Inthem, solids that can potentially sediment in thesewerage pipes are removed

Rate the quality or reliability of your sewer network(i.e. how often does it have major leaks or get clogged):

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9poor………excellent

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Who is the party responsible for the administration,maintenance, and alteration of your community’s sewernetwork?

c collective/ cooperative/ neighborhoodc municipality/ municipal govermentc your religious community (owned/operated

by your religious community itself)c corporate entity, or other businessc not organized

If applicable, how do you contact this party?Name of responsible party:

Contact person:


Does your community share in this managementresponsibility?

Yes / No

If so, in what way?

6. Waste Water Treatment

Does your community’s sewer system include a wastewater treatment process?

Yes / No

If Yes then complete the following questions:

Who is responsible for the operational decisions of thewaste water treatment plant, if other than the partyresponsible for the sewer network, and how are theycontacted?

Name of responsible party:

Contact person:


From what source(s) does the waste water treatmentfacility receive sewage flow?

c Purely residential sourcesc Industrial sourcesc Commercial agriculturalc Mining operations

c Urban run-off (land drainage)c Other (specify):

What treatments (if any) are used at the facility?c Preliminary: this includes simple processes

such as screening and grit removal toremove the gross solid pollutionresidue from the process:

c Primary: usually plain sedimentation;simple settlement of the solid material insewage can reduce the polluting load bysignificant amountsresidue from the process:

c Secondary: for further treatment andremoval of common pollutants, usually by abiological processresidue from the process:

c Tertiary: usually for removal of specificpollutants e.g. nitrogen or phosphorous, orspecific industrial pollutantsresidue from the process:

How are the residues disposed of?

Into what body of water, or onto what land does thefacility discharge its effluent (or processed wastewater)?

What pollutant(s) does the effluent contain?c Chemical (specify):

c Nutritional (esp. phosphorous and/ornitrogen)

(specify):

c Biological (pathogens)(specify):

Expert Environmental Information SourceIt would be helpful to contact an environmentalprotection or advocacy group that can providereliable, expert data on the ecological impacts of yoursanitation system. If you don’t know of one, referto the List of Categorized References in the back ofthis manual to help locate one.

Name of organization:


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According to these experts, what are the observedenvironmental effects of the sanitation practices of yourarea?

What, in their opinion, is the best step that yourcommunity could make to improve the sanitationsproblems in your area?

Expert Public Health Information SourceIt would be helpful to contact a public healthprotection or advocacy group that can providereliable, expert data on the health effects of yoursanitation system. If you don’t know of one, referto the List of Categorized References in the back ofthis manual to help locate one.




According to these experts, what are the observedenvironmental effects of the sanitation practices of yourarea?

What, in their opinion, is the best step that yourcommunity could make to improve the sanitationproblems in your area?

7. Hygiene Behavior

Are the facilities (latrine, toilet, etc) that yourcommunity uses kept clean (i.e. cleaned regularly) andfree of fecal matter and other refuse?

Yes / No

If the toilet is located outdoors, is the door kept shut andthe inside kept dark when not in use?

Yes / No

Is the toilet and areas surrounding it regularlysanitized?

Yes / No

Is the toilet area kept free of trash ?Yes / No

Is a handwashing station (with soap) near the toilet?Yes / No

Are the facilities within a convenient walking distance,and the path well-marked?

Yes / No

8. General Sanitation Practices

Does your community include expenses related to excretahandling (sewer fees, operational, maintenance, orimprovement capital) as part of its regular budget?

Yes / No

Does your community educate itself and others in thelarger community about both dangers and best practicespertaining to sanitation?

Yes / No

Does your community educate others about theproductive and beneficial uses of excreta?

Yes / No

Community Excreta Handlingand Sanitation: Evaluation


1. Mix or No-Mix

To meet the requirement of ecological sanitationwe must have ecological toilets. ‘No-mix’ systems,if properly maintained, are ecological. By notmixing human excreta and flushing water thesanitation problem is limited to managing acomparatively small volume of urine and faeces. Asa result, the problems of bad odours and fly-breeding are reduced or even eliminated, andstorage, treatment and transport are made easier. A

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lot of water can be saved, expenditure on pipenetworks and treatment plants is reduced, jobs arecreated and the environment is preserved.

If your community has ‘mix’ type facilities, youmay consider switching to a ‘no-mix’ system,especially if you presently use some type of pitlatrine, or utilize some other on-site treatment.Composting latrines are perhaps the mostecologically sound device for handling excreta.There is a brief discussion of them later, underquestion 3 (see ‘J’ in the table below), and moreinformation may be obtained about them fromresources listed at the end of this chapter.

If on the other hand your community isconnected to a sewer system, a conversion may notbe immediately feasible nor appropriate. It may bemore important in such a case to work at a regionallevel to help innovate alternative practices thatboth conserve water and take advantage of theuseful qualities of urine and feces.

2. Soil Conditions

The conditions of the land in your community arethe most important factors to consider inevaluating or choosing the method of excretadisposal. For example, if your soil is impermeableor the water table high, then it may be necessary touse a vault or a raised pit latrine rather than anyother form of pit latrine or septic system. It isrecommended that you complete the water supplysanitation inventories found in Chapter 3 todetermine more about your community’sprotection of water resources.

If the conditions of the soil and groundwater ofyour area are unknown, it would be most advisableto contact a geological service, organization, orassociated govern-mental agency to request thattesting be performed. Some of the resources at theend of this chapter may be able to help direct youto an appropriate agency.

In any case, you should verify, with the help ofqualified professionals, that your means ofsanitation does not contaminate the water thatyou or anyone in your larger community uses as asource of drinking water.

Our community’s sanitation facilities are anappropriate option for the prevailing soil and waterconditions.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. General Characteristics of Sanitation System

Evaluation statements for 3-3iii are found on page 101

A. Open Air DefacationWhere there are no latrines people resort todefecation in the open. This may be indiscriminateor in special places for defecation generallyaccepted by the community, such as defecationfields, rubbish and manure heaps, or under trees.Open defecation encourages flies, which spreadfeces-related diseases. In moist ground the larvaeof intestinal worms develop, and feces and larvaemay be carried by people and animals. Surfacewater run-off from places where people havedefecated results in water pollution. In view of thehealth hazards created and the degradation of theenvironment, open defecation should not betolerated in villages and other built-up areas. Thereare better options available that confine excreta insuch a way that the cycle of reinfection fromexcrete-related diseases is broken.

B. Overhung Latrine (direct entry into surfacewater)A latrine built over the sea, a river, or other bodyof water into which excreta drops directly, is knownas an overhung latrine. If there is a strong currentin the water the excreta is carried away. Publicshould be warned of the danger to health resultingfrom contact with or use of water into whichexcreta has been discharged.

An overhung latrine usually consists of asuperstructure and floor built over water. A squathole in the floor allows excreta to fall into thewater. A chute is sometimes provided from thefloor to the water. Overhung latrines should neverbe built in places where pit latrines can beprovided. However, they may be the only possibleform of sanitation for people living on land that is

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Overhung latrine

continuously or seasonally covered with water.Despite the serious dangers inherent to this

method, overhung latrines might be acceptableprovided all the following conditions are met:

1. The receiving water is of sufficient salinity allyear round to prevent human consumption.

2. The latrine is installed over water that issufficiently deep to ensure that the bed is neverexposed during low tide or the dry season.

3. The walkways, piers, squatting openings, andsuperstructures are made structurally safe foradults and children.

4. The excreta is not deposited in still water orinto water that will be used for recreation.While an overhung latrine may be the only feasiblesystem for communities living over water, there areserious health risks that must be consideredwhenever this is the current practice.

C. Bucket Cartage/LatrineCartage is perhaps the most basic form of excretadisposal. Here, feces are collected in a containerand disposed of daily. An example is the bucketlatrine, in which household wastes are collected inbuckets under a hole in the floor of a specific room.Each day, the bucket is emptied into a largercontainer and the contents disposed of. In practicethis type of disposal may be designed as either a‘mix’type or a ‘no-mix’ type facility.

Bucket latrines pose health risks to both usersand collectors and may spread disease. Thenumber of bucket latrines is declining rapidly infavor of similar facilities which pose fewer healthrisks. For example, a vault latrine (a latrine wherewastes are stored in a sealed container) that ismechanically emptied on a regular basis is often amore sanitary yet affordable choice.

Operation and maintenance:A container made of non-corrosive material isplaced beneath a squatting slab or seat in thebucket chamber, with rear doors which should bekept shut except during removal and replacementof the bucket. The bucket chamber should becleaned whenever the bucket is removed.

The squat hole should be covered by a flyproofcover when not in use. The cover of the seat shouldbe hinged and the cover of the squatting slabshould have a long handle.

At regular intervals (preferably each night) thecontainer should be removed and replaced by aclean one. Full containers should be taken todepots or transfer stations, or composting facility

where they are emptied, washed and disinfectedwith a phenol or cresol type of disinfectant. Insome towns it is the practice to provide twobuckets painted in different colors for each latrine.Containers should be kept covered with tight-fitting lids while in transit and the waste handlingpersonnel should be provided with full protectiveclothing. Also, for health reasons, waste handlersshould be educated in and practice proper hygienicbehaviors. Defective buckets should be repaired orreplaced and transport vehicles should be kept ingood order.

It is quite possible with bucket cartage to havea ‘no-mix’ system. In some cartage systems, urineis diverted away from the buckets to reduce thevolume to be dealt with. It is usually channelled tosoakpits, but may be collected separately and useddirectly as fertilizer. However, water that is used forwashing latrines and bucket-chambers should behandled with caution. It should pass to or bedeposited into soakpits, and should not be allowedto pollute the ground around the latrines.

The practice of dumping nightsoil indiscriminatelyinto streams or onto open land is a very poor practice forboth environmental and health reasons.

D. Shallow Pit/TrenchPeople working on farms may dig a small hole eachtime they defecate and then cover the faeces withsoil. This is sometimes known as the ‘cat’ method.Pits about 300 mm deep may be used for severalweeks. Excavated soil is heaped beside the pit andsome is put over the faeces after each use.Decomposition in shallow pits is rapid because ofthe large bacterial population in the topsoil, butflies breed in large numbers and hookworm larvaespread around the holes. Hookworm larvae canmigrate upwards from excrete buried less than 1 mdeep, to penetrate the soles of the feet ofsubsequent users.

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Bucket latrine

E. Borehole LatrineBorehole latrines are generally ‘mix’ type facilitieswhich are most convenient for emergency or shortterm use. They can be prepared rapidly in greatnumbers, and light portable slabs may be used;however, there are several problems inherent toborehole latrines.

Borehole latrines have an augered hole whichmay be sunk to a depth of 10m or more, althougha depth of 4-6m is usual. Augered holes, 300-500mm in diameter, are dug quickly by hand or bymachine in areas where the soil is firm, stable andfree from rocks or large stones.

While a small diameter may be easy to bore, thelife of the pit is very short. Furthermore, the smalldiameter of boreholes increases the likelihood ofblockage, and the depth of an augered holesignificantly increases the danger of groundwatercontamination.

In addition, the sides of the hole easily becomesoiled near the top, making fly infestationprobable. For this reason, holes should be lined forat least the top half-metre or so with an imperviousmaterial such as concrete or baked clay.

Particularly because of the danger to groundwater, but also because of the difficulties in theiroperation, boreholes should only be used if noother sanitation facilities exist.

F. Pit Latrines (general)The basic principle of all types of pit latrine is thatwastes such as excreta, anal cleaning materials,sullage and refuse are deposited into a hole in theground. Pit latrines may be either ‘mix’ or ‘no-mix’systems. The liquids percolate into thesurrounding soil and the organic material

decomposes, thereby producing:• gases such as carbon dioxide and methane,

which are either collected, liberated to theatmosphere, or dispersed into the surrounding soil

• liquids, which percolate into the surroundingsoil

• a decomposed and consolidated residueThe health benefits and convenience of pit latrinesdepend upon the quality of the design,construction and maintenance. At worst, pitlatrines that are poorly designed, constructed andmaintained provide foci for the transmission ofdisease and may be no better than indiscriminatedefecation. At best, they provide a standard ofsanitation that is at least as good as other moresophisticated methods.

In most pit latrine systems, fecal matter isstored in a pit and left to decompose. If the fecalmatter is left to decompose in dry conditions for atleast two years, the contents can be safely emptiedmanually, and the pit reused. Indeed, some pitlatrines are designed to allow fecal matter tocompost and be reused in agriculture. On the otherhand, unless specifically designed, pit latrines donot require periodic emptying; once a pit is full itcan simply be sealed and a new pit dug.

There is an enormous variety of styles of pitlatrines. Some designs use one pit, others use twoalternating pits, reducing the need for new pits.Some pit designs are meant to be completely dry,while some use small quantities of water.Ventilation to remove odors and flies isincorporated into certain designs, while others arevery basic and use traditional materials andapproaches. There are three pit designs covered inmore depth below: Simple Pit, Ventilated Pit, RaisedPit.

Operation and Maintenance of a Pit LatrineThe operation of pit latrines is quite simple andconsists in regularly cleaning the slab with water(and a little disinfectant if available) to remove anyexcreta and urine. The door must always be closedwhen not in use so the superstructure can remaindark inside. The drop hole should never be coveredas this would impede the airflow (if latrine isventilated). Appropriate anal cleaning materialsshould be available in or near the latrine. Stones,glass, plastic, rags, and other non- iodegradablematerials should not be thrown in the pit as theyreduce the effective volume of the pit and hindermechanical emptying.

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Borehole latrine

Regular Inspections• Rainwater should drain away from the

latrine. Improper drainage should becorrected.

• Every month the floor slab has to be checkedfor cracks and, if applicable, the vent pipeand fly screen must be inspected to ensurethey are not corroded or damaged. Inaddition, the superstructure should beinspected and repair undertaken, especiallyin the case of light leaks (toilet structureshould be dark when door is fully closed).

• When the contents of the pit reach the levelof 0.5 metre below the slab, a new pit has tobe dug and the old pit covered with soil.Another possibility is to empty the pitmechanically. With double-pit systems, thesecond pit is used when the first is full. Thefull pit can be emptied safely by hand after aperiod of a year or longer and is then readyfor use again.

In the case of pit latrines with double pits, eachfacility has two shallow pits, but only onesuperstructure. The cover slab has two drop holes,one over each pit. Only one pit is used at a time.When this becomes full, its drop hole is coveredand the second pit is used. After a period of, at thevery least, one year—but most safely two years—the contents of the first pit can be removed safely

and used as soil conditioner. The pit can be usedagain when the second pit has filled up. Thisalternating cycle can be repeated indefinitely.

At least one person in your community shouldbe educated about aspects of pit latrine sanitationsuch as the reasons for using only one pit at a time,use of excreta as manure, and the need to leave thefull pit for about two years before emptying. Thisperson also needs to know how to switch pits andhow to empty the pit, even if they do not performthese tasks themselves.

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Operational and Maintenance Requirements and Schedule for Pit Latrines

Source: IRC and WHO, 2000

Activity Frequency Materials and spare parts Tools and equipment

Clean drop hole, seat andsuperstructure

Daily Water, soap Brush, bucket

Inspect floor slab. Inspectvent pipe and fly screen ifequipped

Monthly

Clean fly screen and ventinside if equipped

Every one to six months Water Twig or long bendablebrush

Repair slab, seat, vent pipe,fly screen or superstructure

Occasionally Cement, sand, water, nails,local building materials

Bucket or bowl, saw,trowel, hammer, knife

Dig new pit and transferlatrine slab and super-structure (if applicable)

Depending on size andnumber of users

Sand, possibly cement,bricks, nails and other localbuilding materials

Shovels, picks, sawbuckets, hammer, etc.

Switch to other pit whenpit is full (if applicable)


Shovels, buckets,wheelbarrow, etc.

Simple pit

Frequent problemsContamination of groundwater can easily occur ifthe pit is dug either too deep or too close togroundwater sources. Pits should not reachgroundwater level and latrines must be 15 to 30meters away from ground and surface watersources. Poor quality of the floor slab due toinappropriate materials or improper curing ofconcrete. Inferior quality fly screens get damagedeasily by the effects of solar radiation and foulgases. Improperly sited latrines can get flooded orundermined. Children may be afraid to use thelatrine because of the dark or because of fear offalling into the pit. Leakages between pits canoccur because the dividing wall is not impermeableor the soil is too permeable.

Simple PitThis consists of a slab over a pit which may be 2 mor more in depth. The slab should be firmlysupported on all sides and raised above thesurrounding ground so that surface water cannotenter the pit. If the sides of the pit are liable tocollapse they should be lined. A squat hole in theslab or a seat must be present so that the excretefall directly into the pit.

Ventilated PitVentilated improved pit (VIP) latrines are designedto reduce two problems frequently encountered bytraditional latrine systems—smells and flies orother insects. A VIP latrine differs from atraditional latrine in having a vent pipe coveredwith a fly screen. Wind blowing across the top ofthe vent pipe creates a flow of air which sucks out

the foul-smelling gases from the pit. As a result,fresh air is drawn into the pit through the drophole and the superstructure is kept free fromsmells. The vent pipe also has an important role toplay in fly control. Flies are attracted to light andif the latrine is suitably dark inside, they will fly upthe vent pipe to the light. They cannot escapebecause of the fly screen, so they are trapped at thetop of the pipe until they dehydrate and die.Female flies, searching for an egg-laying site, areattracted by the odors from the vent pipe but areprevented from flying down the pipe by the flyscreen at its top.

If the superstructure allows too much light tocome in, flies will be attracted by the light comingthrough the squat hole and may fly out into thesuperstructure; this may jeopardize the whole VIPconcept. Odor problems may occur during thenight and early morning hours in latrines relyingmore on solar radiation for the air flow in the ventpipe than on wind speed.

Raised PitIn hard soils it may be impossible to dig a properpit. One way of dealing with this, and otherdifficult ground conditions is to construct raisedpit latrines. The pit is excavated as deep aspossible, working at the end of the dry season inareas of high groundwater. The lining is extendedabove ground level until the desired pit volume isachieved.

If the pit extends more than 1.5 m below theground there will probably be sufficient leachingarea below ground for a pit latrine having a fulldepth of 3.5 m. In such cases, the lining aboveground should be sealed by plastering both sides.The minimum below-ground depth depends on theamount of water used in the pit and thepermeability of the soil. Where insufficientinfiltration area can be obtained below groundlevel, the raised portion of the pit can besurrounded by a mound of soil. The section of thelining above ground (excluding the top 0.5 m) canbe used for infiltration provided the mound ismade of permeable soil, well compacted with astable side slope, and is thick enough to preventfiltrate seeping out of the sides. Earth mounds arenot recommended on clay soils as the filtrate islikely to seep out at the base of the mound ratherthan infiltrate the ground.

Raised pits can be used in combination withany other type of pit latrine (VIP, pour-flush,double-pit). A common application is where the

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Ventilated pit

groundwater level is close to the surface. A slightraising of the pit may prevent splashing of the useror blockage of the pit inlet pipe by floating scum.

G. Aqua-privyAn aqua-privy is a ‘mix’ type latrine set directlyabove or directly adjacent to a septic (collectionand sedimentation) tank and is useful in situationswhere plumbing is required, but there is a limitedwater supply. An aqua-privy is similar to a septictank; it can be connected to flush toilets and takemost household wastewater. It consists of a largetank with a water seal which is connected to asoakaway to dispose of effluent. Unlike a septictank, the aqua-privy tank is located directly belowthe house; but like a septic tank, it requiresperiodic emptying and must be accessible to avacuum tanker. Since much of the technology isthe same or similar, see the discussion below under3ii regarding septic tanks and leach beds to morefully assess the maintenance and operation of youraqua-privy system.

Aqua-privies are expensive and require the useof water, making them a rather unattractive optionfor communities short of money or water. Sincewater is required, water conservation principlesshould be practiced. See the ‘Water ConservationAssessment’ in Chapter 3, for more informationregarding water ccnservation.

The tank will produce hazardous andmalodorous gases that should be vented andtrapped in such a way that no gases escape upthrough the latrine. Furthermore, the tank canbecome a breeding ground for flies, mosquitoes,and other vector insects if they are not preventedfrom entering (or exiting) the tank. For thesereasons, a necessary feature of an aqua-privy issome form of water seal. Often this seal is formedby the chute drop-pipe hanging below the squathole or latrine seat and into the water. As long asthe end of the pipe is submerged, this designprevents gases from escaping into the latrinesuperstructure, and it limits (but does noteliminate) the access of flies and mosquitos to thetank. It should be noted that water must be addedeach day to maintain the water seal to compensatefor evaporation and effluent discharge.

Alternatively, the toilet may be fitted with a panwith a water seal to prevent the escape of gases. Ifthe latrine is offset from or adjacent to the tank,the water seal can be accomplished with the use ofa drain trap (‘U’ or ‘J’ section of pipe).

Since an aqua privy is necessarily a ‘mix’ type

system, more ecologically sound sanitation optionsdo exist. Nevertheless, the feasibility andimportance of changing your sanitation system isfor your community to decide.

H. Pour-flush latrinesA pour-flush latrine is a ‘mix’ type of pit latrinewhere small volumes of water (commonly 1-3litres) are used to flush feces into the pit. Theoperation and maintenance of pit latrines iscovered in more depth above under the heading‘Pit latrines (general).’

Pour-flush latrines are most appropriate wherepeople use water to clean themselves afterdefecating (e.g. in Muslim cultures) and wherepeople have access to reliable water supplies closeto the home. However, pour-flush latrines are alsoattractive because the problems of flies, mosquitosand odors in simple pit latrines may be overcomesimply and cheaply by the installation of a panwith a water seal in the defecating hole. The pan iscleared by pouring (or, better, throwing) a few litresof water into the pan after defecation.

The flushed wastes flow through a section ofpipe bent into a ‘U’ or ‘J’ shape which maintains awater seal for reducing fly and odor problems. Thepit of a pour-flush latrine may be located directlybeneath the slab or set to one side, but offset pitsmay require more water to prevent blockages. Thepit is usually connected to a soakaway to allowliquids to infiltrate the soil, leaving solid waste todecompose.

The amount of water used varies between oneand four litres depending mainly on the pan andtrap geometry. Pans requiring a small amount of

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Pour-flush latrine

water for flushing have the added advantage ofreducing the risk of groundwater pollution.

The flushing water does not have to be clean.Especially if access to clean water is limited,laundry, bathing or any other similar water shouldbe used.

Solid materials should not be disposed of intopour-flush latrines, as this could block the pipe andeven cause it to break. In addition, efforts to clearblockages often result in damage to the water seal.There is a likelihood of blockage if solid materialssuch as hard paper, corncobs, material used bymenstruating women are put in the pan. Suchmaterials should be disposed of separately, butcareful attention must be given to the handling ofthe waste and sterilizing of the container.

Since the pour-flush design is necessarily a ‘mix’type facility, more ecologically sound options exist,and may be feasible depending upon priorities ofyour community.

I. Full FlushA full flush latrine is a ‘mix’ type system, and itimplies the use of a running water system (pipedwater distribution). Refer to the ‘WaterConservation Assessment,’ Chapter 3, in thismanual for water conservation practices.

A full flush system also requires either a septicsystem with sufficiently large capacity, or aconnection to a piped sewer network. Refer belowto Section 3i regarding plumbing; Section 3ii isapplicable if your community has a septic system;and Section 4 applies if you are connected to asewer system.

J. Composting ToiletA composting latrine is most generally a ‘no-mix’facility in which urine is kept separate andexcriment falls into a watertight tank to which ashor vegetable matter is added. If the moisturecontent and chemical balance are controlled, themixture will decompose to form a good soilconditioner in about four months. Pathogens arekilled in the dry alkaline compost, which can beremoved for application to the land as a fertilizer.There are two types of composting latrine: in one,compost is produced continuously, and in theother, two containers are used to produce it inbatches. In general, most instances of compostingtoilets are of the double-vault design, and so theoperational and maintenance requirements for themore common double-vault design are covered indepth here.

Besides providing a reusable resource, thedouble-vault latrine has the added advantage thatit can be built anywhere. Since the vault contentsare kept dry, there is no pollution of thesurrounding ground, even if the vault is buried. Inrocky areas or where the water table is high thevaults may be built above ground. Double-vaultlatrines are successfully used in Guatemala,Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and many otherplaces around the world.

Operation and maintenanceThe double-vault composting latrine consists oftwo watertight chambers (vaults) to collect feces.Urine is collected separately as the contents of thevault have to be kept relatively dry.

The two chambers or vaults are used alternately.Initially a layer of about 100 mm of absorbentorganic material such as dry earth is put in thebottom of one vault, which is then used fordefecation. After each use, the feces are coveredwith wood ash or similar material to deodorize thedecomposing faeces and soak up excess moisture.

When the vault is three-quarters full, thecontents are levelled with a stick and the vault iscompletely filled with dry powdered earth. Thesquat hole is then sealed. While the contents of thefirst vault are decomposing anaerobically, thesecond vault is used. When the second tank is full,the first one is emptied through a door near thebottom and the chamber is reused. The contentsmay be used as a soil conditioner.

Each vault should be large enough to hold atleast two years’ accumulation of wastes so that

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Composting latrine

most pathogenic organisms die off before thecompost is removed.

Normally the superstructure is built over bothvaults, with a squat hole over each vault. A coversealed with lime mortar or clay should be fitted inthe squat hole above the chamber not in use. Aflyproof lid should be placed on the other holewhen it is not being used for defecation. Fly-proofvent pipes may be provided to avoid odor nuisancein the latrine, although covering the feces with ashis reported to be sufficient to eliminate bad smells.

Control of the moisture content is vital forproper operation of the latrine. Consequently,composting latrines are not appropriate wherewater is used for anal cleaning. It is usual to collecturine separately, dilute it with 3-6 parts of waterand use it as a fertilizer (although this may cause ahealth hazard).

Some latrines are constructed with soakpitsbelow the vaults so that excess moisture can draininto the ground. This allows for the disposal ofurine into the vaults but with consequent loss of avaluable fertilizer and possible pollution of thegroundwater. Wood ash, straw, sawdust, grasscuttings, vegetable wastes and other organicmaterial must be put into vaults to controlmoisture content and improve the quality of the

final compost.If insects are a problem in the toilet, growing

insect-repelling plants like citronella around thelatrine may help.

It is important that someone (at least one) inyour community knows and understands theprocess of the composting toilet, as improper useposes sanitary risks.

3i. Characteristics of Sanitation System:Plumbing

Several types of ‘wet’ or ‘mix’ sanitation facilitiesrequire some type of plumbing, or pipes used toconduct excreta from the toilet to either the sewersytem or the collection tank. Flush water is neededto help move the excreta through the pipes. Theamount of water used should be minimized in theinterests of conserving water, but enough must beused to prevent clogging.

For community safety, all plumbing should beintact and without leaks. Leaks or clogs should berepaired immediately. If there are leaks in thepiping, the contaminated water that leaks shouldbe contained and the area sanitized as soon aspossible. The leaked water should not be allowedto accumulate, as the water may contain pathogens

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Operational and Maintenance Tasks for Double Vault Composting Toilet


Activity Frequency Materials and spare parts Tools and equipment

Clean toilet and super-structure, empty urinecollection pot

Daily Water, lime, ashes Brush, water container

Add ashes or otherorganic material

After each defecation andwhenever available

Wood ashes and organicmaterial

Pot to contain thematerial, small shovel

Inspect floor, super-structure and vaults

Monthly

Repair floor, super-structure or vaults

When necessary Cement, sand, water,nails, local buildingmaterials

Bucket or bowl, trowel,saw, hammer, knife

Close full vault afterlevelling and adding soil,empty other vault, openits squat hole and addabsorbent organic materialbefore starting to use,store humus (or usedirectly)


Water, absorbent organicmaterial

Shovel and bucket

Use humus as fertilizer When needed Humus Shovel, bucket,wheelbarrow

and may attract insects that can spread diseases. Itis greatly advantageous if the person doing therepairs is at least somewhat experienced inplumbing, and thus it is recommended that therebe a person in your community that is chargedwith maintaining the plumbing system. Thisperson should responsible for receiving reports ofleaks and executing the repairs necessary.

All openings in the plumbing (e.g. a toilet, asink, or any drain) should have ‘drain traps,’ thatare U-shaped sections of pipe, installed near theopening. These traps form a water seal in the pipethat prevents gases from escaping into the air.These traps are commonly the location ofobstructions, and so should be the first placechecked if a clog is detected.

3ii. Characteristics of Sanitation System:Components

Septic TankA septic tank is a form of on-site sanitation that isusually linked to flush toilets and can receivedomestic wastewater (or sullage). It is designed tohold solids and is linked to a soakaway/leach bedor small-bore sewer to dispose of liquid waste, oreffluent. The tank is offset from the dwellingstructures and linked to the toilet and domesticwastewater by a short drain.

If your community has a septic system andpiped water, water conservation principles shouldbe practiced (see Chapter 3).

Septic tanks generally require relatively largeamounts of land and periodic emptying by vacuumtankers. This makes a septic system expensive, andfurther requires that trucks are afforded easy accessto the tank. It is important that your communityinclude these expenses in the regular budget.

Operation and MaintenanceSeptic tanks and aqua-privies have a water-tightsettling tank with one or two compartments, towhich waste is carried by water flushing down apipe connected to the toilet. These systems do notdispose of wastes; they only help to separate thesolid matter from the liquid. The systems need ameans to discharge their liquid effluent, a means tovent gases released, and they also require someform of seal that prevents gases from backing upinto the latrines or other drains.

In the case of an aqua-privy, there is a tankimmediately under the latrine and excreta dropdirectly into the tank through a pipe submerged in

the liquid layer. The seal is formed because thepipe is submerged. In this case, then, a minimumliquid level must be maintained.

The amount of liquid in the tank should bekept high enough to keep the bottom of the droppipe at least 75 mm below the liquid level. Abucket of water should be poured down the droppipe daily in order to clear scum (in which fliesmay breed) from the bottom of the drop pipe andto maintain the water seal.

In other cases, the tank is located away fromthe latrine, and thus require the use of a ‘U’-trap toprevent gases from backing up.

The tank collects and digests solid waste. Someof the solids float on the surface, where they areknown as scum, while others sink to the bottomwhere they are broken down by bacteria to form adeposit called sludge. The sludge accumulating inthe tank must be removed regularly, usually onceevery 1–5 years, depending on size, number ofusers and kind of use.

Routine inspection is necessary to checkwhether desludging is needed, and to ensure thatthere are no blockages at the inlet or outlet. A tankneeds to be desludged when the sludge and scumoccupy the volume specified in the design. Asimple rule is to desludge when solids occupybetween one-half and two-thirds of the total depthbetween the water level and the bottom of thetank. Desludging is essential because septic tankswill continue to operate even when the tank is almost fullof solids—in this situation the in-flow scours achannel through the sludge and may pass throughthe tank in a matter of minutes rather thanremaining in the tank for the required retentiontime.

When a septic tank is desludged it should notbe fully washed out or disinfected. A small amountof sludge should be left in the tank to ensurecontinuing rapid digestion. Regular cleaning of thetoilet with soap in normal amounts is unlikely tobe harmful, but the use of large amounts ofdetergents or chemicals may disturb thebiochemical process in a tank, especially the use ofchlorine bleach.

The liquid effluent flowing out of the tank is,from a health point of view, as dangerous as rawsewage and remains to be disposed of, normally bysoaking into the ground through a soakaway (leachbed) or with a connection to small-bore sewers.When sullage disposal is also in the tank, a largercapacity is required for both the tank and theliquid effluent disposal system. Connection to

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small-bore sewers may then be a necessity—wherehigh groundwater tables or rocky, impermeableground exist, this may also be the case.

Many problems are due to inadequateconsideration being given to liquid effluentdisposal. Large surges of flow entering the tankmay cause a temporarily high concentration ofsuspended solids in the effluent due to disturbanceof the solids which have already settled out.Leaking tanks may cause insect and odor problemsin aqua-privies because the water seal is notmaintained.

Every tank must have a ventilation system toallow escape (or collection) of explosive methaneand malodorous gases (generated when bacteriadecompose some of the sewage constituents) fromthe tank.

Leach bed/Soakaway/Drainage fieldMost septic systems drain their effluent intounderground water-absorption channels of variousdesigns. The most common examples of thistechnology are called leach beds, soakaways, anddrainage fields. Drainage fields consist of gravel-filled underground trenches called leachlines or

drainage trenches, into which the liquid effluentscoming from a septic tank are led through open-jointed (stoneware) or perforated (PVC) pipes,allowing the effluents to infiltrate into the ground.Soakaways and leach beds are similar but are of asmaller scale, and can handle less effluent.

Due to the hazardous nature of the liquideffluent that they handle, these drainage areasmust be sufficiently deep and must lie within soilthat is sufficiently absorbent to prevent the liquidsfrom seeping up from the ground. Furthermore, therisk of contaminating groundwater is high, and thisfact must be taken into consideration, particularlyif wells exist nearby.

Operation and MaintenanceIt is important to regularly clean the septic tankoutflow and other integral plumbing and check if itis still in order. The plumbing must occassionallybe cleaned to clear accumulated deposits.

Initially the infiltration into the ground may behigh, but after several years the soil clogs and anequilibrium infiltration rate is reached. If thesewage flow exceeds the equilibrium rate of thesoil, eventually the sewage will surface over the

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Table: Maintenance Requirements for Septic Systems

Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spareparts

Tools and equipment

Clean squatting pan orseat and shelter

Daily Household Water Brush, water container

Unblock U-trap whenblocked

Occasionally Household Water Flexible brush or otherflexible material

Inspect if entry pipe isstill submerged (foraqua-privies)

Regularly Household

Inspect floor, squattingpan or seat and U-trap

Monthly Household

Repair squatting panor seat, U-trap orshelter

Occasionally Household or localartisan

Cement, sand, water,nails, local buildingmaterials

Bucket or bowl, trowel,saw, hammer, knife

Control vents Annually Household Rope or wire, screenmaterial, pipe parts

Scissors or wire-cuttingtool, pliers, saw

Empty tank Every 1-5 years Service crew Water, fuel, lubricants,etc.

Vacuum tanker (largeor mini) or MAPETequipment, if possible


drainage field. As a good practice, then, an area ofland equal to the size of the drainage area shouldbe kept in reserve for possible extension orreplacement of the drain field if it becomesclogged.

The area over the waste water absorption areashould have a good cover of grass or other shallow-rooted vegetation. Control plant growth to preventthe roots from entering the pipes or trenches.Don’t plant trees or shrubs near the leaching bed.Such deeply rooted plants have roots that willtravel significant distances to reach water and willinvade the drainage channels and thus impede orsabotage their function.

Good ventilation of the area and adequatesunlight should also be maintained to promoteevaporation. This means that you should avoidconstructing parking areas, patios, or structuresover the area. The weight of such constructionscould crush the pipe in the leaching bed preventingit from working properly. Covering the drainagearea could also prevent oxygen from getting intothe soil.

The micro-organisms responsible for digestingthe waste material need oxygen to survive andfunction. Vehicles and machinery should not bedriven over the bed, as their weight could crush thepipe or compact the soil. If the soil over the pipesbecomes compacted, it will be less able to absorbthe wastewater.

It is also important not to dispose of water ontothe ground over the area—it may interfere with the

ability of the soil to absorb liquids and break downwaste.

VaultIn areas where the groundwater level is high, theuse of septic tanks and drainage areas is not suitablesince such systems are likely to contaminate thegroundwater. In these areas, watertight tanks calledvaults can be built under or close to latrines to storeexcrete until they are removed by hand (usingbuckets or similar receptacles) or by vacuum tanker.Similarly, household sewage may be stored in largertanks called cesspits, which are usually emptied byvacuum tankers. Vaults or cesspits must be emptiedwhen they are nearly full, or on a regular basis.

There must be a water seal between the vaultand any drains or latrines to prevent the backflowof gases. Generally this is accomplished with a ‘U’-shaped section of plumbing pipe being positionednear each drain.

Vaults should be checked on a regular basis (atleast each time they are emptied) for structuralintegrity. There should be no cracks, holes, orfaulty seams. Vaults must also be regularly checkedto determine whether desludging is needed and toensure that no blockages exist at the inlet.

Regular emptying is required, and thus theremust be space enough for a truck or otherequipment to access the vault. This is a regularexpense which should be included in the regularbudget.

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Table: Maintenance Requirements for a Drainage Field


Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spareparts Tools and equipment

Control plantgrowth Regularly Household or caretaker Shovel, bucket, panga

etc.

Switch to otherdrainage field

Once every 6-12months Household or caretaker Bricks or other

material to block pipesTools to open diversionbox

De-block delivery pipe Occasionally Household, caretakeror local artisan

Water, pieve of pipe,glue

Brush, shovel, longstick or flexible brush,knife, saw

Clean diversion boxes Every month Household or caretaker Water Shovel, brush

Check, ouflow of tankand clean Once a month Household or caretaker Water Brush, tools to open

access hole

3iii. Characteristics of Sanitation System:Emptying

The emptying of single pits containing freshexcreta presents problems because of the activepathogens in the sludge. In rural areas, where landavailability is not a constraint, it is often advisableto dig another pit for a new latrine. The original pitmay then be left for several years and when thesecond is filled it may be simplest to re-dig the firstpit rather than to excavate a new hole in hardground. If left for years, the sludge will not causeany health problems and is beneficial as a fertilizer.

However, in urban areas, where it is not possibleto excavate further holes and where the investmentin pit-lining and superstructure has beensubstantial, the pit must be emptied. Since thesludge removed from a pit presents a risk oftransmission of diseases, care must be taken toensure that sludge is not spilled around the tankduring emptying . Thus, the most satisfactorymethod of sludge removal is by vacuum tanker.The sludge is pumped out of the pit or tankthrough a flexible hose connected to a vacuumpump, which lifts the sludge into the tanker. If thebottom layers of sludge have cemented togetherthey can be jetted with a water hose or broken upwith a long-handled spade before being pumpedout. There are also high-powered vacuum trucksthat can handle solidified sludge; however, theiruse is considerably more expensive.

Although from the public health point of view,manual removal should be avoided, if a vacuumtanker is not available, the sludge must be bailedout manually using buckets or shovels. This isunpleasant work which exposes the workers andthe community to health hazards. Careful workand disposal is therefore necessary.

Emptying pits may also pose these problems:• The machinery may be too large to get to the

latrines. Conventional vacuum trucks are toobig to be driven into the centre of many ancientcities or urban/periurban unplanned or squattersettlements where pedestrian routespredominate.

• Maintenance of vacuum tankers is often poor.Their engines must be kept running all day,either to move the truck or to operate the pumpwhen stationary. This causes rapid wear andmakes them particularly susceptible tobreakdown if preventive maintenance isneglected. In addition, these vehicles addconsiderable amounts of pollution to the air.

Refer to Chapter 2 for more information aboutoutdoor air pollution.

• Management and supervision of emptyingservices is often ineffective, leading to poorwork practices which expose the workers andthe public to health hazards.

Evaluation of Sanitation Facilities (3-3iii)

Our community is well-informed about the servicerequirements of our sanitation systems.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community regularly implements all necessaryoperational and maintenance protocols required forsustainable operation of our sanitation system.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to minimize the amount of waterused by our sanitation system (e.g. by choosing not tomix, fixing leaks, etc.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community takes every necessary precaution toprevent contamination of ground and/or surface watersby our sanitation system.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Resource Recovery

Human excrete and urine can be regarded asnatural resources to be conserved and reusedprovided they are handled with respect, ratherthan being discarded. Especially if your sanitationfacilities are of the ‘no-mix’ type, the ‘wastes’ canbe transformed into very nutritious food for theearth, for plants, and for particular types offisheries; in addition, the decomposition processcan release gas that is useful as fuel.

Urine and feces are both quite beneficial toplants. Urine contains nitrogen and phosphates informs that are easily absorbed by plants; as well,human excrete, or ‘nightsoil’ contains nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium, all of which arevaluable plant nutrients. Human excreta can alsobe used in an aquatic environment to stimulate thegrowth of particular fish for consumption.

On the other hand, handling raw excreta is notonly very unpleasant because of odors, but also itis considerably hazardous to human health. Thepathogens that live within the excreta pose seriousdangers to us as humans. The main risk is

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infection, and this can be by any number ofbacteria, parasites, viruses, or other pathogenicorganisms that are present in excreta. Fortunately,the knowledge and techniques exist which allow usto transform raw excreta into safer, more pleasant,and useful substances.

Caution should be taken, and good hygienepracticed, when handling nightsoil—processed,decomposed or otherwise—from any source.

Before your community reuses sludge, healthofficials should be consulted about the minimumtime for sludge decomposition. If possible, thequality of the sludge should occasionally be tested.However, testing for microorganisms such asprotozoa and helminths is expensive, and it may bemore effective to use retention time to judgewhether the sludge will be safe to use.

When organic material sits and ages, naturedecomposes the material, or breaks it down intomore elemental substances. The process ofdecomposition may be aerobic (requiring oxygen)or anaerobic (not requiring oxygen).

Depending upon the product desired, you cancontrol the conditions to encourage one form ofdecomposition over the other. In either case,nightsoil or sludge is generally first combined withother organic wastes. The mixture is then placedinto controlled conditions either: by ventilatingthe mixture to stimulate aerobic digestion(composting); or by placing the mixture into anairtight chamber to stimulate anaerobic digestion.Aerobic digestion produces compost, or humus,and is discussed below under the heading‘Composting.’ Anaerobic decomposition processesproduce a significant amount of methane, ornatural gas, making it useful as a renewable sourceof fuel. This process is discussed below under‘Biogas Production.’

Successful composting will completely sterilizethe mixture; however, while anaerobic digestiondoes kill most pathogens, it will not necessarily killhookworm and roundworm eggs.

The use of excreta as an aquatic fertilizer is alsodiscussed below under ‘Aqua-culture.’

CompostingSolid waste (sludge) from pit latrines and sewage-treatment plants can be a valuable resource forfarmers as an organic fertilizer and soil conditioner,provided that it has been allowed to properlydecompose and contains no pathogens. Solidsfrom a pit latrine should be innocuous if the latrinehas not been used for two years or so; although this

time is longer if the pit has been wet. However, thistime interval can be decreased if thedecomposition of the feces is accelerated, and thetemperature of the pile increased—which is what isaccomplished by composting.

Composting consists of the biologicalbreakdown of solid organic matter into a soil-likesubstance called compost or humus. Compost isquite valuable as a fertilizer and soil conditioner.Composting has been practiced by farmers andgardeners throughout the world for manycenturies. Besides nitrogen, phosphorous, andpotassium, the humus formed by decomposedfeces also contains trace elements which reduce thesusceptibility of plants to parasites and diseases.The humus improves the soil structure, enhancesits water-retaining qualities and encourages betterroot structure of plants. Soil containing humus isless subject to erosion by wind and water and iseasier to cultivate. In China, the practice ofcomposting human wastes with crop residues hasenabled the soil to support high populationdensities without loss of fertility for more than4000 years. Composting is a beneficial way ofgiving back to the Earth what we have taken in theform of food.

Composting can accelerate the decay processand sterilize the excreta, but to do so requirescareful attention and the process must becontrolled by someone who understands it. Ifperformed correctly, however, the process generatesenough heat to eradicate most and sometimes allpathogens, and simultaneously eliminatesdisagreeable odors.

Composting ProcessAerobic bacteria combine some of the carbon inorganic matter (excreta mixed with plantmaterials) with oxygen from the air to producecarbon dioxide and energy. Some energy is used bythe bacteria to reproduce; the rest, however, isconverted to heat, often raising the temperature tomore than 70°C. No objectionable odor shouldgiven off if the material is not saturated with waterand is frequently turned.

For optimum value to plants, the ratio ofavailable carbon to nitrogen in compost should beabout 20:1. In the composting process carbon isused by the bacteria, so the best raw material forcomposting has a higher carbon:nitrogen ratio, sayabout 30:1. The carbon: nitrogen ratio of nightsoilis about 6:1, of fresh vegetable waste around 20:1,and of dry straw over 100:1. Thus, by

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appropriately adjusting the mixture, the mostoptimum balance can be achieved. It is rarelypractical to determine the carbon:nitrogen ratio bychemical analysis; a good operator learns to judgewhat mix of materials will produce the bestcompost.

Absence of an unpleasant smell and absence offlies also indicate satisfactory aerobic composting.An experienced operator can check that all is wellfrom the appearance of the composting material. Itshould look moist, but not so wet that liquid seepsout. While aerobic stabilization is progressing theappearance will change from day to day. Duringcomposting the volume is reduced by 40-80% andthe weight by 20-50%.

The key to successful sterilization is to raise thetemperature of the mixture sufficiently high to killany pathogens. At high temperatures there is rapiddestruction of pathogenic bacteria and protozoa,worm eggs and weed seeds. All fecalmicroorganisms, including enteric viruses androundworm eggs, will die if the temperatureexceeds 46 °C for one week. Fly eggs, larvae andpupae are also killed at these temperature.

Tests of compost during and after stabilizationshow whether the process is going well andwhether the finished product is suitable foragricultural use. Except in a large mechanicalcomposting plant, the condition of the compost isgauged by simple methods. It is reasonable toassume that pathogenic organisms will be killed ifthe temperature rises above 65°C. This can beconfirmed by poking an iron bar or wooden stickinto the heap and pulling it out after about tenminutes. It should then be too hot to hold. Thetemperature falls when stabilization is complete.

Once stable, the mixture has been aerobicallydigested and has become humus and poses farslighter health risks.

Biogas ProductionThe search for alternative sources of energy has ledto widespread use of organic waste to produce acombustible fuel which can be used for domesticcooking. Basically, biogas production requires anair-tight chamber in which excreta are fermented.The gas produced contains about 60% methane,also known as natural gas. The ‘biogas’ is collectedat the top of the chamber, from which a pipe leadsto domestic appliances or to flexible storagecontainers.

A few biogas plants operate entirely on humanexcreta. For example, in Patna, India a 24-seat

pour-flush latrine serves several thousand peopleand generates sufficient energy to light a 4-kmlength of road. However, most plants, of whichthere are more than 7 million in China (Li, 1984),are dependent on animal excreta with whichhuman excreta are processed. A medium-sizedbuffalo or cow provides about twenty times asmuch gas as a person. The minimum feed is thatfrom one cow and a family of people, although it ismore usual to add excreta from at least four cows.In China it is customary to produce biogas fromthe excreta of pigs.

Excreta are often mixed with straw or othervegetable waste, such as that used for animalbedding, and equal quantities of water added tomake a slurry. This is fed to the inlet side of thechamber. Effluent slurry is removed after aretention time of 30-50 days. Biogas production isgreater at higher temperatures; for example, at30°C the rate of gas generation is about twice thatat 25°C, and little gas is produced if thetemperature is below 15°C.

After processing, the effluent slurry can bedried in the open and used as a fertilizer.

Retention of excreta in biogas tanks results inthe death of many pathogens, includingSchistosoma eggs. A few hookworm eggs survive,and there is high survival of roundworm eggs.Thus, proper care must be taken when handlingthe effluent from the process.

Use in AquacultureThe practice of depositing excreta into fish pondsor tanks is also a common practice in some areas.In some places, latrines are placed immediatelyover or alongside ponds (not used for drinkingwater); elsewhere nightsoil is tipped from carts,tankers or buckets. Nutrients in excreta result in arich algal growth, which encourages aerobicconditions and provides food for certain fish.

Carp and tilapia are especially suitable for suchponds, but a variety of fish species may coexist,some feeding on large algae, some on small algae,some on zooplankton; some prefer the bottomlayer, some the top. Fish are usually netted forhuman consumption, but in some places they aredried and ground up for feed for poultry oranimals. Ducks may also be kept on the ponds.

There are three health risks associated with fishfarming in ponds that receive excreta:• Pathogens may be transmitted on the body

surfaces or in the intestines of the fish withoutcausing overt disease in the fish; the pathogens

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may then be passed to people handling the fish.• Helminths, particularly flukes, may be

transmitted to people who eat infected fish thathas not been properly cooked.

• Helminths with intermediate hosts (such asSchistosoma with water snails) may continuetheir life cycle in ponds.(The WHO publication, ‘Guidelines for the Safe Use of

Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture and Aquaculture,’ givesfurther useful information about utilizing this natural resource.Further information may be found about using excreta as aresource at the end of this chapter. In addition, several of thegeneral resources found in the back of this manual containtechnical and educational material regarding biogas digestion,composting, and aquaculture.)

Our community strives to recover the useful value of ourexcreta.

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5. Sewer Network

Sewerage systems are designed to collect excretaand domestic wastewater and transport them awayfrom homes to a treatment and/or disposal point.Sewer systems are an attractive option becausethey can greatly improve the sanitary conditions ofa household while requiring little maintenance forproper operation. Nevertheless, such flush-and-discharge systems make the problems of sanitationmuch worse, as they allow relatively small amountsof material to pollute large amounts of water.

All sewerage systems require water for flushingwaste away. Conventional sewerage requires themost. It is also a high-cost sanitation option; it isusually deep-laid and must be maintained byprofessional staff. A small bore sewer works ondifferent principles from conventional seweragesystems, and does not require high-volume flushtoilets to operatre. Nevertheless, these still requirewater for proper function.

All sewerage systems should end in a treatmentprocess or plant, as the raw faeces they carryrepresent a significant public health risk.

In any sewerage system, care should especiallybe taken to not dispose of hazardous or toxicchemicals into the sewer drains. Such chemicalscould be medicines, pesticides and herbicideswhich are no longer used, excess solvents, paintsand other household chemicals. These substancescan corrode sewer pipes and seriously affectoperation of treatment plants. They will also limitthe potential of water reuse, and therefore should

not be disposed with household wastewater. Referto the last assessment in this chapter to evaluateyour community’s handling of hazardouschemicals and wastes.

Conventional Deep and Shallow(Condominium) SewerageThese systems require a great deal of capital tobuild and maintain. Similarly, they require that alarge, relatively continuous volume of water flowthrough the system to function properly. Shallowsewerage is a bit less capital intensive, but stillrequires ‘full flush’ toilets to keep the system fromclogging.

If your community has such a sewerconnection, it is important to ascertain that eachdrain is protected from receiving dry waste (i.e.screens and drain covers) and that all toilets arefunctioning correctly. No sewer gas or odors shouldbe present near any drain. All pipes should havesealed threads and should not have any holes,cracks, or other leaks. If your community isresponsible for underground sewer pipes that areon the property, these should be checked for leaksor stoppages on a regular basis.

Small Bore/Settled SewerageSmall-bore (or ‘settled’) sewerage is a system thatis designed to receive only the liquid fraction ofhousehold wastewater. The small-bore sewersystem consists of a house connection, aninterceptor tank, sewers, cleanouts/manholes,vents, sewage treatment plant, and lift stations (ifthere is no gravity flow). The system is mostappropriate in areas that already have septic tanksbut where the soil cannot (or can no longer) absorbthe effluent, or where land-use is so great that thereis no room for soakaways.

The solid components of the waste, whichsettle, are kept in an interceptor tank (basically asingle-compartment septic tank) which needsperiodic desludging. Because the sewers onlyreceive the liquid sewage, they are designeddifferently from conventional sewers and have thefollowing advantages:• the system needs less water because solids are

not transported;• excavation costs are reduced because the pipes

can be laid at shallow depths and do not needto maintain self-cleansing velocity;

• material costs are reduced because the diameterof the pipes can be small (peak flow isattenuated by the interceptor tanks) and there

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is no need for large manholes;• treatment requirements are reduced because the

solids are kept in the interceptor tanks.The main operational requirement for the

community is to ensure that no solids can enter thesystem and that the interceptor tank functionsproperly. Maintenance of the system requiresregular removal of the sludge from the interceptortank; this regular expense should be included inyour community’s main budget.

Systemic maintenance tasks may also includethe removal of blockages, regular control of sewagepipes, and periodic flushing. The performance ofaccessories in the pipeline system such ascleanouts, manholes, (possible) lift stations, andventilation points should be regularly checked andmaintained (although these tasks are generally theresponsibility of the body in the larger communitywhich is responsible for the operation of thesystem).

Party Responsible for SewerageIf your community does not process its ownwastewater, it is important that you be aware of thegroup who is responsible for the maintenance andadministration of your sewer network. Sincesewage is both an environmental and healthhazard, it would be helpful to assess the integrityof your local sewerage system by contacting theparty responsible for its operation.

You should also be prepared to contact them ifyour community discovers a leak or a blockage inthe system. Furthermore, your community canserve the larger community by being involved inthe workings of the sewerage system: asadministrative help, as a source of ideas forimprovement, or in a variety of other ways.

Our community regularly implements all necessaryoperational and maintenance protocols required forsustainable operation of our sewer system.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our sewer system is managed with good governanceprinciples, that reflect our community values.

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6. Wastewater Treatment

All sewerage systems should end at a wastewatertreatment facility so that surface water andgroundwater sources are not contaminated andcommunities are not exposed to health risks from

untreated sewage. Unfortunately, this is not alwaysthe case, and far too often the raw sewage ends upbeing dumped straight into waterways. Thispractice wreaks havoc on both the wildlife andhuman populations that depend upon thedownstream water. Thus, it would helpful todetermine if your local sewage is treated beforebeing released back into the environment.

It is common practice in many areas to releasesewage into the environment, untreated, as ameans of agriculture irrigation. Unfortunately, thispractice is quite unacceptable. The use of untreatedwastewater in agriculture or aquaculture poses highhealth risks to farmers and consumers alike. In theinterests of public health, only treated wastewater shouldever be reused. Poor irrigation practices withuntreated or partially treated wastewater severelyimpact the quality and safety of groundwater inshallow aquifers and surface waters that maysupply drinking water.

If your community’s sewage is treated beforebeing released, this process may be overseen by thesame party that is responsible for the seweragesystem, but it need not be. Thus, begin bydetermining who the party responsible forwastewater treatment is. By contacting them, youshould be able to determine the strengths andlimitations of the treatment process.

Treated wastes should not contain pathogens(bacteria, viruses, helminths or protozoa). Properlyoperated sewage-treatment plants should producetreated effluent of good enough quality for use inirrigation or fish-breeding ponds. The operator ofthe sewage-treatment plant or the local healthbody should carry out regular monitoring to ensurethat the quality of the treated effluent is safe. Youshould be able to obtain the results of such tests, ifthey are performed.

Of primary importance is the microbial qualityof any sewage effluent. That is, the microscopicpathogenic organisms pose the greatest danger topublic health.

Nutrient pollution is also a major concern; thatis, the organic content of the wastewater greatlyincreases the nutrients available to aquatic plants.This causes overgrowth conditions which chokeother life from the water. This process is calledeutrophication and is signified by an explosion ofalgae populations, often called an ‘algae bloom.’

Chemical contamination is also a consideration.Industrial effluent may contain chemicals harmfulto health or the environment, such as heavymetals. If industrial sewage is mixed with domestic

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sewage, the resultant effluent is a highly toxic mix,and is considerably more difficult to treat.Industrial discharges should be pretreated by theindustry itself to prevent toxic chemicals fromentering any treatment facility—or worse, frombeing released untreated into the environment.Sometimes untreated sewage is used to irrigatefields. Although this is quite a hazardous practicein itself, the inclusion of hazardous chemicals inthe effluent poses additional health risks toconsumers, and the repeated application of solid orliquid wastes to fields will cause chemical build-upin soils, leading to long-term problems for waterresources.

Wastewater treatment can be accomplishedeither through high-cost ‘conventional’ treatmentsystems, through a series of waste stabilizationponds (or lagoons), or a combination of methods.In addition, there are some other ratherexperimental methods of treatment, like deep wellinjection, but they are unrefined and won’t bediscussed further. (There is little that is‘conventional’ about the highly technical andexpensive means of sewage treatment labeled assuch, aside from the fact these processes have beenthe favored responses of scientists and engineers inplaces like the United States and Europe forseveral decades now.)

Below, conventional and stabilization pondmethods are each briefly reviewed.

‘Conventional’ Sewage TreatmentWhile the Earth has a natural purification process,the natural purification capacity of theenvironment is limited. For example, even whenwastewater is disposed into the ocean, the areasurrounding the outfall can be sufficiently pollutedand the pollutants (including pathogens) can bewashed towards the beaches. Thus, technicalprocesses have been developed to theoreticallyaugment and accelerate the natural purificationprocess.

Conventional water treatment technologiesinclude physical, chemical and biological processeswhich fuction to remove pathogens and pollutantsfrom the water. These processes are somewhat akinto the purification and recycling processes takingplace in nature, although they generally produceconcentrated hazardous residues that are notproduced by nature (at least in concentratedform). Nevertheless, properly designed,constructed, maintained and operated, these

technologies can achieve protection of publichealth and the environment, and can recycle waterand nutrients, which are beneficial to sustainingecosystems and life.

There are a variety of such treatment processes,and the selection of them depends on the types ofpollutants found in the wastewater. Sewagetreatment options may be classified into groups ofprocesses according to the function they performand their complexity:

• Preliminary treatment: this includes simpleprocesses such as screening (usually by barscreens) and grit removal. (throughconstant velocity channels) to remove thegross solid pollution.

• Primary treatment: usually plainsedimentation; simple settlement of thesolid material in sewage can reduce thepolluting load by significant amounts.

• Secondary treatment: for further treatmentand removal of common pollutants, usuallyby a biological process.

• Tertiary treatment: usually for removal ofspecific pollutants e.g. nitrogen orphosphorous. In lakes and sensitive waterenvironments the removal of nutrientsshould be undertaken with a tertiarytreatment process to prevent algae bloomsand eutrophication.

Stabilization PondsWaste stabilization ponds require more land, butare cheaper, easier to operate and maintain, andneed fewer trained staff than other treatmentsystems. The final water from waste stabilizationponds can be very good if the ponds are properlymaintained, as wetlands are nature’s time-testedand preferred method of purifying wastes andrecycling nutrients.

Without proper maintenance, however, thequality of the final effluent may be poor and stillpose considerable risks to health if it is used forirrigation. Thus, it is most important that theoperators of the ponds are well educated as to theproper operation of the ponds and the biologicalprocessing occuring within them.

In usual configurations, sewage flows through aseries of ponds where the solid and liquid wastesundergo natural breakdown processes, includingmicrobial activity.

Usually, at least two ponds are used, and morecommonly three. The ponds must be constructedto a size that can handle the volume of wastewater

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brought in by the sewer system by retaining it longenough for purification.

Wastewater in stabilization ponds tends to havea high organic content and can serve as breedingsites for Culex mosquitoes that transmit lymphaticfilariasis and other infections. The ponds shouldtherefore be sited well away from humanhabitation, at least beyond the flying distance ofthe mosquitoes (over a kilometre with windassistance).

Health and Environmental Impacts of WastewaterPollutants

• Pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoa) cancause life-threatening infections in humansand other wildlife, both directly andindirectly through insects.

• Toxic compounds and elements (organiccompounds from pesticides and industrialprocesses, heavy metals from metalfinishing, tanning, etc.) may cause cancers,birth defects, miscarriages, and damage tovarious organs.

• Suspended solids may increase the cost ofwater treatment, reduce the attractivenessof water bodies, and inhibit the growth ofaquatic plant and animal life.

• Nitrogen at high concentrations may causemethemoglobinemia.

• Nitrogen, phosphorus, and high BOD(biological oxygen demand) wastes maycause oxygen depletion in water bodies andconsequent damage to aquatic life.

Our sewage is treated sufficiently to release zeropollution into the environment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7. Hygienic Behaviors

While having sanitation facilities is the mostimportant element of safely dealing with humanexcreta, it is not the only requirement. Yourcommunity should also keep the facilities hygenicby regularly cleaning and sanitizing them, so thatrefuse and fecal matter are not able to collectwithin them. Furthermore, behavioral protocolslike keeping the door shut (if an outdoor facility),and washing hands after each use are bothimportant to ensure safe sanitation practices.

If the toilet is allowed to collect waste or thedoor is left open, pests such as flies and otherdisease-spreading insects are attracted to the

location and may breed there, causing a healthhazard.

Facilities should be located within a reasonablewalking distance from common areas, and shouldbe well marked so that their use is encouraged.

Our community models hygienic behaviors byincorporating proper practices into our standardprotocols.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8. General Sanitation Practices

Diseases from poor sanitation and hygiene are verycommon in Latin America, as they are elsewhere—especially in economically disadvantaged areas thathave no infrastructure for handling wastewater.Fortunately, most of the danger can be alleviatedby changing people’s behaviors where they relateto sanitation and hygiene. Simply incorporatingthe use of toilets and handwashing has repeatedlyreduced disease burdens by significant amounts inmany areas. If your larger community is not welleducated about hygienic behaviors, perhaps itwould be possible for your religious community toconduct educational campaigns. Furtherinformation regarding hygiene education can beobtained from the Pan American HealthOrganization, and other organizations working forpublic health. Consult the resources listed at theend of this chapter for more information.

The most important thing your community cando is to model sustainable sanitation practices.This means first adequately maintaining thesanitation system that you have, which includesensuring that financial requirements of the systemare met. Beyond that, your community shouldstrive to have the least environmental impact aspossible, by conserving water and by not mixingand reusing excrete.

But, perhaps the most important thing thatyour community can do towards increasing thesustainability of sanitation practices is to getinformed, stay informed, and to educate othersabout sanitation. This means getting to know thelocal sanitation situation, what the currentpractices are, what dangers are inherent to thecurrent practices, what other options exist, whatalternatives have proven successful elsewhere, andhow changes can be effected locally. Performingthis assessment is a great first step, but your effortsshould not end here. As mentioned in theIntroduction to this chapter, current sanitation

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practices are tantamount to a global crisis, andalternatives must be created and implemented fora sustainable and healthy human and animalpopulation. In the best case, many communitieswill engage in this challenge and will create severaldiverse and creative ways of overcoming thisproblem.

In general, our community strives to make oursanitation systems ecological and sustainable.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions


score

2 Soil and ground conditions

3 Community operative knowledgeof system

3 Operation and maintenance of system

3 Water conservation

3 Ground and surface water protection

4 Resource recovery

5 Sewer: maintenance & operationrequirements

5 Sewer management

6 Waste water treatment

7 Hygenic behaviors

8 Ecological and sustainable sanitation

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourexcreta handling and sanitation measures, how wouldyou rate, overall, your community’s practices in theseregards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4

Problem 5


I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,must be addressed immediatelyII = Important, but not immediately dangerous.Must be addressedIII = Current practice should be improved, but isnot immediately needed

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Community Solid WasteManagement: Assessment

Preserving the Gifts of Garbage

In general, ‘waste’ is defined as materials or objectsthat have no use, or that have become dangerousto the humans that own or produce it. ‘Solid wastemanagement’ refers to the system of practices thateither recycles, treats, destroys, or otherwise‘disposes’ of waste products, specifically thoseother than excreta and wastewater. Basically, the‘solid waste’ referred to in this section pertains tothose items generally considered ‘refuse,’ ‘trash,’‘garbage;’ and includes food scraps, textiles, tools,appliances, packaging, etc. Refer to the last sectionof this chapter for a closer look at handlinghazardous materials.

Below is a chart that briefly describes thedifferent types of solid waste typically produced bya Latin American population. (‘MSW= municipalsolid waste’ in column three)

Sustainable solid waste management consists ofa series of activities linked with the control ofwaste generation, segregation, presentation,storage, collection, hauling, sweeping, treatment,and final disposal that are carried out in such a wayas to harmonize with the best principles of publichealth, economy, engineering, and aesthetics andalso to meet public expectations. Put simply,sustainable waste management means that weneed to produce less waste, recycle as much as wecan, and, we must safeguard our environment fromdamage resulting from waste disposal.

An important aspect to consider about theconcept of waste is that it consists of items thathave lost their value to one person or group ofpeople. While certainly not always the case, oftenenough, something that is ‘trash’ to one person is(or can become) a useful product to another. Sincethe preservation of God’s gifts (i.e. our naturalresources) is preferable to wasting them, the heartof a sustainable waste management system shouldinclude a network of connections between peopleand industries that produce ‘waste’ materials andthose that can utilize them.

Unfortunately, most managment efforts are notpresently able to cope with the tremendous volumeof waste produced by humanity today.Compounding this problem is the fact that whendifferent types of wastes are mixed, they lose muchof their potential commercial, or recyclable, value.

As a consequence, the mixed wastes usually end upin dumps which are hazards both to the health oflocal populations, and to nature’s ecology. Once indumps, the poorest of society risk their health byseparating, sorting, and selling the ‘waste’ productsof value.

It is in this context that the need to seekeffective solutions for waste management and finaldisposal is an imperative one.

The Inherent Dangers of Solid Waste

The most obvious environmental effect ofinadequate solid waste management is theaesthetic deterioration of both urban and rurallandscapes. The degradation of the naturallandscape caused by uncontrolled waste disposal isincreasing. Open dumps and other piles of garbagehave become an increasingly common sightthroughout Latin America.

On the other hand, the most serious impact onthe environment, although perhaps less apparent,is the pollution of surface and ground waters.Water pollution results from solid wastes throwninto surface waters like rivers and seas and alsofrom the leachate produced by the decompositionof solid wastes in open dumps. The pollution ofgroundwater (also known as the water table oraquifer) calls for special attention sincegroundwater is often the water source for largepopulations. Contamination of groundwatershould be avoided as it may cause adverse healthimpacts and/or high treatment costs forrestoration.

The disposal of solid waste in surface waters,like rivers and streams causes the death of fish,produces bad odors, and detracts from the naturalbeauty of the aquatic environment. Suchconsequences have discouraged the use of surfacewaters as sources of drinking water, sites forbathing, or for recreation in many regions of LatinAmerica and the Caribbean.

Another important albeit indirect risk is theproliferation of animals that are carriers of micro-organisms, and that transmit diseases to people.These animals, known as vectors, include flies,mosquitoes, rats, and cockroaches. As well asfeeding on the solid wastes, the vectors find in thegarbage a favorable environment for reproductionand it becomes a breeding ground for thetransmission of diseases, from a simple diarrhea tosevere cases of typhoid or other more seriousillnesses.

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FliesTheir reproductive cycle varies according to thetemperature. A fly can reach adulthood in 8-20days and it can fly up to 10 km in 24 hours. Itreproduces in moist human and animal excreta(farms, badly built latrines, open defecation,treatment sludge, garbage, etc.). It is estimatedthat one kilogram of organic matter serves for thereproduction of some 70,000 flies.

Refuse is the main source of reproduction of thehousefly, which transmits diseases and isresponsible for millions of deaths worldwide. Thekey to protection against the housefly is, therefore,the proper storage, collection, and final sanitarydisposal of garbage in sanitary landfills.

CockroachesThese insects have existed for 350 million years.Given their extraordinary resistance to mostinsecticides and ability to adapt to anyenvironment, they are believed to be the onlyliving beings capable of surviving a nuclear war.They live around garbage bins, on kitchen shelves,near the dining room table, and in bathrooms.They feed on wastes and at night they walk onfood, and sleeping animals or human beingscontaminating them with their vomit andexcrement. They transmit more than 70 diseases.Nearly 8% of the human population are allergic tocockroaches and develop serious respiratorydiseases when exposed to places frequented bythese vermin. Although the cockroach is one of theoldest and most repulsive insects, health andhygiene problems associated with this pestcontinue to affect us and are even on the increase.

RatsRats have accompanied the human species over thecenturies, and have always been regarded as one ofthe world’s worst pests. In addition to transmittingserious diseases—eptospirosis, salmonellosis,typhus, bubonic plague, and parasitism—they alsoattack and bite human beings. Rats may seriouslydamage the electric and telephone urbaninfrastructure by peeling and eating the networkcables, thereby causing fires. They also contributeto the deterioration and contamination of food.They reproduce quickly; they have from six totwelve pups per litter and a couple of rats mayhave up to 10 thousand offspring per year.

The Waste Crisis: A Burden Borne by the Poor

The poor management of solid waste is a problemin most cities and small urban communities, but itis a growing problem throughout rural regions aswell. The serious problems caused by inadequatesolid waste management are common, to a greateror lesser degree, throughout most of Latin Americaand the Caribbean. Among the many factorsaggravating these problems are: rapid populationgrowth and high concentration of the populationin urban areas, industrial development, changes ineating habits, and the increased use of packagingmaterials.

The growth of human settlement and urbandensity has resulted in increased waste production,such that today greater than 300,000 tons per dayare generated by the urban populations of LatinAmerica and the Caribbean.

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Activities producing solid waste in Latin America and the Caribbean

Generating activities Components % of totalMSW

Residential Kitchen waste, paper and cardboard, plastics, glass, metals,textiles, garden trimmings, soil, etc.

50-75

Commercial: warehouses, offices,markets, restaurants, hotels, and others

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals,special and hazardous wastes

10-20

Institutional: public ofices, schools,universities, public services, and others

Similar to commercial 5-15

Industrial (small and cottage industries):manufacturing, clothing and shoe inustries,tailor’s shops, carpenter’s workshops, etc.

Industrial waste, scrap iron, etc. This heading also includesfood wastes, ashes, rubble from building and demolitionwork, and special and hazardous waste

5-30

Street sweeping Waste left in public areas by pedestrians, dirt, leaves, excreta,etc.

10-20

The economic crises and institutionalweaknesses experienced by many governments inthe region have also had a negative influence uponwaste management. Governments are pressured bytheir debt obligations to reduce spending ondomestic services, while at the same time they arepressured to maintain low tariffs for publiccleaning services by the population. In addition,insufficient education on hygiene and sanitation,and a lack of community involvement contributeto a great reluctance on the part of the populationto pay for waste management and disposalservices. The often poor quality of these servicesfurther aggravates the problem. This wholesituation places public health at risk, increases thepollution of natural resources, and leads to adeterioration in the life quality of the population.

Unlike the affluent areas wherein regular pick-up services routinely collect household refuse,there are still many neighbourhoods where garbageis not collected. In poor neighborhoods it rots inthe streets, thereby providing a breeding site forflies, mosquitoes, rats and other disease-carryingpests, blocks street drains and causes flooding, or itis burned and increases urban air pollution levels.Many of the affected households are located inpoor peri-urban communities where municipaltrucks cannot enter because streets are too narrow.These populations that have settled on theoutskirts of large cities are usually affected by boththe absence of a refuse collection service, and thepresence of garbage dumps. Open dumps are

generally located in these areas where the poorestmembers of the community live, compounding thedeterioration of all conditions, and in consequencecausing property prices to drop, and jeopardizingthe development of the town or city.

Of particular note regarding solid waste and thepoor, is the case of waste pickers (or informalrecyclers) and their families that live in, on, andaround the garbage heaps found near urban areas.Because of hard economic conditions andaccelerated rural migration, many families struggleto cope by harvesting, utilizing, and selling theresources contained in the waste. These familiesoften live in extremely unsafe and degradingconditions. Aside from the serious risks to theirhealth from the hazardous and medical wastes towhich they are exposed, such environments areparticularly rife with violence, including fights withknives and guns, as well as traffic accidents.Despite these grave risks, the recycling that theydo provides a valuable service to the economy andthe environment. Thus, an improvement of theirconditions is in the interests of both environmentaland social justice.

Final DisposalThe state of final disposal services at the presenttime in Latin America provides perhaps the mostconvincing evidence of the inadequacy of thecurrent solid waste management situation in thesecountries. Only about 60% of the solid wastecollected from the principal cities of Latin America

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Vector-borne diseases associated with municipal waste

Source: Departamento de Engenharia Sanitaria e Ambiental, DESA/UPMG

Vectors Transmission routes Main diseases

Rats Bites, urine, fecesFleas

Bubonic plagueMurine typhusLeptospirosis

Flies Mechanical route (wings, feet and body)Typhoid fever SalmonellosisCholera AmebiasisDysentery Giardasis

Mosquitoes Female mosquito bitesMalaria LishmaniasisYellow fever DengueFilariasis

Cockroaches Mechanical route (wings, feet and body) Typhoid fever FecesCholera Giardasis

Pigs Ingestion of contaminated meat Cysticercosis ToxoplasmosisTrichinosis Taeniasis

Birds Feces Toxoplasmosis

is treated and/or disposed of in accordance withmodern technical and public health standards.This corresponds to only about 35% of the totalwaste generated in the region. The rest normallyends up in unregulated open dumps which fail tomeet even the minimum criteria for environmentalsafety, and which are permanent sources ofcontamination and health risk. The situation insmall and medium-sized cities is worse: roughestimates are that no more than 20% of the wasteproduced in these municipalities is being treated.Again, it is usually the waste generated by thepoorest people which is handled improperly.

Even where controlled landfills do exist,leachates from these landfills are generally allowedto seep unrestricted into the ground, or to flowdirectly into irrigation ditches or surface streamswithout any treatment.

Recovery and RecyclingRecovery and recycling are usually not consideredto be part of the formal waste management systemin Latin America, as they have come to be in somecountries, and as such they are still perceived asbeing completely outside of public or municipalresponsibility. In many cases, in an ostensibleeffort to protect the public’s health, these activitieshave been forbidden and the violators punished,despite the fact that waste picking allows vastsectors of the urban population to generatesubsistence income. Between 50,000-100,000people, often assisted by their families, areestimated to be involved in largely informalrecovery and recycling activities in the principalcities alone.

Nevertheless, there is a growing trend towardresource recovery and recycling, particularly withinlarger industries. Large scale recycling programs ofnon-hazardous industrial solid wastes have beenestablished in Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.Wastes (mostly paper, cardboard, bottles, plasticsand ferrous metals) are separated in the industrialpremises and sold to specialized private recyclers.In Colombia, this program resulted from acooperative effort to find jobs for former landfillwaste pickers. Generally, except for plastics, thistype of recycling is profitable and environmentallyadequate.

In some large Argentine, Brazilian, Colombian,and Mexican cities, recycling bins have been set upoutside supermarkets, where glass and paperproducts can be deposited. The most successfulexperience is that of glass recycling in Colombia. In

this case, the recycling bins were placed by aspecific glass manufacturer, which also carried outa public education program. The other experienceshave not been as successful, mostly because of thelack of public education on the benefits of thispractice.

Only a few organisations, usually NGOs ordevelopment aid organisations, act to supportthose involved in informal recovery or recycling.The municipalities usually take no responsibilityfor these activities despite the role which theycould be playing to stimulate source separation, toreduce the volume of waste requiring disposal, andto conserve natural resources.

Nevertheless, in some cases the conditions ofwaste pickers have been improved through theirorganization and training. The most notableexperiences are found in Colombia, but a numberof other countries (Argentina, Brazil, Panama,Peru, and Venezuela) have followed suit. Recyclingorganizations have led to the formation ofcooperatives or small-scale enterprises. In all cases,the organizations have been promoted by outsideinstitutions such as NGOs or the local solid wasteauthority (the best cases for this can be observedin Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre, Brazil, and inMexico City). In the Brazilian cases, the wasteauthority has provided a site where those in chargeof recycling can carry out their work. This is alsothe case for Mexico City, where a recycling plantthat processes more than 3,200 tons per year hasbeen installed. In both cases, all revenues go tothose who separate the material, while themunicipal authority benefits by increasing thelifetime of the landfill and reducing thetransportation time to the landfill.

Public EducationIn spite of the general deficiencies in urbanservices, there are few existing educationalprogrammes which seek to reduce, prevent, orminimise the generation of solid waste at source.Unfortunately, product advertising activelypromotes a shift to less recyclable products andpackages. Many supermarkets and commercialestablishments seem to confuse the term ‘modern’with ‘disposable packaging.’ Only a feworganisations have attempted to address this trendand to increase public understanding of andconduct towards a more environmentally soundapproach to ‘modernization.’

Nevertheless, there is a trend toward thedevelopment of environmental awareness in

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children. The underlying concept here is that themost important target group in public education ischildren, and that schools can be the avenue toteach them. Thus, environmental awareness,including proper handling of solid waste, isincreasingly incorporated as part of the elementaryschool curriculum. The programs includedevelopment of textbooks, teacher training, andhands-on activities. The latter mainly concentrateon recycling, but also deal with environmentalhealth education. These activities also aim to befinancially self-sustaining; income from the sale ofrecycled products is used to improve the sanitationsystems in the schools and, in some cases, topurchase teaching materials.

Contributions to the Mismanagement of Waste

Considered broadly, there are a number of rootcauses for the solid waste management crisis ingeneral, and its acuteness in poor communities inparticular. The most important are:• accelerated urban growth, which outstrips the

capacity of the state (as represented bymunicipal government) to meet the needs ofthe steadily increasing population for basicurban services;

• the growing quantity of waste generated eachday;

• the economic crises of Latin America, whichresult in the reduction of public expenditure,which in turn has a negative effect on municipalbudgets;

• the structural inability of municipalcorporations to adequately offer this and otherservices, due in part to the obsolescence of thepolitical systems which support them;

• the generally high cost of solid waste services, asthey are normally conceived, compounded byinadequate or non-existent systems forcollection of service fees, and the lack ofwillingness of the population to pay for solidwaste management services.

• the population’s indifference to the problem,which is exacerbated by a lack of public healtheducation or access to civic or politicalparticipation.

The structural difficulties of the municipalitiesstand out among these causes. While themunicipalities theoretically fulfill the principalfunctions of operating, regulating, and supervisingthe range of activities related to urban wastemanagement, shrinking budgets have led to an

inability to invest in and operate basic sanitarylandfills. Municipalities in Latin America generallylack the managerial, technical, and financialcapacities necessary to adequately administer solidwaste services. Departments in charge of solidwaste management are generally of lower rank inthe administrative hierachy, and staff lack theappropriate technical background, while resourcesfor capacity enhancement (such as training) areslim. In addition, high staff turnover following thelocal elections contributes to these difficulties.Moreover, solid waste management generally ranksas a lower priority than, for example, water supplyand sanitation services, and therefore receives evenless attention and budget.

In general, one can say that far too manymunicipalities have failed to reach minimum levelsof institutional, administrative and economiccapacities, and are far behind in attainingtechnically adequate waste handling procedures.Most municipal waste management or publicworks organizations are severely limited in theirability to offer service. It is not exaggerating tocharacterise as deficient virtually all the servicesrelated to waste management in many LatinAmerican countries.

What’s Being Done?

Solid waste management is a growingenvironmental and social problem in the urbanareas of Latin America, despite many well-motivated attempts at solutions in recent decades.There are only a few municipalities in the regionwhich have been able to adequately manage theaccelerated production of urban waste.

Although a series of formal, largely importedsolutions ostensibly aimed at technology transferand institutional capacity-building have beentested in Latin America in the last fifteen years, theproducts of these efforts—sewers, wastewaterplants, landfills, and etc.—have yielded littleprogress in spite of the large investments made,and debt incurred.

Despite these failures, or perhaps because ofthem, significant sectors of the Latin Americanpopulation are seeking to invent effectivealternatives to waste management problemsthrough their own direct and active participationin solving the problems. They are opting to takeresponsibility for urban waste managementservices into their own hands. This has led to anincrease in the efforts of collectives, cooperatives,

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non-governmental organizations and the privatesector businesses—both small and large—to takeon in increasing measure of what is, theoretically,municipal work and responsibility, despite ageneralized lack of municipal support oracknowledgment.

In many ways, this arrangement is preferablebecause it requires that a community takeownership of, and responsibility for its own wasteproduction and disposal. However, any seriousanalysis of the solid waste problem in LatinAmerica must look past the deficiencies in serviceto the persistent marginalisation of the poor, whorepeatedly are brought to suffer the most. One cansay without exaggerating that the lowest incomesectors bear the brunt of the solid waste problem,even though the other sectors generate far morewaste.

Legislative EffortsNorms and regulations applying to solid wastemanagement are often unclear, contested amongvarious entities, and woefully inadequate. Inaddition, current legislation often lacks adequateorganisation and/or clear jurisdictional authorityfor formulating and enforcing legal requirements.A variety of government entities tend to beinvolved in establishing and managing the legalframework surrounding and affecting solid wastemanagement.

Nevertheless, in the last several years, thelegislative and constitutional context for urbanservices has changed significantly in some areas,including Bolivia and Colombia. In Bolivia,legislation has been altered in recent years tofacilitate the participation of community basedorganisations in the provision of public services.Here, the Public Participation Law (Ley deParticipación Popular) anticipates improvementsin the system of oversight, control and evaluationthrough assigning neighborhood and regionalorganisations and community committees thepower to monitor, document, and budget thequality of the public services, including thoseoffered by the small enterprises and cooperatives.In Colombia the newly formed constitutionstrongly promotes decentralisation and citizenparticipation, while a separate law regulating theparticipation of the private sector also permitsrecycling cooperatives to compete for publiccontracts for the implementation of wastemanagement operations.

These new laws have created enhanced

opportunities for stakeholders to activelyparticipate in waste management operations.

Community Action

Why do the solid waste problems in Latin Americaresist solution? Why do the negative effects of thesituation fall so heavily on the poor? In any case, itis indispensable for municipalities, otherinstitutions, and citizens to tackle the issue of solidwaste management decisively and pragmatically.The population must be educated about thesignificance of properly handling waste, and theremust be an environment within which creativesolutions to the waste management problems areencouraged.

To be effective, implementing best practices insolid waste management requires action withinboth your religious and larger community levels.Community members should decide howimportant solid waste management is anddetermine the best ways to achieve waste-management goals.

The following assessment is meant to help yourcommunity identify aspects of your present solidwaste management practices that could beimproved. Furthermore, it will hopefully guide youin the development and implementation of betterpractices.

Community Solid WasteManagement: Inventory

The following assessment pertains to the solid wastes thatyour community produces with the exception of humanexcreta, as this subject was covered in the previousassessment. Similarly, further attention to specifichazardous wastes is given in the next assessment.

1. Community Waste Generation Survey

In the space provided below, create a list of solid wastegenerating sources, i.e. ‘waste streams’ (excludingexcreta) within your community. (For example,‘Kitchen/food preparation,’ ‘residents’ trash,’‘housekeeping,’ etc.)

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1.___________________________________________

2.___________________________________________

3.___________________________________________

4.___________________________________________

5.___________________________________________

6.___________________________________________

Now, for each waste stream (source of waste) listedabove, using the table below as an example,perform an extensive waste inventory for theduration of one week, as follows:

1. Notify the affected members of yourcommunity that a waste audit will be conductedthroughout the week. Request them not to disposeof their waste before you (or your team) has achance to inventory and record the contents.

2. Plan your method of collecting, sorting,inventorying, and recording the waste contents.Make sure to keep the waste streams separate untilinventoried.

3. Record, into a table similar to the one below,the contents of the waste each day, being asspecific as you find to be reasonable. However, tryyour best not to combine wastes of differentmaterial composition (e.g. metal and plastic) into

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(Partial) Waste Inventory Table (example only)(revise the list of waste components in this table according to the waste components present in your waste stream)

Waste Component M T W Th F Sa Su Sum M T W Th F Sa Su Sum Totals

Cardboard

Organic

Styrofoam

Paper

Rubber

Rope

Plastic Bottles (PET)

Glass

Iron/ Steel

Plastic container (PP)

Batterie

Alum. Cans

Fabric

Wood

Cigarrette butts

Etc.

total total

Waste Stream #1 (Kitchen) Waste Stream #2 (Residential)

the same category. If possible, record the weight ofthe contents. If you are not able to directlymeasure weight, it may be helpful to create someform(s) of standardized measuring unit(s) (e.g. a2cm. ball of plastic wrap; a 2cm. square ofcardboard, etc) for each type of waste.

4. At the end of the week, total the categoriesyou used for each waste stream; if you did notrecord weights, make your best estimate of theweekend total weight, basing the estimate onwhatever standardized measure(s) you used. Then,calculate the total amount of waste generated byeach stream by summing the weights of all thecomponents found in each waste stream.

5. As a final step, once all waste sourcesidentified above have been inventoried, sum theweights of each category of waste components(horizontal rows on the below table) to find thetotal amount of each particular form of waste thatyour community generates in a week.

6. Create a final list that ranks, in order ofgreatest to least amounts, the most prevalentcomponents of waste that you identified.

Solid Waste AnalysisFrom the inventory above, identify the three wastestreams that generated the most waste. For each source,answer the following questions:

Waste stream/source of waste:

Total waste generated weekly (kg):

Name of supervisor for this community unit:

Why is so much waste generated?

Has your community implemented a plan tominimize the waste generated by this particularwaste stream?

Yes / No

Describe the plan:

Again, from the inventory above, identify the five largestcategories of waste. For each category (wastecomponent), answer the following questions:

Waste component:

Waste sources containing this component:

Quantity community produces per week (kg):

How is this waste product generated?

Is the waste hazardous? Yes / No

(If unsure, refer to page 138 for definition of ‘hazardouswaste’)

Describe the present disposal method for thiscomponent:

Is this component ‘recyclable’?Yes / No

(If unsure, refer to page 130)

Is a recycling program for this material available inyour region?

Yes / No

Can this waste be re-used by your religious (orgreater) community for another purpose, includingcomposting?

Yes / No

Has your community implemented a plan tominimize the generation of this particular wastecomponent?

Yes / No

Describe plan:

2. Community Waste Collection and Disposal

How does your community rid itself of the solid wastethat it generates? Check all that apply:

c Disposal into open pit/pile/dump oncommunity grounds

c Disposal into open pit/pile/dump sharedwith larger community

c Incineration/burningc Dumping into ocean or other nearby

waterway

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c Discarding on side of highway (withoutregular collection service)

c Periodic collection (either communal orindividual property collection points)

c Direct disposal into a managedlandfill/controlled community dump

About how often does your community rid itself of itsaccumulated solid waste?

c Dailyc Weeklyc Monthlyc Quarterlyc Longer

About how much weight is disposed at each interval(kg)?

Is there a community member in charge of solid wastedisposal?

Yes / No

Name of individual:

Based on information from this person in charge, hasthere been any injury or infection as a result of handlingthe community’s solid waste?

Yes / No

If yes, how frequently have these injuries/infectionsoccurred?

Does your community pay a fee for thecollection/disposal of solid waste?

Yes / No

If yes, to whom is this fee paid?

(e.g. municipality, private company, individual, etc.)

Does your community include this expense in its regularbudget?

Yes / No

3. Solid Waste Collection

Is there a collection service in your greater communitythat collects rubbish from residences on a regular basis?

Yes / No

If so, who is the party responsible for this service? Itwould be helpful to record this information below, and tocontact them for help in answering the followingquestions:

Name of collection service:


Contact person:

According to the Collection Service, what policies (ifany) does the Service have regarding what will and willnot be collected?

According to the Collection Service, what is expected ofresidents; i.e. how are residents expected to cooperatewith the Service (including payments)?

Does your community make an effort to cooperatewith the Service?

Yes / NoWhy/why not?

What is the final destination, or end disposal practicefor the waste that the Collection Service collects? (e.g.landfill, incinerator, etc.)

4. Recycling

Does community recycle materials, or participate in arecycling program with your larger community?

Yes / No

If the recycling program is a service of your largercommunity, who is the party responsible for this service?It would be helpful to record this information below, andto contact them for help in answering the followingquestions:

Name of recycling service:


Contact person:

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What waste components are recycled?

Plasticsc Polypropylene (PP)c Polystyrene (PS)c Polyethylene (HDPE or LDPE)c Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)c Other (specify):

Paper productsc Cardboard / corrugatedc white paperc Other (specify):

Organic waste for compostc Automotive partsc Other (specify):

Metalsc Steel / Ironc Aluminumc Copperc TinOther (specify):

Glassc Clearc Brownc Greenc Other (specify):

c Electronic components/ devicesc Textilesc Batteries

Are these waste components separated:c directly by your communityc by others in your larger communityc by the staff at the recycling center

What limitations do(es) the recycling service(s) facethat restrict the materials that can be accepted forrecycling?

To what extent does your community participate in therecycling of solid waste componenets?

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(0= not at all, 9= recycling is genuine policy and practice in our community)

5. Land Disposal

Is a landfill or controlled dumping location the finaldestination of your community’s waste?

Yes / No

If so, who is the party responsible for the operation ofthe landfill? It would be helpful to record thisinformation below, and to contact them for help inanswering the following questions:

Name of Agency/Company:


Contact Person:

Considering the landfill location, what is theapproximate distance to the nearest:

Human dwelling? c<100m c100-500m c500m-1km c>1km

Hospital?c<100m c100-500m c500m-1km c>1km

School? c<100m c100-500m c500m-1km c>1km

Playground? c<100m c100-500m c500m-1km c>1km

Have the managers/supervisers of the landfill beentrained in operating practices for sanitary landfills?

Yes / No

What policies (if any) does the landfill service haveregarding what wastes will or will not be accepted?

Does the landfill protect surface and ground waters fromcontamination?

Yes / No

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If Yes, what design and/or operating features are inplace (e.g. use of impermeable layers at the base andsides of landfill, leachate collection and treatment, dailysoil cover, etc.)?

Is the final wastewater discharge from the landfillmonitored for environmental pollutants?

Yes / No

Are the surrounding ground and surface waters(those which accept wastewater discharge from thelandfill) monitored for contamination?

Yes / No

What pollutants, if any, have been found in thewastewater discharged by the landfill?

Has a regulatory agency found the landfill to havebeen in violation of applicable environmentalregulations in the past three years?

Yes / No

What measures are in place to manage and/ or utilizethe gases produced by the decomposing wastes?

Are waste-pickers/ informal recyclers often present in thelandfill?

Yes / No

What is the landfill management policy regardingwaste pickers, informal recycling services, and/ orsquatter settlements within the landfill?

Do waste pickers at the landfill use any personalprotective equipment (e.g. gloves, aprons, etc.)

Yes / No

If not, has the landfill management doneanything to improve the situation? Pleasedescribe:

By what means or avenue may the public provide theirinput into landfill operation and management decisions?

6A. Waste Handling Workers or Workers’Association

It will be helpful to contact the workers who areinvolved in waste handling. Such employeesinclude but are not limited to: collection workers,landfill employees, recycling service employees, oran association or union of such employees.

Name of association:


Contact person:

Have these workers been provided personal healthand safety training to be able to perform their dutiessafely?

Yes / No

Besides training, what other measures are in place toensure worker safety ? (e.g. personal safety equipment,limitations to work-hours, equipment inspections, etc.)

According to the workers, how frequently are injuries orinfections experienced by workers as a direct result oftheir occupation?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(infrequently…occasionally…frequently)

What is the average wage that workers are paid fortheir labor?

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What avenues exist for workers to influence the policiesthat govern their working conditions?

6B. Governmental Regulatory Agency

Your government should have an agency/ministrythat is responsible for enforcing any environmentalregulations that apply to the operation of thelandfill or dump in your area, as well asadministering other environmental regulations.Consult such agency to answer the followingquestions.

Name of agency:


Contact person:

What environmental regulations are applicable to theoperation of solid waste handling facilities in your area?

How can citizens report violations that they observe?

Has the landfill/ dump been cited for any violations inthe past three years?

Yes / NoIf yes, describe:

Are there any other environmental laws or initiativesregarding solid waste that apply to citizens in yourcounty? (e.g. recycling laws, import bans, etc...)

6C. Environmental Information Source

It will also be helpful to contact an environmentalprotection or advocacy group that can providereliable, expert data on the ecological impacts ofthe landfill or dump in your area. If you don’tknow of one, refer to the List of CategorizedReferences in the back of this manual to helplocate one.



Contact person:

According to these experts, what threats to thesurrounding environment does the landfill or dumppose?

If the present measures being taken to safeguard theenvironment are inadequate, what do these expertsrecommend for improvement?

Of the other laws and/or regulations regarding solidwaste in your country and region (e.g. recycling laws,disposal restrictions, etc.), do these experts consider themto be adequate? If so, are they adequately enforced?

According to these experts, what actions might yourreligious community take to work toward improving thesustainability of local solid waste handling?

6D. Expert Public Health/Safety Information

It will also be helpful to contact a publichealth/safety advocacy group that can providereliable, expert data about the health hazardsresulting from your municipality’s current wastehandling practices. If you don’t know of one, referto the List of Categorized References in the back ofthis manual to help locate one.



Contact person:

According to these experts, what threats to public health

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do your municipality’s present waste managementpractices pose?

If the present measures being taken to safeguard thepublic health are inadequate, what do these expertsreccommend for improvement?

According to these experts, what actions might yourreligious community take to work toward public safety inthese regards?

7. Cleaning of Public Areas

Consider the amount of litter (scattered solidwaste and debris) observed in the surrounding areaof your larger community. You may conduct aninventory of the litter found within a arearepresentative of the general condition with a formsimilar to the one used in question one.

Rate the amount of litter found:0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

none…scattered…everywhere

What are the most prevalent waste components found?

Are any of these waste components from a commonsource(s) ? If so, what is/are the common source(s)?

Are there easily visible trash receptacles present in publicareas for people to dispose of their incidental trash?

Yes / NoWho is responsible for emptying or carting theaccumulated trash away from the site?

Are the trash receptacles generally emptied beforethey are overfilled?

Yes / No

Does there exist a public cleaning service that is chargedwith removing solid waste from such places as roads andsidewalks, etc.?

Yes / No

How is this service funded?

How does the service dispose of the waste collected?

If the cleaning service does not satisfactorily maintainclean public areas, what impediments or limitations areaffecting their service? (It would be most helpful tocontact the service or employees thereof to answer this)

8. Education

Awareness and Education of Larger Community

Is the general population of your larger community wellinformed about safe and ecological waste handlingpractices?

Yes / No

Is the general population well informed about theenvironmental dangers inherent to present wastehandling practices?

Yes / No

Religious Community Awareness, Educationand Action

Are the members of your religious community wellinformed about safe and ecological waste handlingpractices?

Yes / No

Are the members of your religious community wellinformed about the environmental dangers inherent topresent waste handling practices?

Yes / No

Is your religious community engaged in any action tochange the present waste handling practices of yourlarger community?

Yes / No

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Community Solid WasteManagement: Evaluation


In general, the formula used to guide best wastemanagement practices can be represented as thishiercharical decision tree:

The waste management hierarchy:

1 Prevent or reduce waste generation2 Reduce the toxicity or negative impact of the

waste3 Recycle waste in its current form4 Reuse waste after further processing5 Treat waste before disposal6 Dispose of waste in an environmentally sound

way

1. Community Waste Generation Survey

Waste prevention and, if this is not possible, wastereduction should be considered the first option inwaste management because it is less expensive andless resource intensive than the other options suchas recycling, treatment, and disposal. Thus, wasteprevention and reduction should be the basic goalof your community’s solid waste management.Minimizing waste generation will save resources(energy, materials, and labor) and costs; as well itreduces the associated adverse environmentalimpacts during the entire cycle of raw materialsextraction, product manufacturing, and wastemanagement.

Waste can be reduced by products requiring lessmaterial per unit (smaller cars, thinner containers);products with longer lives (more durable tires andappliances); reusable products (refillablecontainers) that replace single-use disposableproducts; limiting the number of units in yourcommunity (fewer cars, bicycles, etc); andadopting standards to reduce the amount ofpackaging (buying dry goods from bulk storagerather than by package). Emphasizing goodoperating and ‘housekeeping’ practices also help toprevent waste from being generated in the first

place. Waste reduction can be promoted byeducation campaigns and by rewarding those whocooperate.

Although in many areas conserving materials,reusing products, and minimizing waste areimposed by economic necessity, these are generalprincipals that should be practised by all thepopulation.

A waste reduction assessment (or inventory) isa tool used to identify opportunities for wastereduction and prevention. It can form a strongfoundation for a successful waste minimizationprogram. The assessment can be as simple or asextensive as resources, time, and commitmentallow. The point is to use a systematic approach toensure that the sources of waste are thoroughlyexamined so that several opportunities forreduction and prevention can be identified andassessed.

The following steps are part of the wastereduction assessment process:

1. Perform a preliminary review of currentwaste generation patterns and managementpractices, and determine which wastestreams to monitor.

2. Perform waste inventory for chosen wastestreams.

3. Identify waste reduction and preventionpossibilities.

4. Evaluate and prioritize waste reduction andprevention alternatives.

5. Recommend and/or implement the mostappropriate waste reduction schemes.

The preliminary review will help you to identifypeople you need to contact for information, whattype of working space will be necessary for sortingand tallying the collected waste, and, if resourcesare limited, which waste streams are the mostsignificant to examine.

The actual inventorying process should help toidentify various waste reduction and preventionopportunities by quantifying the amounts ofwastes generated, providing concrete data uponwhich to focus improvement efforts.

‘Brainstorming’ sessions can then be used as aneffective means to identify opportunities for wasteprevention and reduction. To ‘brainstorm’—individually or as a group—simply list all perceivedopportunities, regardless of technical or economicfeasibility, and encourage innovative ideas. Thefollowing suggestions can be used to facilitateidentification of waste prevention and reductionpossibilities. The first one is to identify which

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waste stream produces the largest volume of waste.Reduction efforts can then be directed towardimprovements in that specific area. The secondsuggestion is to focus on the types of waste that aremost frequently discarded. Here waste reductionefforts can be applied more generally throughoutyour entire community.

The most challenging phase of assessmentinvolves evaluating and prioritizing wastereduction alternatives for immediate, short-term,and long-term attention. The number ofalternatives selected and their order of priority willdepend on the resources available and otherpriorities of your community. A clearunderstanding of the time and money that can beallocated for implementation of alternatives isneeded in order to make appropriaterecommendations.

You must set some initial priorities. Some wastereduction options are obviously easier and lessexpensive to implement than others. For example,planning to eliminate waste before it enters yourcommunity and other measures that require little,if any, capital expenditure, technical resources, ordisruption of operations should be readilyapproved and implemented as soon as practical.

If you or your team are not directly responsiblefor the implementation of new community policiesand practices, and must instead present your ideasto another committee or community member, besure to spend adequate time preparing yourpresentation. From the data collected in theinventory it should be possible to generate visualaids such as charts and graphs, which may bevaluable additions to your presentation.

Our community is continually identifying andimplementing new ways to reduce the amount of wastewe produce.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Community’s Practice for Solid WasteCollection and/or End-Disposal

Before referring below to the specific method ofrubbish removal, it should be stressed that theamount of, and types of waste discarded should beminimized. Preferably nothing besidesunrecyclable waste should be discarded to adump/landfill. Waste minimization efforts shouldinclude composting of organic materials orrecycling of items that can be reused orremanufactured. Hazardous waste should be

disposed of separately in a manner specific to thetype of waste. Refer to the next section(‘Hazardous Waste’) for more informationregarding hazardous waste management.

Your community should keep track of wastedisposal expenses, and include them in the regularbudget. Furthermore, the staff that is involved inhandling community waste should be interviewedfor information regarding any problems that theyencounter with present practices.

Community staff that handles waste should bewell-informed about the hazards of being exposedto and working with waste. Heavy gloves, aprons,boots, and other protective gear may beappropriate. See the information contained belowunder Seeking Expert Advice—Labor, page 134.

To keep your community and village/municipalenvironment clean, and to reduce health risks,solid waste must be disposed of properly.Untreated refuse is unsightly and smelly anddegrades both the quality of life in the communityand the quality of the environment. It alsoprovides a breeding ground for disease vectors,such as mosquitoes, flies and rats. If waste is notproperly disposed, animals can bring it close tohomes and children especially can come intocontact with disease vectors and pathogens. Below,the various methods of ultimately removing solidwaste from your community are discussed with theintention of highlighting the most frequentproblems with each method.

A. Open pit/pile/dump located on communitygrounds or in larger communityThe garbage ‘dump’ is one of humanity’s oldestmethods for getting rid of the waste matterresulting from different activities. A place wheresolid waste is thrown without any attempt atsorting or treatment, that operates withouttechnical criteria—having no sanitary control, normeasures to prevent environmentalcontamination—is called a dump. Such sitesseverely impact the air, water and soil with releasedgases, leached liquids, smoke, dust, and nauseatingodors; in addition they pose serious health hazardsas they are breeding grounds for a number ofvectors, diseases, and if unguarded, they poseserious risks for physical injury.

Because of these problems and their severity, ifopen dumping is your community’s practice, itshould be discontinued—or at the very least,improved if possible.

If a dump is being operated nearby, it is most

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important to ensure that the dump is not belocated close to a water source, because toxicchemicals and pathogens can leach into the water.The dump absolutely should be fenced off toprevent access by scavenging animals and children.At the end of each day, any new waste should becovered with a layer of clean soil 0.1 metre deep toprevent flies from breeding. While these measuresmay help to reduce some of the most immediaterisks, it is most important that your communitywork to change this prevailing practice. Refer tothe List of Categorized References for informationregarding sanitary solid waste disposal practices.

B.Incineration /burningDisposal of household waste by burning outdoors,commonly in 55-gallon barrels or sometimesdirectly on the ground, occurs in urban, as well asrural or agricultural areas, where feed bags andother commercial packaging are burned. Manyview open burning as a low-cost, convenientsolution to deal with household waste, especially inrural areas where waste management infrastructureis limited. Unfortunately, this practice is asignificant source of air pollution and has beenshown to be highly toxic to animals and humans.Hence, if this is your community’s practice,alternatives should be sought and implemented assoon as possible.

C.Dumping into ocean or other nearbywaterwayDumping refuse into waterways is a very poorpractice and should be avoided at all costs. Thispractice contaminates both fresh waters andoceans with a variety of toxins, some of which aredifficult or impossible to remove. This is anespecially critical problem where the contaminatedwater is used for drinking. Refuse disposed inwater also causes more direct health hazards topeople who use the water for bathing and/orrecreation, like punctures, cuts, and infections.Aquatic wildlife are also negatively impacted bywastes of many sorts. Thus, in the interests ofpreserving waterways and water sources for thisgeneration and the next, refuse should not bedisposed of in waterways.

Unfortunately, a significant number of entities(including industries, municipalities, andindividuals) use this as an end disposal method forsolid waste and sludge residues from incinerationfacilities. If this practice occurs in your area, youshould help to work to find new alternatives.

D. Discarding on side of highway (withoutregular collection service)In many areas, especially near cities, it is acommon practice to place small piles of refusealongside a highway or other well-traveledroadway. This practice certainly increases thevisibility of items that may be reused or recycled tocitizens who are in that market; however, for themost part, the practice is a nuisance andpotentially dangerous. Aesthetically, it is veryunappealing and contributes to increased vectorpopulations. Furthermore, the waste often scattersand becomes an injury hazard especially forchildren. Thus, if this is the practice of yourcommunity, more suitable options should bediscovered and implemented.

E. Periodic collection (communal orindividual property collection points)In some communities where a periodic collectionservice exists, there are a series of sharedcommunal collection points that are emptied orcleared at regular intervals, usually by paidemployees; in others there is a regular (e.g. weeklyor bi-weekly) collection service that picks up refusefrom individual properties. In either case, thecollected refuse is then taken (usually trucked) toits final disposal site, which is often a municipallandfill, incinerator, or other facility.

If either service is available in your area, youmay want to assess the efficacy and safety of theservice. It is also important to discover the finaldisposal site that the service utilizes. Continue tonumber 3 for further discussion of these practices.

F. Direct disposal into a managed landfill/community dumpIf your community disposes of its refuse directlyinto a dump or landfill without the assistance of acollection service, it is important that thecommunity members involved in this work beafforded means of protecting themselves from thehazards of working with waste. Similarlyimportant is the maintenance of whateverequipment is used to transport the waste from yourcommunity to the disposal site. The site of enddisposal should preferably be a sanitary landfill.This topic is discussed more fully in number 4below.

Our community strives to dispose of its waste in themost environmentally benign manner possible

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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3. Solid Waste Collection

In some areas, residents may need to transporttheir solid waste to a disposal site themselves;however, in others a collection service exists thatperforms this function for them. Such a serviceoffers many benefits to a community, mostparticularly by saving them the effort oftransporting rubbish to a disposal site (includingthe associated vehicle costs), as well as reducingthe associated risks of such labor and thoseassociated with accumulated rubbish. Having solidwaste collected and disposed of by well-trainedprofessionals may be the safest way to guaranteethat your community’s solid waste is handled in amanner that is environmentally safe and does notpose risks to public health, especially if the finaldisposal site is operated according to sustainableenvironmental standards.

In most areas where a collection service exists,it is related in some way to the municipalgovernment. Municipal governments may owntrucks and employ collection workers themselves,or they may contract a private business to providethe service to residents. Other arrangements exist,however, which make a collection service availablewithout direct involvement of local government;for example, neighborhood or regional cooperativesmay exist, or can be organized, that offer this typeof service. In some areas, collection services mightexist, but are unavailable to particularneighborhoods because of very steep or narrowstreet conditions.

A collection service may be easily organized inareas without one, as long as there is anappropriate transport vehicle available. Whilepushcarts or animal carts may be the only vehiclesthat can negotiate very narrow or steep urbanstreets, such vehicles can generally be constructedlocally to meet neighborhood needs. Transportingwaste to its final destination, on the other hand,usually requires the use of a truck, which may beowned by a local resident, a cooperative, or onemay be contracted or leased from an area business.Your own community can organize wastecollection, for example, by purchasing a suitablevehicle, and offering the service for a small fee. Ifthis is done, it is essential that the communitymembers who perform the service are providedwith protective equipment and are trained tohandle waste safely.

As responsible citizens, the members of yourcommunity may participate in or cooperate with

waste collection services in any number of thefollowing ways:

1. Placing your community’s solid wasteoutside for collection in a manner desiredby the service

2. Paying for the service3. Monitoring and the collection service’s

work, offering suggestions for improvementwhen necessary

4. Managing the work of the collectionservice, particularly if it is a local orneighborhood enterprise

5. Pressuring municipal authorities to ensurethat the service continue or be modified asnecessary to make it both available andaffordable for all residents

While collection services offer both environmentaland health benefits to a community, it also meansemployment to those citizens who work for them.Nevertheless, the nature of this work is ratherhazardous, especially if proper precautions are nottaken, and if the employees are not adequatelytrained for personal safety. Ensuring that the healthand dignity of collection service employees arerespected is important, as they are taking personalrisks in order to provide benefits to the public.Speaking with present or past employees of yourcollection service is recommended to discover theprevailing working conditions, and if problems arediscovered, your community may find some way tohelp remedy the situation (refer to 6(A) below).

One of the biggest sources of tension betweenthe collection services and the communities isdelayed payment. Regardless of whether thecollection service has been contracted by themunicipality or whether it deals directly withresidents, serious problems can arise for theenterprise if it does not receive its payment ontime, especially if the service is a relatively small orlocal operation. Delayed payment maysignificantly affect the quality of the service and itmay also harm the service’s relationship with thecommunity. In some cases, to be sure, the servicemay simply be unaffordable for local residents. Insuch a case, you could serve your larger communityby campaigning for increased government support,educating local citizens about reducing waste(reducing waste can have significant financialimplications, since some municipalities spend asmuch as half their budget on solid waste collectionand transport) and handling it safely, or by helpingto create a practical and sustainble means of solidwaste collection yourself.

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Our community works to increase (or sustain) thebenefits of our waste collection service.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 / not applicable

4. Recycling

‘Recycling’ is a term that means returning productsor materials back into productive use after theyhave lost their original value (to their originalowner). In other words, ‘recycling’ means turningsolid waste components into products with avalue—financial or otherwise. Recycling may ormay not require a treatment or remanufacturingprocesses; however there are considerable benefitsin either case. (Often, the term ‘recycle’ is used todenote the use of solid waste components after atreatment or remanufacturing process, whereas‘reuse’ is used to denote their use without anyspecial processing.)

Compared to reducing the amount of solidwaste generated, recycling and/or reusing solidwaste components is the next most importantelement for the sustainable management of solidwaste. There are three primary reasons for this.First, recycling is essential for the conservation ofnatural resources, since it reduces the demand forraw materials. Second, recycling has the potentialto significantly reduce the total volume of solidwaste needing treatment and disposal, whichpreserves the land required for landfilling, reducescosts, and reduces the associated discharges (gasesand leachates). Third, the use of recycled materialsand products greatly reduces the amount of energyrequired in manufacturing processes, a topic whichis covered in more detail in Chapter 5 of thismanual. Consequently, recycling and productivelyusing ‘wastes’ are important activities for thesustainable management of solid waste

There are several solid waste components thathave the potential to be recycled. These includebut are not limited to plastic, glass, metals, paper,and corrugated packaging; as well, organic wastes(which form a large percentage of the solid waste inLatin America), can be collected and compostedrather than dumped. Fruit and vegetable waste,animal dung and even leaves from trees can breakdown to form the valuable soil conditioner andfertilizer called ‘compost.’

At least two components are necessary for arecycling program: 1) the material to be recycledmust be separate (or separated from) other solidwaste components, and 2) there must be a usefuldestination or a market for the recyclable material.

Thus, any recycling effort will generally involveboth the collection and sorting of materials, as wellas finding markets for the recyclable materials.

The most efficient means of separation is at thesource: i.e. by not mixing recyclable materialstogether with other solid waste components in thefirst place. However, even if recyclable materialsare separated from other solid waste components,they are often collected as a mixture includingdifferent types of material. Thus, some amount ofsorting and separation is often required, whichadds expense to the recovery process. At a recyclingplant, either manual or mechanical means may beemployed for separating recyclable components;nevertheless, public cooperation in separating atthe source is critical for the optimum collection ofmaterials for recovery.

Markets for recovered products often consist ofthe products’ original manufacturers. For example,aluminum manufacturers are generally interestedin purchasing recovered aluminum; similarly forsteel, plastic, and paper products. Nevertheless,diverse markets may exist for recovered materials;for example, paper wastes can be compacted intodense fuel briquettes and used for cooking tosupplement firewood. Municipal governments andlocal cooperatives may be involved in thecollection and composting of organic wastes for useby residents or farmers as valuable soil. Inaddition, public policy and laws may be institutedthat require product manufacturers to reclaim thewaste components that their products generate,particularly if those waste components arehazardous.

An important aspect of recovery and recyclingactivities in Latin America especially is the rolethat ‘scavengers’ play. Since many areas either haveno collection and separation program, or lack theresources for one with an adequate capacity, severalpeople earn their living by picking materials fromthe waste stream, (either from the roadside or fromgarbage dumps), and them finding the markets forthe products themselves. The informal recovery ofrecyclable materials represents a significantcontribution to the amount of material recovered,and as well they help to relieve the financialburden of a municipalities and recycling centersthat must pay workers to separate materials.Unfortunately, scavengers (or ‘waste-pickers’)often work under very poor conditions. They areoften not well trained in personal safety whichmakes their work particularly hazardous, and theyare often public denigrated for the work, especially

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in regions where their activities are consideredillegal. In some countries and regions, however, thevalue of informal recovery has been recognized andefforts are made to improve the conditions. This isespecially the case in Brazil, where special effortsare made to organize scavengers into cooperatives,which help to increase the efficiency of theactivities, while also increasing the scavenger’smarket exposure.

Although coordinated and successful recyclingefforts are not yet widespread in Latin America,considerable progress has been made in the pastdecade. At least six countries in the region havenational laws regarding solid waste, and somecountries have quite successful programs. Forexample, again Brazil ranks among the mostsuccessful, as it leads the world in recycling steeland aluminum cans (85% of those consumed arerecycled), on a par with European countries inrecycling plastics, and comes close to the U.S.A inrecycling cardboard.

In regions where recycling efforts have beensuccessful, public education has been one of themost important elements. People appreciateknowing why recycling is important, what can berecycled, and how they can help to protect theenvironment by recycling. Thus, along withseparation and marketing, education can beconsidered a third necessary element to asuccessful recycling program.

Recycling efforts can be coordinated on anylevel, from your own religious community to themunicipality at large, while national networks cangreatly aid in the dissemination of educationalinformation, technological developments, successstories, and potential markets necessary forsuccessful recycling efforts on local levels.Governments also can play a significant role byestablishing public policies that, for example,mandate recycling, require material reclamation bymanufacturers, or decriminalize the informalactivities of scavengers.

See the resources listed at the end of thischapter for more information regardingcomposting and recycling.

Our community strives to maximize the amount of wastethat is recycled, within both our religious and largercommunities.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Land Disposal

The final destination of your community’s solidwaste may likely be a land-disposal site, especiallyif you live in an urban area. A land-disposal site isa location where wastes from a large number ofsources are acculumated and left to decomposeover time. Despite the prevalance of the practice(or exactly because of its prevalance), land-disposalcan not be considered a sustainable solution to oursolid waste problems, simply because the earthdoes not provide us enough land to copeadequately with the rising population and theamount of waste we produce. This is anotherreason why the goal of a sustainable solid wastemanagement program is to eliminate wastegeneration, and, failing that, to minimize theamount generated, while reusing and recycling asmuch as possible. (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle!)

Nevertheless, since land disposal is awidespread practice at this time, it is importantthat it be done with high regard to bothenvironmental and public safety. Identifying andevaluating the prevailing conditions of the land-disposal site which receives your solid waste is animportant step in assessing the effects of yourcommunity’s solid waste management practices.

When solid waste is dumped or buried, theorganic components of the waste begin to undergothe natural process of decomposition. Besides thenatural elements of air and water, microorganismsand other fauna are involved in this process. Therate at which decomposition occurs depends upona large number of factors; however, the mostimportant factor is the material composition of thewaste. For example, while plant matter, paper andcardboard decompose rather quickly, plasticsrequire hundreds—and sometimes thousands ofyears to decompose.

Inorganic components of waste also undergotransformative processes which vary dependingupon the substance. Some may dissolve with water,others with oils, some may react with otherelements and substances, while still others mayremain inert and unchanged.

Thus, inside a land-disposal site, there areseveral processes occurring simultaneously, each ofwhich have respective byproducts. Thesebyproducts include both liquids and gases (inaddition to the solid matter that remains), whichare briefly described below.

Liquids: The natural decomposition orputrefaction of solid waste produces a foul-

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smelling black liquid, known as leached orpercolated liquid, that looks like domestic waterwaste, but is much more concentrated. The volumeof the leachate is greatly increased by rainwaterfiltering through the layers of waste. Leachate ishighly toxic, as it contains an abundance ofpathogens and dissolved substances.

Gases: Once buried, organic waste decomposesanaerobically—meaning without oxygen. As aresult, the decomposing waste produces quantitiesof methane gas (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), aswell as traces of foul-smelling gases, such ashydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), andother gases. Methane gas deserves the greatestattention because, although it is odorless andcolorless, it is inflammable and explosive if itbecomes concentrated. Since gases have atendency to accumulate in empty spaces inside alandfill, explosions are possible if proper measuresare not taken to prevent them.

Left unmanaged, these byproducts obviouslypose several environmental and health risks;however, when managed properly the risks can begreatly reduced. The most serious risk that land-disposal sites can pose to the environment is thepollution of surface waters and groundwater byleachates. Air quality can also be negativelyimpacted not only by bad odors, but by smokefrom burning waste and by wind-borne dust thatcan spread harmful pathogens that irritate the noseand eyes, or cause respiratory infections.

Land disposal can also pose several publichealth risks. Besides the possibility of explosionsand other direct physical risks (e.g. punctures, cuts,other injuries) for those present in/on the disposalsite, if proper operational measures are not taken,land-disposal sites become the breeding groundand habitat of harmful animals and insects thatcan transmit many diseases. Any animals that visitor live in disposal sites are a hazard for the healthand safety of local inhabitants, in particular forfamilies who near (or on) the site. The health risksare particularly severe if medical wastes areincluded in the acculumated wastes, since theycontain highly infectious materials combined withextremely sharp objects.

A land-disposal site that operates without anyregulations, controls or safety measures, and soposes the serious environmental and safetyproblems discussed above, is called an open dump.In contrast, a sanitary landfill is a land-disposalsite that attains to high standards of air quality,groundwater and surface water protection, control

of vermin and other vectors, access restrictions,and controls over what types of waste are accepted.A sanitary landfill is operated by trained andknowledgable managers that use engineeringprinciples to confine the waste to as small an areaas possible, and anticipate the problems that couldbe caused by the liquids and gases produced by thewastes. Sanitary landfills incorporate both designfeatures and operational procedures to maintainhigh levels of environmental protection and publicsafety, some of which are briefly described below:

• To protect ground and surface waters fromthe leachate, the sanitary landfill will becontained by an impermeable barrierunderneath and around the waste whichprevent leachate from seeping or flowinginto the environment. The landfill shouldbe designed so that the leachate can beintercepted, collected and treated (on or offsite) before it is released. As part ofoperational policy, the surrounding groundand surface waters will be regularlyanalyzed to ascertain that no pollution isoccuring.

• A sanitary landfill will also incorporatefeatures which either vent, reclaim, orutilize the methane gas generated by thedecomposition process. Since methane gascan be used as a fuel, several options existfor its ultimate handling; however, for thepurposes of safety it is most important thatit be safely vented.

• The operation of the landfill will use covermaterial (earth) to confine the waste at theend of each working day, to prevent (orgreatly reduce) vector breeding.

• A sanitary landfill will restrict the acceptedwaste to include only non-hazardous andnon-medical materials; as well, the acceptedwastes will be compacted so that theyoccupy less space in the landfill—items likerubber tires will not be accepted becausethey do not compact.

• Access to the site will be regulated so thatonly those who are knowledgable about thehazards present may enter. All those whoare present are provided personal protectiveequipment.to protect themselves againstthe hazards. (This does not imply thatwaste pickers/ informal recyclers are to beexcluded—on the contrary, efforts shouldbe made to improve their health and work

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conditions, as the recycling they do isvaluable and necessary, both for them andfor the environment.)

• A sanitary landfill should be located severalkilometers away from any public gatheringspace to protect the public especially fromthe risks of vectors. Because of the risk ofdisease, it is especially important that noschools, playgrounds, nor hospitals arenearby.

Land-disposals sites can be operated anywherewithin the spectrum of conditions betweensanitary landfills and open dumps. Unfortunately,there are very few sanitary landfills throughoutLatin America, and open dumps are not at alluncommon; nevertheless, it is irresponsible towardpresent and future generations, as well as contraryto sustainable development principles for amunicipality to dispose of its waste in a disposalsite that does not attain to high levels ofenvironmental and public safety. Thus it isincumbent upon all those who utilize the sites tomake sure that operations are safe and sustainable.For this reason, it is important to ensure thatavenues exist by which the public can both beaware of, and influence the management decisionsbeing made by the land disposal operation.

Our community is actively involved in improving theway our landfill operates, and/or monitoring it for safeoperation.

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6. Seeking Expert Information

One of the most valuable steps in your effort toachieve sustainable solid waste managementpractices is to seek the input and advice fromexperts that are knowledgable about the specificaspects of solid waste management that you aretrying to evaluate and improve. Experts can helpyou understand problems or alternatives aboutwhich you are unclear; in addition, they may beaware of what others have done and are doing toimprove problems you have identified, and aretherefore likely to be able to provide much goodadvice. Thus, in this section, it is suggested thatyou contact and make relationships with as manyof these organizations and agencies as possible, sothat your progress towards sustainable solid wastemanagement may be accelerated.

A. LaborContacting employees or representatives ofemployee associations can be very helpful indetermining how your community’s wastegeneration affects the health of others in thepopulation, especially that of the workers whohandle your waste. In addition, knowledgableworkers can provide your community with tipsabout how to most safely deal with waste withinyour community, and how your community canbest cooperate with the workers.

As well, since the workers that handle solidwaste are exposed to several hazards, their safetyand fair compensation are equally importantelements to consider when evaluating the effectsthat your community’s solid waste has on others.If the workers are not adequately trained, notadequately protected, or not adequately paid, andif your community is complacent about theirconditions, your community is in effect directlycontributing to their suffering. Thus, by learningabout their working conditions, your communitymay identify a social need that deserves attention.

The main unsafe working conditions are:

• Using bare hands when handling the waste,which can produce cuts if the garbagecontains broken glass or sharp objects.

• Working excessively long hours, whichcauses fatigue.

• Not having appropriate clothing or personalsafety equipment, including heavy gloves,thick clothing that is not loose, safetyglasses, foot protection, etc.

• Not showering or washing at the end of theday’s work.

• Having to eat at the working place withoutwashing their hands with soap and water.

B. Government Regulatory AgencyPerhaps the most important group of experts tocontact is the government body that is responsiblefor enforcing the environmental regulations of yourcountry or province. This agency can provide youwith the current environmental laws andregulations that exist, as well as how they areenforced. Often it is possible for citizens to directlyreport violations that they observe. Learning howto report violations provides your community (andthose you educate in your larger community) witha potentially powerful tool that you can use toprotect the environment in your region.

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Understanding the environmental laws of yourcountry/province is very important, as thesepolicies can be the powerful measure that ensurethat environmental conditions improve, since theymust be adhered to by everyone under penalty oflaw. There have been several legislative initiativesaround the world which have produced notableenvironmental benefits. For example, restrictionsare widely used to prevent dumping and littering,restrict improper disposal of hazardous liquids,poisons, and tires in municipal landfills, and forbidcombustion of materials containing toxic metals.Product standards, which establish quality levelsfor particular goods such as paper bags, permitmore flexible use of recycled materials. Productstandards can also be used to restrict toxicingredients. The European Community, forinstance, prohibits non-biodegradable detergents,and many countries restrict the contents ofinsecticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. Germanyhas pioneered the use of take-back requirementsthat compel manufacturers and retailers ofspecified products to take them back for recyclingor disposal when they are discarded. Somecountries require that pesticide containers berecycled. This could be extended to batteries andtires, consumer electronics, and even containersand packaging materials, thus transferring thedisposal responsibility and costs back to theproducers and distributors and giving them theincentive to plan these costs into product design.

The regulatory agency may also be able toprovide you with data regarding violations of theenvironmental laws that occur in your area, such asby a land-disposal site. This knowledge is veryimportant as it describes the known conditionsthat directly affect the health of local inhabitants.

Furthermore, a governmental agency may haveeducational materials that you and yourcommunity can use to help educate yourselves andothers about best solid waste managementprinciples, including information about recycling,hazardous waste, or safe handling instructions.

Lastly, this agency may share with you problemswith which it must cope. For instance, while strictlaws may exist that could do much to improveenvironmental conditions, perhaps there are nomeans with which to enforce the regulations;perhaps the regulatory agency is understaffed orunderfunded. Understanding the agency’s problemscan help guide your community in taking politicalaction to improve the efficacy of the environmentalregulations of your country/ province.

C. Environmental Information SourceContacting an expert or group of experts engagedin environmental advocacy can be extraordinarilyhelpful in identifying the environmental problemsof waste handling practices of your region. As wellthey may provide your community with ideasabout how you can become more directly involvedin improving conditions in your area. Because suchan agency is probably not affiliated with thegovernment, it should have more latitude incriticizing current policy and conditions, and thusbe able to offer a different and more criticalperspective on issues. Such organizations and/orindividuals are often engaged in educationalcampaigns, legislative lobbying campaigns, andalso more direct forms of action. Whatever theirparticular actions are, they are generally quiteknowledgeable about prevailing conditions, andmay have many reasonable suggestions for yourcommunity.

Hopefully such an advocacy group exists that isreasonably local to your community. If there is nosuch organization, there is probably a need todevelop one, and possibly your community couldhelp in this undertaking.

D. Public HealthAnother important angle from which to view yourcommunity’s waste management practices is fromthe point of view of public health and safety. Poorpractices often result in both environmental andhealth problems. Furthermore, the particularhealth problems that your locale experiences maydiffer from other areas. Thus, again it is helpful tofind a reasonably local health organization tointerview. Aside from gathering importantinformation about public health and safety as itregards waste handling, the organization may alsobe able to provide instructions for safely handlingyour community’s waste.

Our community has developed relationships with andutilizes the information available from expertorganizations in our area.

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7. Cleaning of Public Areas

Public cleaning and street sweeping tend to berestricted to paved streets with high pedestriantraffic, while the areas where unpaved streetspredominate, usually in the lower income sectors,are ignored. Very few municipalities foster active

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community participation in this service; and whenthey do, the public response tends to be apatheticin response to the deficient quality of the wastecollection services, which leave the streets andsurrounding areas littered and dirty.

Coverage by waste collection services averagesabout 70% in large Latin American cities havingpopulations in excess of a million inhabitants; insmaller cities this coverage is estimated to rangebetween 50% and 70%. Here too, it is normally thehigh and middle-income areas that enjoy regularservice, while low-income neighbourhoods cancount only on erratic service when they have anyat all.

In many of the capital cities of Latin America,including Tegucigalpa, Managua, San Salvador,Caracas, Lima and Asunción, waste collectioncoverage remains below 40% for the low—incomeareas.

Transport of waste to its final disposal site isbecoming increasing difficult and costly, given thelack of adequate or conveniently located finaldisposal sites. Because of this, it is common for alarge part of the solid waste which does getcollected to end up in open dumps located alongthe road to the final disposal site.

The remoteness of final disposal sites has alsocaused an increase in the use of waste transferpoints or transfer stations as a more efficient andcost-effective method of moving the waste todisposal. Notwithstanding, the use of transferpoints or stations remains the exception, and theseare in use in only a few cities.

Communal collection points are particularlyimportant at places such as markets and busstations, where large numbers of people congregateand food is prepared, sold and eaten. Communalcontainers (trash receptacles), such as empty oildrums, skips or concrete bunkers, can be locatedstrategically, so that solid waste is collected at asingle site. If communal concrete bunkers areconstructed, they should have holes at the base toencourage drainage away from the bunkers, butcare must be taken not to cause contamination ofeither groundwater or surface water sources.Ideally, water from the waste bunkers should flowinto the drainage system and be treated before itenters a river or stream. It is preferable thatvegetable waste is not disposed of in communalcollection points unless these are emptied on adaily basis. Vegetable matter decomposes rapidly, isoften very smelly and may cause significantcontamination of groundwater sources.

All waste from communal collection pointsshould be collected several times a week and takento a designated disposal site. It can be transportedin boxes, or by handcarts, animal carts, bicycleswith box containers, tractors with trailers and skip-trucks. The waste should preferably be collected bystaff wearing protective clothing and masks, whoare trained in safe disposal methods.

If your area has a problem with litter, it is oftennecessary that the attitude and habits of asignificant portion of the population be changed,and that the public become active participants inlitter control. These undertakings require well-organized and energetic campaigns towards whichyour religious community may contribute.

Our community is doing all that it can to helpeliminate public litter.

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8. Education

Public Awareness and EducationSanitary and environmental education areessential if populations are to effectively addressthe problems caused by inadequate solid wastemanagement. Awareness is essential for a change ofattitude that will enable people to understand thecomplexity of the problem and the requirementsfor a good collection, treatment, and final disposalsystem. It is equally important that the public bemade aware of the costs involved and theobligation of all citizens to pay for waste handlingservices to ensure their sustainability.

Educational campaigns help citizensunderstand that the problem of waste disposal is acomplex one, and that it is not going to be solvedby their dumping the garbage somewhere on theoutskirts of their neighborhood. A community thatperceives waste management as a matter of self-interest should thus be willing to give cooperativeand enthusiastic support, and similarly should becommitted to long-term participation.

An important context for community educationis the general tendency of many citizens to lookdown on the collectors of recyclables and otherwaste workers. For this reason, cooperatives inBrazil and Colombia pay a lot of attention to theorganisation of educational campaigns whichfeature the importance of recycling. In this waythey facilitate the public’s collaboration inrecovery activities.

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Community Awareness, Education, and ActionWithin your own community, knowledge of safe,sustainable practices, as well as the consequentialproblems from poor waste management practicesare important to help facilitate community wastehandling improvements.

Since cooperative community participation inefforts like recycling is essential for the success ofany campaign or change of protocol, it is importantthat members understand how their wastemanagement practices directly affect the rest ofcreation, whether in the form of workers, theenvironment, or the health of the generalpopulation. A focus on the health effects ofimproper waste disposal can help to forge a direct,personal connection to these issues such thatproper waste disposal becomes a matter of self-interest.

Since several of the problems that you mayencounter require changes to policies and practicesof your larger community, it may be necessary tocampaign for improvements with a coalition ofothers concerned in the larger community.Sometimes there are direct actions that yourcommunity can make to improve the conditions ofthe larger community. For example, a communitymight become the organizers of a small-scalecollection and recovery service, and might possiblyeven staff the service if the resources are available.

The most important thing is to recognize thatthere are critical problems with many presentwaste management systems. These problems aredangerous not only to today’s population, but arealso a threat to tomorrow’s children. Thus, it isincumbent upon us as Earth’s present stewards, todo all we can to ensure that our waste is bothminimized and disposed of in an ecologicalmanner.

Our community strives to educate ourselves and othersabout ecological waste management practices.

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Conclusions


score

1. Waste reduction and monitoringpractices

2. Ecological disposal practices

3. Collection service

4. Recycling

5. Land Disposal

6. Relationships with expert organizations

7. Cleaning of public areas

8. Public and Community Eduction

Now that you have comprehensively examined your solidwaste handling practices, how would you rate, overall,your community’s practices in these regards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4

Problem 5


I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,must be addressed immediatelyII = Important, but not immediately dangerous.Must be addressedIII = Current practice should be improved, but isnot immediately needed

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Hazardous Products and Wastes:Assessment

The following assessment pertains to products that, whenimproperly handled or disposed, pose particular andserious dangers to life and to the environment. For thesesubstances, special treatment and handling are requiredfor personal, public, and environmental safety.

An Overview of this Assessment

The intention of this assessment is to address yourcommunity’s handling of a special type of waste,specifically household hazardous waste.Household hazardous waste consists of substanceswhich pose serious dangers to life and to theenvironment. Most often these products arechemicals and petroleum-derived products, butalso include elemental products (e.g. mercury) andbiological wastes (e.g. medical wastes). In addition,because of the particularly dangerous nature ofthese substances, this assessment will also givesome attention to your community’s handling ofhazardous products while they are in use beforethey become wastes.

The underlying philosophy of this assessment isthat it is best to reduce or eliminate the use ofhazardous products whenever possible; that theyshould be handled with appropriate care when it isnecessary to use them; that the goal of yourcommunity should be to not generate anyhazardous waste, but when necessary, that yourcommunity use best practices to dispose of theproducts and their containers.

Despite the dangers posed by hazardousproducts and wastes, the number of educationaland disposal-related resources pertaining to themare quite limited, even in countries like the UnitedStates where the use of hazardous products isconsiderable and ever-increasing. In the LatinAmerican and Caribbean region, special facilitiesand programs are only now coming into existence.This situation makes it particularly difficult foryour community to handle and dispose ofhazardous products in the most environmentallybenign manner; and as well it may limit theapplicability of portions of this assessment to yourcommunity’s practices. Despite this, yourcommunity can benefit by considering the contentof this assessment, if only by allowing it to helpyou identify and more safely handle hazardoussubstances.

What is Hazardous Waste?

Components of waste that pose particular dangersto either the environment or human health arehazardous waste. While there is no internationallyagreed-upon definition of hazardous waste, thefollowing definition is reasonably explicit anduseful for the purposes of this assessment.

Hazardous wastes:i. cause, or significantly contribute to an

increase in mortality or an increase inserious irreversible, or incapacitatingreversible, illness; or

ii. pose a substantial present or potentialhazard to human health or theenvironment when improperly treated,stored, transported, disposed of, orotherwise managed.

iii. Hazardous wastes include at least one ofthe following characteristics:

iv. ignitable or flammable (can catch fire andburn rapidly),

v. corrosive (can eat away the containers thathold them or can cause living tissue to bedestroyed),

vi. reactive (explosive or causes a reactionwhen mixed with other materials), or

vii.toxic (poisonous, can cause injury or deathif swallowed, absorbed or inhaled; cancause birth defects, cancer or other healthproblems).

(From the United States Environmental Protection Agency)

Hazardous waste is often considered to be a by-product solely of various industries. Oil refineries,paper mills, mining operations, chemical plants,and large-scale agriculture are all well-known toxicwaste sources. It is true that industries produce themost toxic chemical waste—in terms of bothquantity and concentration; however, householdsalso share in the responsibility of contaminatingthe environment with hazardous chemicals. Herewe will focus on household hazardous waste(HHW), as a full treatment of industrial sources isbeyond the scope of this assessment.

Hazardous products require proper handling forsafety. That is, extra precautions must be takenwhen handling them in order to safeguard yourhealth, the health of others, and that of theenvironment. Similarly, when such products arediscarded, precautionary measures must be takento ensure that their toxicity is contained and is not

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able to broadly contaminate the environment.Tens of thousands of synthetic chemicals are

currently in common use throughout the world,and between one and two thousand new chemicalsappear on the market each year. A large number ofthese are hazardous to both the environment andhuman health. Altogether, there are about onemillion commercial products that are mixtures ofchemicals. Even in the poorest regions, householdsare increasingly using modern chemical products.HHW typically consists of cleaning products, aswell as lawn and garden products, pesticides andherbicides, fuels and paints, as well as dry and wet-cell batteries. The table below lists some of themost common hazardous household products, aswell as the component chemicals responsible fortheir toxicity.

How Hazardous Waste Affects Health

While the massive expansion in the availabilityand use of chemicals during the past few decadeshas led to increasing awareness by the public, themedical profession, and public authorities of therisks to human health posed by exposure to thesechemicals, the actual global incidence of chemicalpoisoning is not known. Nevertheless, it isspeculated that several hundred thousand peopledie each year as a result of various kinds ofpoisoning. The World Health Organizationconservatively estimates that the incidence ofpesticide poisoning, which is particularly high inLatin American countries, has doubled during thepast 10 years; however, the number of cases thatoccur each year throughout the world, and theseverity of cases that are reported, are unknown.

How health effects manifest and becomenoticeable depends upon the nature of thesubstance to which a person is exposed, as well asboth the concentration and duration of exposure.For instance, long-term low-level (‘chronic’)exposure can be equally as dangerous as short-termhigh-level (‘acute’) exposure, although in the lattercase the effects would most likely manifest verysoon after exposure, while in the former, effectsoften can only be seen after many years.Additionally, many substances can have both longand short-term effects, and the particular effectsdepend upon the substance to which a person hasbeen exposed. Each substance affects the bodydifferently.

Health effects of exposure can be moredangerous if certain other factors exist. For

example, exposure to a combination of toxicsubstances may alter and amplify the toxic effectsof individual substances, since chemicals maycontinue to interact with each other after they arewithin a person’s body. Personal characteristics areimportant factors as well, as the risks fromexposure are greater for certain people; forexample, pregnant women (and their fetuses),asthma patients, and diabetics have a higher risk tosuffer from exposure-related health problems thanthe rest of the population. Furthermore, the factthat many hazardous chemicals tend toaccumulate in a mother before being passed to hergrowing fetus means that hazardous waste isdirectly and palpably affecting the next generation.On the previous page is a small table briefly listingreproductive effects of some hazardous chemicals.

How Hazardous Waste Affects the Environment

Industrial accidents can be very severecatastrophes which destroy the vitality of entireecosystems, kill people, animals, and plant life; andcan leave the affected area ravished for decades.These large-scale releases of toxic chemicals poisonthe life exposed to them, but the more lastingdamage is due to the fact that the soil andgroundwater become contaminated, and it requiresa very long time for these to be purified.Furthermore, as chemicals enter water, whetherabove ground or below, they are carried by thecurrent and thereby contaminate everythingdownstream. Contaminated groundwater alsomeans contaminated drinking water.

The severity of industrial spills is due to thehighly concentrated nature of the chemicalsreleased. Thus, one may be tempted to think thathousehold hazardous waste, being much moredilute and diffuse, is not a cause for concern,especially when compared to the dangers ofindustrial wastes. However, the release ofhousehold hazardous waste into the environmentcan actually have serious consequences, especiallyfor drinking water supplies. Indeed, the disposal ofhousehold hazardous waste into landfills or sewersystems directly contributes to majorenvironmental problems on the scale of thosecreated by industry.

When hazardous chemicals enter a landfill, twovery important and dangerous processes occur.

First, as water and other liquids ‘leach’ throughthe wastes, different chemicals begin to react. Thereactions, of course, are highly varied depending

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Common Household Hazardous Products and their Components

Adapted from Household Hazardous Wastes, Fact sheet no. 88-3, University of Rhode Island, 1988

Product Typical Toxic or Hazardous Components

Antifreeze (gasoline or coolants systems) Methanol, ethylene glycol

Automatic transmission fluid Petroleum distillates, xylene

Automobile battery acid (electrolyte) Sulfuric acid

Degreasers for driveways and garages Petroleum solvents, alcohols, glycol ether

Degreasers for engines and metal Chlorinated hydrocarbons, toluene, phenols,dichloroperchloroethylene

Engine and radiator flushes Petroleum solvents, ketones, butanol, glycol ether

Hydraulic fluid (brake fluid) Hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons

Motor oils, waste oils, grease and lubes,gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, #2 heating oil Hydrocarbons

Rustproofers Phenols, heavy metals

Carwash detergents Alkyl benzene sulfonates

Car waxes and polishes; bug/tar removers Petroleum distillates, hydrocarbons, xylene

Asphalt and roofing tar Hydrocarbons

Paints, varnishes, stains, dyes Heavy metals, toluene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,trichloroethylene

Paint and lacquer thinner Acetone, benzene, toluene, butyl acetate, methyl ketones

Paint and varnish removers, deglossers,strippers Methylene chloride, toluene, acetone, methanol, xylene

Paintbrush cleaners Hydrocarbons, toluene, acetone, methanol, glycol ethers, methyl ethylketones

Metal polishes Petroleum distillates, isopropanol, petroleum naphtha

Laundry soil and stain removers Hydrocarbons, benzene, trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloromethane

Other solvents Acetone, benzene, trichloroethylene

Refrigerants 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane

Household cleansers, oven cleaners Xylenols, glycol ethers, isopropanol

Drain cleaners 1,1,1-trichloromethane

Toilet cleaners Xylene, sulfonates, chlorinated phenols

Disinfectants Cresol, xylenols, heavy metals

Ointments Heavy metals

Pesticides (all types) Naphthalene, phosphorus, xylene, chloroform, heavy metals,chlorinated hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Photochemicals Phenols, sodium sulfite, cyanide, silver halide, potassium bromide

Printing ink Heavy metals, phenol-formaldehyde

Wood preservatives Pentachlorophenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Swimming pool chlorine Sodium hypochlorite

Lye or caustic soda Sodium hydroxide

Jewellery cleaners Sodium cyanide

Electronic components Heavy metals, polycyclic biphenyls, brominated flame retardants

Cosmetics Heavy metals

upon the substances involved; these reactions canbe explosive, let off poisonous gas, create heat, orcreate a more toxic substance than either of theoriginal components. This poses serious hazardsparticularly to employees of landfills, recyclingservices, informal recyclers or scavengers, andanyone present in or around a waste disposal site.However, the emissions resulting from thesereactions are dangerous to everybody since theymay be particularly poisonous forms of air andwater pollution.

Secondly, the hazardous wastes concentrate in alandfill simply by design (as a landfill is a ‘central’depot for a wide geographic area), and also by theleachate action. The toxicity of a landfill’s leachateis directly related to the quantity and toxicity ofhazardous materials mixed in with other solidwaste. This is a pernicious problem since mostlandfills are not capable of containing nor treatingthis hazardous leachate. Thus landfill leachate issimilar to the concentrated wastes of otherindustries. The landfill leachate will naturally enterand contaminate both surface waters andgroundwaters, as well as the surrounding soil.

A similar situation occurs in a sewer network,since the wastes of several sources are combinedand often released to a single location, making thisa site of concentrated chemical waste.

Thus, it is important to keep householdhazardous wastes out of landfills and sewers. So,what should be done with such wastes?

What needs to be done?

Unfortunately, there is no easy answer to thisquestion. In some countries there are specialcollection programs that are intended to keephazardous components out of the main wastestreams. However, it is rationally argued that thisprocess further concentrates the toxic substances,and thus is only staving off one problem to createanother, potentially more fatal problem elsewhere.Thus, as a second step to the segregation process, thechemicals are reacted in order to form less hazardouscompounds. The expense of this procedure can bevery high, and thus out of the reach of manymunicipalities, states, and even nations.

This fact, along with a few others, led theUnited Nations Environmental Programme toconclude, ‘There are no specific, cost-effectivesound practices that can be recommended forhousehold hazardous waste management in [theLatin American region]. Rather, since concentratedwastes tend to create more of a hazard, it is best todispose of household hazardous wastes jointly withthe municipal solid waste stream in a landfill...’Clearly, this weak advice is not adequate, as landfillleachate and untreated, chemically contaminatedsewage are serious sources of environmentalcontamination.

Simply put, hazardous wastes need to beeliminated, or at least drastically reduced. Thisshould be the goal of any hazardous waste

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Reproductive Effects of Selected Hazardous Chemicals

Chemical Adverse Reproductive Effect

Arsenic spontaneous abortion, premature labour

Cadmium (heavy metal) spontaneous abortion, decreased birth weight

Chlorinated compound smenstrual disorders, spontaneous abortion, adverse effects on sperm

Lead (heavy metal) hormonal imbalances, premature labour, spontaneous abortion

Mercury (heavy metal) still birth, low birth weight, spontaneous abortion, neurobehaviouraldeficits, mental retardation, delayed development, brain damage

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons menstrual disturbances, spontaneous abortion, blindness, deafness,mental retardation, delayed development, brain damage

Trichloroethylene preterm delivery, low birth weight, reduced head circumference,growth deficiencies, neurobehavioural effects

Benzene congenital heart disease

management program. Any hazardous productshould be used up entirely so that it does notbecome waste. Less hazardous, or preferably non-hazardous substitutes should be utilized in place oftheir toxic alternatives. Reducing consumption ofhazardous products is perhaps the only truemethod to effectively address the problem ofhazardous waste.

When disposal is unavoidable, however, thereare two alternatives: recycling or landfilling/sewerdisposal. Recycling programs exist, or have thepotential to exist for a number of hazardoussubstances. However, these programs are notwidely available in Latin America, and theirdevelopment can be quite costly. Landfilling, itwould seem, may indeed be the only option left.

This apparent dilemma is neglecting oneimportant fact: that the producers of thehazardous products have the means (or are themost likely to have the means) to either treat orrecycle their toxic products. Thus, throughout theworld there is a growing trend to make theproducers responsible for the end-of-life treatmentof hazardous products.

In fact, the concept of responsibility shouldunderlie all consideration of the hazardous wasteproblem and what to do about it. Responsibilityfor the problem includes the concepts of producerresponsibility (for the entire life cycle of a product,including efforts to enhance product longevity,toxics use reductions, energy efficiency, and designfor recycling); individual consumer responsibility,(to make informed and responsible choices inconsumption and disposal practices); national andinternational governmental responsibility (toembark on national waste reduction strategies, andto become self-sufficient in waste management);and social/democratic responsibility (the fabricthat holds the other three tiers of responsibilitydictates that we respect human rights anddemocratic involvement in all phases of decisionmaking including the right to corporate planningand product design.

Your Community’s Responsibility

This assessment is meant to achieve the followingfive goals:

1 Hazardous product identification—Members of your community should beable to recognize hazardous products andidentify the main hazards associated with

use, storage and disposal.

2 Health and environmental effects—Members of your community should learnto identify the risks involved with choosingproducts and materials that generatehazardous waste.

3 Safer alternatives and least toxic products—Members of your community should knowof alternatives to resolve the issuesidentified.

4 Safe handling—Since not all hazards can beavoided, members of your communityshould know techniques to safely handlehazardous wastes and provide consumerswith information to protect themselves.

5 Waste management options—Members ofyour community need to know that theavailable disposal options represent leastdesirable alternative for waste management,while prevention represents the mostfavorable option.

Hazardous Products and WastesHandling: Inventory

1. Hazardous Product Survey

Identify which of the following substances or items arepresent in your community. Check all that apply.

i. Cleaning Productsc Ammoniac Chlorine bleachc Drain openersc Disinfectantsc Wood and metal cleaners and polishesc Toilet, tub, tile, shower cleanersc Dry cleaning fluid, spot removers and

carpet cleanersOther chemical cleaning product (specify):

ii. Indoor Pesticidesc Ant sprays and baitsc Cockroach sprays and baitsc Flea repellents and shampoosc Bug sprays

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c Houseplant insecticidesc Moth repellentsc Mouse and rat poisons and baitsOther pesticide (specify):

iii. Automotive Productsc Motor oilc Fuel additivesc Carburetor/ fuel injection cleanersc Starter fluidsc Automotive batteriesc Transmission and brake fluidc AntifreezeOther (specify):

iv. Workshop/Painting Suppliesc Adhesives and gluesc Oil or enamel based paintc Stains and finishesc Paint thinners and turpentinec Paint and varnish strippers/removersc Photographic chemicalsOther solvents (specify):

v. Lawn and Garden Productsc Herbicidesc Insecticidesc Fungicidesc Wood preservatives

vi. Medical/ Infectious Materialsc Mercury Thermometersc Syringes, scalpels, other sharpsc Medicationsc Bandages, other wound dressings

vii. Flammable Productsc Propane tanks and other compressed gas

cylindersc Kerosenec Home heating oilc Diesel fuelc Gas/oil mixc Lighter fluid

viii. Electronicsc Batteriesc Computer componentsc Televisions or radiosc Telephones/ Cellular phonesc Mercury thermostatsc Fluorescent light bulbsOther (specify):

2. Hazardous Product Handling

Answer these following questions for each type ofpotential hazardous product identified in yourcommunity (from above), and as you do so,complete the information sheet on the pageopposite (note that not all questions may apply forevery product).

A. Is the container clearly labeled such that:The contents are accurately identified?

Yes / NoHazardous component(s) (specify):

The label identifies the product as hazardous?Yes / No

The label clearly indicates proper storagerequirements?

Yes / No

The label clearly indicates what measures should betaken to protect the user from harm?

Yes / No

B. Does your community have product information thatdescribes the contents of the product, specific hazards ofthe product, and specific first aid procedures foremergencies (May be included on the product container,or available as a Material Safety Data Sheet)?

Yes / NoIs this information stored in a well-known andadvertised location within the community, so that itcan be easily accessed in the case of emergency?

Yes / No

C. Are the members of the community who use/workwith, or around, the substance educated about thehazards and proper handling procedures for the product?

Yes / No

D. Is the product stored appropriately, as indicated bylabel or data sheet?

Yes / NoIf not, describe how the product is stored presently,including the location:

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E. Rate how well those who use this product adhere tothe person protection measures recommended:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (completely ignore… …adhere fully)

Considering the personal protection measuresrecommended for this product, does your communitypossess all items that are necessary for safety (e.g.gloves, aprons, safety glasses, masks, foot coverings,eye wash equipment, etc.)?

Yes / NoIf not, describe which supplies are recommended butnot presently available in your community:

F. Has your community sought to find an alternativeproduct which presents fewer hazards, but which can beused for the same purpose(s)?

Yes / NoSafer alternative product(s) (specify):

G. Concerning the disposal of the substance:How do members of the community presently disposeof this substance?

Is your community aware of the environmentalhazards related to the disposal of this substance?

Yes / NoHas your community identified a disposal methodwhich prevents the substance from entering andpoisoning the environment?

Yes / NoIf this differs from the present practice, what is thebest disposal method:

Is the disposal procedure posted so that anyone whouses the product will be informed of it?

Yes / No

3. Quantities and Priorities

Provide an estimated ranking of the five hazardouswastes that are most generated by your community:

Type of Waste: Estimated Quantity

..................................................... ...................

..................................................... ...................

..................................................... ...................

..................................................... ...................

..................................................... ...................

..................................................... ...................

Has the use of hazardous products caused anyobservable effects or hazards in the past three years?

Yes / NoList observed effects/hazards to human health:

List observed effects/hazards to environment:

4. Legislative Policy Framework and RegionalResources

It is recommended that you contact expertagencies to answer the following questions. TheList of Categorized References may list theEnvironmental, Consumer Protection, and PublicHealth agencies that exist in your county or region.

Does your national or regional (local) government haveany laws concerning hazardous waste disposal, especiallyregarding household hazardous waste?

Yes / No / Pending LegislationNotes:

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Do any recycling programs exist in your country formotor oil, automotive batteries, dry cell batteries,antifreeze, or any other hazardous material?

Yes / No

If so, are they accessible to your community? Listany available programs below:

Does your country have laws that mandate labelingrequirements for products containing hazardouscomponents?


Does your country have any laws pertaining tomanufacturer take-back policies for products whichcontain hazardous components?


Hazardous Products and WastesHandling: Evaluation


1-2. Hazardous Product Inventory andHandling

Although the checklist provided at the beginningof the inventory section (page 143) is by no meansan exhaustive list of hazardous products that maybe present in your community, it is intended to bea guide in your effort to identify the types ofproducts most likely to contain hazardouscompounds, as well as the areas of activity thathazards are likely to be found.

In order to identify which products arehazardous, check the product’s container.Especially if your country has mandatory labelingrequirements for hazardous products, you will findsignal words on the label like ‘DANGER’, ‘TOXIC’,‘WARNING’, or ‘CAUTION’ if the product ishazardous.

To learn what chemicals are included in theproduct, you may need to use an outside referenceif they are not listed on the product container.Besides contacting the manufacturer directly, thereis a large database of products, their components,hazards, and safe handling suggestions maintainedby the United States National Institute of Health,called the Household Products Database. Althoughthis database is only available online in English(http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/), it contains a tremendousamount of valuable information.

Safe handling suggestions for the product mayalso be included on the manufacturer’s productlabel, or found in the above database. However, ifyou are unable to find safe handling instructionsfrom these sources, perhaps a call to yourEnvironmental Ministry or a Consumer Advocacyorganization could help. You may find theseresources in the List of Categorical Referencesfound at the back of this manual.

As mentioned in the introductory material tothis section, safe disposal options for householdhazardous waste are limited or even non-existentfor much of Latin America at this present time.Nevertheless, your community should seek out

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expert advice to learn what options are available inyour area. It is most important that yourcommunity protect your water and air resources bynot burning or dumping any chemical. Certainlythe most important thing your community can dois eliminate the use of as many hazardous productsas possible, by substituting them with lesshazardous alternatives wherever possible.

Change in buying, storage and usage habits mayreduce your exposure to household hazardouswastes. The general tips listed below are offered asa guide for best practices concerning hazardousproducts.

Questions to Answer Before Purchasing HazardousProducts

• Do we really need this product?• Does it contain an ingredient that is

hazardous to people or pets?• Could we use a less hazardous substance?• Are we keeping too many different

chemicals in our community?• Will we be able to properly dispose of this

product and its packaging?• Can we store this product safely in our

community?• Are we buying only as much as we will use?

Read the LabelRead all precautionary statements and warnings

Buying Practices• Reduce the amount of HHW you generate

by buying less toxic or non-toxicalternatives.

• Buy only what you need.

Storage Practices• Keep unused products in original

containers.• Never store chemicals in food or beverage

containers.• Preserve labels for directions, disposal

suggestions and warnings.• Store in a cool, dry place.• Never store household chemicals where

small children and pets may reach them.• Store flammable products outside living

quarters and away from ignition sources.

Handling Procedures• Avoid mixing different products and/or

mixing different brands of the same

product, as explosive chemical reactions ortoxic materials may result.

• Follow directions carefully. Use the amountdirected, under the conditions specified, forthe purpose listed.

• Do not smoke while working withflammable chemicals.

• Keep away from open flame.• Provide adequate ventilation.

Protection Devices• Wear protective gloves, long sleeves and

goggles when indicated by contact hazards• Use chemical cartridge respirators or other

breathing masks when respiratoryprotection is indicated by harmful vapors

Additional information regarding each category ofproducts provided on the checklist is given below.

Cleaning ProductsCommon Ingredients and their Hazards:

• Ammonia (glass cleaner)Lung and skin irritant. If mixed withchorine, releases toxic chloramine gas.Short-term exposure to chloramine gas maycause coughing, choking and lung damage.Asthmatics may be particularly vulnerableto chloramine fumes.

• Sodium hypochlorite (chlorine bleach)Lung and eye irritant. Household bleach isthe most common cleaner accidentallyswallowed by children. If mixed withammonia or acid-based cleaners (includingvinegar), releases highly toxic chloraminegas.

• Phenol and cresol (disinfectants)Corrosive; can cause diarrhea, fainting,dizziness, and kidney and liver damage.

• Petroleum distillates (metal polishes)Short-term exposure can cause temporaryeye clouding; longer exposure can damagethe nervous system, skin, kidneys, andeyes.

• Nitrobenzene (furniture and floor polishes)Can cause shallow breathing, vomiting, anddeath; associated with cancer and birthdefects.

• Perchloroethylene or 1-1-1 trichloroethanesolvents (dry cleaning fluid, spot removersand carpet cleaners)Eye, skin and lung irritant. Can cause liverand kidney damage if ingested;

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perchloroethylene has caused cancer insome laboratory animals and is considereda probable human carcinogen. Canaccumulate and persist in human fattytissues and breast milk.

• Naphthalene or paradichlorobenzene(mothballs, toilet bowl cleaners)Naphthalene fumes can irritate eyes, skin,and respiratory tract. Chronic exposure tonaphthalene can cause damage to liver,kidneys, skin, and the central nervoussystem. Paradichlorobenzene is a probablecarcinogen that can also harm the centralnervous system, liver and kidneys. Highconcentration of fumes may irritate eyes,nose, throat and lungs.

• Hydrochloric acid or sodium acid sulfate (toiletbowl cleaners)Either can burn the skin or cause vomiting,diarrhea and stomach burns if swallowed;also can cause blindness if inadvertentlysplashed in the eyes.

• Lye and Sulfuric acid (drain opener/cleaner):Extremely corrosive and dangerous to use.These chemicals work by eating awaymaterials, including your skin if it shouldcome in contact. Likewise, vapors areharmful.

• Formaldehyde, phenol, and pentachlorophenol(spray starch)Any aerosolized particle, includingcornstarch, may irritate the lungs.

Less Hazardous Alternatives‘The Five Basics for Non-toxic Cleaning’, from theEnvironmental Law Center, UK:

• Baking SodaA commonly available mineral full of manycleaning attributes, baking soda is madefrom soda ash, and is slightly alkaline (it’spH is around 8.1; 7 is neutral). Itneutralizes acid-based odors in water, andabsorbs odors from the air. Sprinkled on adamp sponge or cloth, baking soda can beused as a gentle nonabrasive cleanser forkitchen counter tops, sinks, bathtubs,ovens, and fibreglass. It will eliminateperspiration odors and even neutralize thesmell of many chemicals if you add up to acup per load to the laundry. It is a usefulair freshener, and a fine carpet deodorizer.

• Washing SodaA chemical neighbor of baking soda,

washing soda (sodium carbonate) is morestrongly alkaline, with a pH around 11. Itreleases no harmful fumes and is far saferthan a commercial solvent formula, but youshould wear gloves when using it because itis caustic. Washing soda cuts grease, cleanspetroleum oil, removes wax or lipstick, andneutralizes odors in the same way thatbaking soda does. Don’t use it on fibreglass,aluminium or waxed floors—unless youintend to remove the wax.

• White Vinegar and Lemon JuiceWhite vinegar and lemon juice are acidic—they neutralize alkaline substances such asscale from hard water. Acids dissolvegummy build-up, eat away tarnish, andremove dirt from wood surfaces.

• Liquid Soaps and DetergentLiquid soaps and detergents are necessaryfor cutting grease, and they are not thesame thing. Soap is made from fats and lye.Detergents are synthetic materialsdiscovered and synthesized early in the20th century. Soap is better for your healthand the environment than detergents.Detergents are very toxic to fish andwildlife. Nonetheless, soap reacts withminerals in water to leave an insoluble film,which can turn clothes grayish, and leave aresidue on shower stalls. If mineral contentof your water is high, and these aboveresults are unacceptable, detergent may bethe only option acceptable to yourcommunity.

• Mould Killers and DisinfectantsThere are many essential oils, such aslavender, clove, and tea tree oil (anexcellent natural fungicide), that are veryantiseptic, as is grapefruit seed extract, eventhough they aren’t registered as such. Useone teaspoon of essential oil to 2 cups ofwater in a spray bottle (make sure to avoideyes). A grapefruit seed extract spray can bemade by adding 20 drops of extract to aquart of water.

Some Home-made FormulasCaution: Make sure to keep all home-madeformulas well-labeled, and out of the reach ofchildren.

• All-purpose cleaner can be made from avinegar and salt mixture or from 4tablespoons baking soda dissolved in 1

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quart warm water.• Disinfectant means anything that will reduce

the number of harmful bacteria on asurface. Practically no surface treatmentwill completely eliminate bacteria. Tryregular cleaning with soap and hot water.Or mix 1/2 cup borax into 1 gallon of hotwater to disinfect and deodorize. Isopropylalcohol is an excellent disinfectant, but usegloves and keep it away from children.

• Drain opener—try a plunger first, thoughnot after using any commercial drainopener. To open clogs, pour 1/2 cup bakingsoda down drain, add 1/2 cup whitevinegar, and cover the drain. The resultingchemical reaction can break fatty acidsdown into the soap and glycerine, allowingthe clog to wash down the drain. Again, donot use this method after trying acommercial drain opener—the vinegar canreact with the drain opener to createdangerous fumes.

• Floor cleaner and polish can be as simple as afew drops of vinegar in the cleaning waterto remove soap traces. For vinyl orlinoleum, add a capful of baby oil to thewater to preserve and polish. For woodfloors, apply a thin coat of 1:1 oil andvinegar and rub in well. For paintedwooden floors, mix 2 teaspoon washingsoda into 1 bucket of hot water. For brickand stone tiles, use 1 cup white vinegar in1 bucket water and rinse with clear water.

• Metal cleaners and polishes are different foreach metal—just as in commercial cleaners:• Clean aluminum with a solution of

cream of tartar and water.• Brass may be polished with a soft cloth

dipped in lemon-and-baking-sodasolution, or vinegar-and-salt solution.

• Polish chrome with baby oil, vinegar, oraluminum foil shiny side out.

• Clean tarnished copper by boiling thearticle in a pot of water with 1tablespoon salt and 1 cup white vinegar,or try differing mixtures of salt, vinegar,baking soda, lemon juice, and cream oftartar.

• Clean gold with toothpaste.• Clean pewter with a paste of salt,

vinegar, and flour. Silver can bepolished by boiling it in a pan linedwith aluminum foil and filled with

water to which a teaspoon each ofbaking soda and salt have been added.

• Stainless steel can be cleaned withundiluted white vinegar.

• Toilet bowl cleaner—baking soda and vinegaror borax and lemon juice.

• Tub and tile cleaner can be as easy as rubbingin baking soda with a damp sponge andrinsing, or wiping with vinegar first andfollowing with baking soda as a scouringpowder.

• Window and glass cleaner: Use a vinegar-and-water solution, cornstarch-vinegar-and-water solution, or lemon-juice-and-water.Wipe with newspaper. To avoid streaks,don’t wash windows when the sun isshining.

Automotive ProductsCommon Ingredients and their Hazards

• Ethylene glycol (Antifreeze): Very toxic; 3ounces can be fatal to adult; damage tocardiovascular system, blood, skin andkidneys. Toxic vapors are emitted if heated.

• Petroleum distillates (Car wax, polish, fuel andoil additives): Associated with skin and lungcancer; irritant to skin, eyes, nose, lungs;entry into lungs may cause fatal pulmonaryedema

• Petroleum hydrocarbons/ Benzene (MotorOil/Gasoline): Highly flammable; associatedwith skin and lung cancer; irritant to skin,eyes, nose, throat, lungs; pulmonary edema;benzene is a carcinogen and a bone marrowpoison.

• Heavy Metals (Used Motor and TransmissionOils): Cause nervous system and kidneydamage, carcinogenic.

• Glycols (Brake Fluid, Transmission fluid): causekidney damage, absorb into skin, corrosive.

• Methylene chloride (Carburetor cleaner): knownalso as methylene dichloride anddichloromethane, is a colorless, volatileliquid with an ether-like odor. Skin irritant;when inhaled, it mimics carbon monoxidetoxicity. Memory loss and liver and kidneydamage are reported with chronic exposure.Carcinogenic. When heated, methylenechloride emits a highly toxic phosgene gas(nerve gas). The use of products containingmethylene chloride by people with heartconditions has resulted in fatal heartattacks.

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• Sulfuric Acid (Automotive Batteries): Batteriescontain lead and a solution of sulfuric acid.When activated, the electrolyte solution inthe battery produces explosive gases whichare easily ignited. Sulfuric acid is extremelycaustic. Fumes are strongly irritating, andcontact can cause burning and charring ofthe skin; it is exceedingly dangerous to theeyes. Lead is poisonous in all forms andaccumulates in our bodies and in theenvironment.

Safer AlternativesUnfortunately, automobiles and other vehiclesrequire the use of these hazardous products. Nosafer alternatives are generally in use. Indeed, thenormal use of a vehicle produces a number ofhazardous wastes, including solids (e.g. batteries,metal parts, filters), liquids (e.g. motor oil,antifreeze) and gases (exhaust). The best way toreduce automotive wastes, then, is to reduce theuse of vehicles.

The proper disposal of the liquid and solidautomotive wastes is essential to preventenvironmental contamination. At the present time,however, there are few options for citizens of theLAC region to exercise proper disposal methods. Inmost cases of automotive waste, proper disposalwould mean recycling the used product. Usedmotor oil, transmission oil, batteries, andantifreeze can all be profitably recycled; howeverfew such facilities exist in the region. In theabsence of recycling capacity, you may want tocontact your Environmental Ministry or anEnvironmental NGO to ask them what disposaloptions they would recommend as the best foryour location, as well as to become a voice toencourage the development of these capacities.

Lawn/Garden ProductsCommon Ingredients and their HazardsPesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,etc.): There are over 1500 different chemicalagents used as the ‘active’ ingredients in pesticides,in addition to several thousand more ‘inert’components which are also components ofpesticide solutions and may also be hazardous.Below are three common categories of theseproducts, although several more actually exist.• Organophosphates and carbamates: Carbamate

and organophosphorous insecticides, whichact as neurotoxins, are among the most toxicclasses of pesticides, as they: affect the

nervous sytem; are acutely toxic causingheadache, dizziness; twitching, nausea; arecarcinogenic; mutagenic (mutating genes),and cause birth defects.

• Organochlorines: are typically very persistent inthe environment, and are known foraccumulating in sediments, plants andanimals. Organochlorines have a wide rangeof both acute and chronic health effects,including cancer, neurological damage, andbirth defects. Many organochlorines are alsosuspected endocrine disruptors. Severalcommon organochlorines have been bannedfor use in several countries including DDT,aldrin, dieldrin, toxaphene, chlordane andheptachlor. Those that still remain in useinclude lindane, endosulfan, dicofol,methoxychlor and pentachlorophenol.

• Other naturally derived pesticides: Severalnaturally derived pesticides exist which, insome cases, are less toxic to humans than theorganophosphates, carbamates, ororganochlorines, but are still quite hazardous:• Nicotine is the most toxic, poisonous both

to humans and to other mammals, as wellas to birds and fish. It is not availablecommercially for home gardeners becauseof its hazards.

• Rotenone, moderately toxic to humans,kills a wide range of insects; however, itshould never be used near a waterway, as itis very toxic to fish.

• Ryania kills only a few species, includingthe European corn borer, codling moth, andcranberry fruit worm.

• Pyrethrum is relatively nontoxic to humansand only slightly toxic to aquatic life, so itmay be the best choice for home gardens.

• Sabadilla controls lice, leafhoppers, squashbugs, striped cucumber beetles, and chinchbugs. It has low toxicity to wildlife, but itmay be toxic to bees.

• Wood Preservatives: Wood preservatives areproducts containing pesticides which protectwood from pests and rot. Three widely usedwood preservatives—creosote, inorganicarsenic compounds (CCA), andpentachlorophenol (penta) are highly toxic.Treated wood should never be burned, as thefumes are toxic.• PENTACHLOROPHENOL: Toxic to fetus

and causes birth defects, toxic if inhaled,absorbed, or ingested

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Hazardous Waste Information Sheet for Product: .............................................................

List of specific hazards:

c Corrosive c Combustible/Flammable c Pathogenic c Reactive Poisonous/Toxic

Other: .............................................................

Locations of product:

Precautions to be undertaken for safe use of product:

Storage instructions:

Personal protection:

First Aid Procedures:

Skin Contact:

Swallowing/Ingestion:

Contact with Eyes:

Inhalation:

In case of fire/ combustion:

Disposal procedure:

• CREOSOTE: Vapors cause eye and nasalirritation, it is a skin carcinogen and can beabsorbed through the skin.

• COPPER NAPHTHENATE: An eye, skin,and lung irritant, a possible carcinogen andaffects the nervous system; combustible;harmful to aquatic life

Best Practices and Safer Alternatives• Do not use any pesticide if not absolutely

necessary for reasons of health or propertyprotection.

• Demand product stewardship frommanufacturers (e.g. select those that acceptback empty product containers)

• Triple-rinse containers and apply rinsewateron site just treated before disposing

• Purchase pesticides in packaging that isreusable, recyclable, or biodegradable (e.g.dissolvable packets)

• Routinely check application equipment forleaks

• Only mix what you can use and spray outthat day

• Spot-treat pests whenever possible to reducechemical usage, exposure, and expense

• Clean application equipment and vehicles atsite where chemicals are applied

• Dedicate application equipment systems toreduce rinsing (especially with herbicides)

• Use end-of-hose ‘proportioners’ to meterappropriate amount of pesticide

• For lawns: Herbicides are most often used tokill ‘unsightly’ weeds in gardens and yards,and by lawn care companies to maintain theperfect appearance of turf around homes andon lawns and golf courses. Basically, the safealternative to herbicides is simple: pull weedsby hand. There are no really safe herbicides.

• Reduce the use of pesticides by usingappropriate integrated pest management(IPM) methods:• Physical Controls: Barriers, traps, cleanliness,

caulking, handpicking, and environmentalmanipulation (i.e. environmental controlssuch as climate regulation and limitingavailability of pest habitat)

• Biological Controls: Establish populationsof predatory and parasitoid insects thatfeed upon the problem pests.

• Cultural Controls: Planting disease/pest-resistant plant varieties

• Least-toxic Chemical Controls: Insecticidal

soaps, horticultural oils, desiccating dusts(e.g. diatomaceous earth), insect growthregulators (interrupt reproductive cycle; e.g.methoprene for fleas), pyrethrin-basedproducts, etc. (Also, select the most pest-specific chemical available; choosebiodegradable rather than persistentorganochlorine insecticides; and choosewater-based formulations in place ofoil/solvent-based products.)

Flammable ProductsIt is important to know which products areflammable and/or explosive, so that yourcommunity is sure to store and handle them safely.Generally, any petroleum-based product isinflammable, including all fuels, some oils, stains,varnishes, and adhesives, as well as many aerosolproducts. All aerosol cans are explosive if heated.In addition to being flammable, many suchproducts are hazardous in other ways such as beingpoisonous, corrosive, or reactive. Again, checkproduct labels—if they exist—or an expert sourcefor a more complete listing of product hazards.

Below are some general guidelines for the safehandling of flammable products:• Flammables are often explosive under the

right conditions. Thus, propane cylinders, gascans, charcoal lighter and automotive fluidsshould NOT BE STORED INDOORS, butshould instead be stored outside or in shedsthat are very well ventilated. Never storeflammable liquids or gasses near sources ofheat or ignition.

• Keep chemicals in original containers ifpossible, or in containers approved forflammable liquid or gas. (e.g. do not useempty soda pop bottles to store kerosene).

• Make sure that lids and caps are tightlysealed and childproof.

• Use hand pumps or dispensers to reduce therisk of spilling liquids such as gasoline andkerosene.

• Store rags used with flammable products in asealed marked container.

• Know where flammable materials are locatedand how to extinguish them. Keep a workingfire extinguisher nearby.

• Prevent leaks and spills by keeping metalcontainers dry and cool, and handling themwith care. Keep clean-up materials close athand to quickly contain spills should theyoccur.

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• Use products only as they are intended; (e.g.do not use gasoline as a cleaning solvent.)

• Use all of the product on hand, or donateremaining product to someone who can use itto keep flammable products out of the wastestream.

Indoor PesticidesCommon Ingredients and their Hazards• Warfarin, strychnine (rodent poison):

poisonous if ingested, very toxic to aquaticorganisms, may cause long-term adverseeffects in the aquatic environment. Warfarinis easily absorbed through the gastrointestinaltract and skin, and can cause hemorrhaging,excessive bruising, bleeding from nose andgums, or paralysis. Strychnine is toxic ifingested or inhaled; can cause convulsions,paralysis—including breathing, lethal in smalldoses (30 to 100 mg).

• Baygon, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, propoxur,diazinon (indoor insecticides): Harmful orfatal if swallowed, inhaled or absorbedthrough skin. Most are organophosphates orcarbamates. See above, under ‘Lawn/GardenProducts’ for more information about thesehazardous products.

• Napthalene, paradichlorobenzene(mothballs): Napthalene can enter yoursystem through inhalation, skin absorption,ingestion, and eye and skin contact.Napthalene may produce possible damage toeyes, liver, kidneys, skin, red blood cells, andthe central nervous system. Hemolyticanemia, caused by the breakdown of the redblood cells, has been reported followingimmediate and long-term exposure. Infantsexposed to clothes, blankets, and diapersstored in naphthalene mothballs are at riskfor hemolytic anemia. Mild degrees of anemiaoften cause only slight symptoms like a lackof energy and fatigue. In more severe cases,hemolytic anemia can cause acute kidneyfailure. Paradichlorobenzene, if inhaled, mayresult in headache, swollen eyes, stuffy head,anorexia (loss of appetite), nausea, vomiting,and throat and eye irritation; if ingested,symptoms include include nausea, vomiting,diarrhea, liver and kidney damage, andmethemoglobianemia (which interferes withthe uptake of oxygen).

Best Practices and Safer AlternativesAgainst indoor pests, the best offense is a gooddefense. The first step is to make the house—especially the kitchen—unattractive to insects bycleaning up food spills immediately, keeping hard-to-reach areas reasonably clean, and removingclutter that can hide pests. Store foods attractive topests, such as flour, in the refrigerator, or anothersealed location. Water attracts pests, so leakyfaucets and pipes should be promptly repaired.Doors and windows should be well screened.Clothes should be regularly cleaned and aired, andproperly stored in paper or cardboard boxes sealedagainst moths.

A number of nontoxic substances can be used torepel insects. Generally, they are highly fragrant orvolatile herbs or spices. Powdered red chili pepper,peppermint, bay leaves, cloves, citrus oil, lavender,rosemary, tobacco, peppercorns, and cedar oil canrepel various types of insects.

Insects can be trapped and killed withoutresorting to dangerous chemicals: generally apoison nontoxic to humans is mixed with a foodthat insects find attractive, and spread in theinfested area. Examples are oatmeal (attractive)and plaster-of-Paris (poisonous), and cocoa powderand flour (attractive) and borax (poisonous). Old-fashioned flypaper—not a hanging strip ofinsecticide—is an effective trap.

For specific house pests, try these solutions:• For ants: Sprinkle powdered red chilli pepper,

paprika, dried peppermint, or borax wherethe ants are entering.

• For beetles: Kill manually when you seethem.

• For cockroaches: Mix by stirring and sifting 1ounce TSP (trisodium phosphate), 6 ouncesborax, 4 ounces sugar, and 8 ounces flour.Spread on floor of infested area. Repeat after4 days and again after 2 weeks.

• For fleas: Feed pet brewer’s yeast in powdermixed with food or by tablets.

• For moths: Air clothes well in the sun; storein airtight containers, and scatter sachets oflavender, cedar chips, or dried tobacco inwith clothing.

• For rats and mice: Again, prevention may bethe best cure. Holes in exterior or interiorwalls should be closed off and storage spaceskept orderly. Garbage should be kept tightlycovered, and food scraps should be madeunavailable. To catch rodents, the mostefficient system is the oldest: a cat. Next best

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are mouse and rat traps.• For termites: Any wooden parts of the house

should be at least 18 inches off the ground,as subterranean termites cannot toleratebeing exposed to air and light. They have tobuild easily visible mud tunnels to get atavailable wood. Metal shields may helpdiscourage termites, but they cannot preventinfestations.

Workshop/ Painting SuppliesCommon Ingredients and their Hazards• Glues and adhesives (may contain napthalene,

phenol, ethanol, vinyl chloride,formaldehyde, acrylonitrile): Glues, rubbercement, epoxy, and other adhesives contain asolvent which, when applied, evaporates outleaving the solid adhesive portion behind.Often this solvent is hazardous. Manyadhesives are extremely flammable. Someadhesives are skin and lung irritants andallergy-sensitizers while others can causeburns to skin and eyes. Many of the solventsused in adhesives and glues have narcotic,possibly fatal, effects when inhaled in highconcentrations. Inhalation of fumes fromcured epoxy resins may result in coughingand bronchial spasms for several days. Vinylchloride and acrylonitrile cause liverdysfunction, and are suspected carcinogens.Formaldehyde (preservative in manyhousehold products, glue in particle boardand plywood furniture) is a probable humancarcinogen. Levels of formaldehyde in air aslow as 0.1 ppm (0.1 part formaldehyde permillion parts of air) can cause watery eyes,burning sensations in the eyes, nose andthroat, stuffy nose, nausea, coughing, chesttightness, wheezing, rashes and allergicreactions.

• Oil or enamel based paints and varnishes: Withthe exception of latex paint, which has wateras a solvent, solvents commonly used inpaints include mineral spirits (naphtha),toluene, xylene, and other petroleumdistillate solvents. These solvents can irritateyour eyes, skin, and lungs. Inhaling paintfumes can result in headaches, nausea,dizziness, and fatigue. Toxic fumes canaccumulate in closed spaces and areas withpoor ventilation. Acute and chronicsymptoms include muscle weakness, liver andkidney damage, and respiratory problems.

Due to the high solvent content of oil-basedpaints and varnishes, women should avoidusing these products while pregnant.

• Paint thinners (may contain toluene,turpentine, ethyl acetate, mineral spirits):Turpentine and mineral spirits are commonlyused in thinning paints and varnishes. Bothingredients are flammable and toxic, thoughmineral spirits are of lower toxicity. Mineralspirits, a petroleum distillate, can be harmfulthrough inhalation, skin and eye contact, andingestion. Contact and inhalation can causeeye, nose, and throat irritation, dizziness, anddermatitis. Ingestion can induce centralnervous system depression. Damage to lungsmay result if mineral spirits are swallowedand then vomited. Turpentine, a stickymixture of resin and oil obtained from pinetrees, is an irritating substance that can causetissue death as well as damage to kidneys.Intoxication from vapors produces centralnervous system depression with possiblesymptoms of headache, nausea, confusionand disturbed vision. Continued inhalation ofvapors can cause a predisposition topneumonia and chronic kidney inflammation.Vapors even in low concentrations can irritateeyes, nose, and throat.

• Paint/varnish removers: Most paint and varnishremovers contain organic solvents which arehazardous to human health. Most are highlyflammable. Some nonflammable products willproduce a toxic gas when in contact withflame. Paint and varnish removers maycontain some of these hazardous ingredients:acetone, benzene, isopropyl alcohol,methanol, methylene chloride, petroleumdistillates, toluene, trichloroethane, andxylene. Although not presently used in paintand varnish removers, benzene, a knownhuman carcinogen, was an ingredient in olderproducts. Hazardous ingredients in paint andvarnish removers can harm your bodythrough skin contact, skin absorption,ingestion, and inhalation. A commoningredient, methylene chloride, is a powerfulnarcotic which break down in the body toform carbon monoxide, potentially resultingin oxygen deprivation. The use of paint andvarnish removers containing methylenechloride by people with heart conditions hasresulted in fatal heart attacks. Methylenechloride is also a known animal carcinogen

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and a suspected human carcinogen.• Photography chemicals: The most commonly

used solutions are developer, fixer, and stopbath. Photography chemicals that requirespecial handling include intensifiers, dyes,and toners, which may contain selenium,uranium, iron, gold, and platinum. Color filmprocessing is more complex. In particular, thedeveloping baths of color transparency andcolor negative processing and home colorprinting require special precautions. Manychemicals used to develop photographs arecorrosive and can cause skin, eye, and lungirritation. Inhalation and skin contact are theprimary routes of hazardous exposure. Thesechemicals are toxic if swallowed. Acids usedin developing can burn and blind you.Products which contain benzene, a knowncancer causing agent in humans, can beespecially hazardous. Photography chemicalshave a longer shelf life in a powder form thanin liquid concentrate, but the powder formdoes produce dust when poured and canpossibly form vapor droplets. These dropletsare easily inhaled and can carry photographychemicals into the lungs.

Best Practices and Safer Alternatives• Glues and adhesives: The safest glues on the

market are white glue, library paste, yellowwood glue, and glue sticks. White glueeffectively bonds most porous and semi-porous materials such as paper, cloth, wood,and pottery. White glue can also be used forbig jobs such as laying hardwood floors. Usewhite glue, glue sticks, or yellow glue whenever possible. Never use toxic adhesives onlaminated cutting boards, bowls, or a productwhich contacts food. Carefully read the label.Wear protective gloves with adhesives andcements. If the glue contains solvents, useonly in a well ventilated area with plenty offresh air. Avoid wearing soft contacts, whichmay absorb solvent vapors. If the adhesive isflammable be certain to extinguish sources ofignition (such as pilot lights) if you will beusing a large quantity of the solvent in aroom where a source of flame is located. Keepthe lid tightly closed when the glue is not inuse. However, if the glue or adhesive hashardened, it may be thrown in the trashdestined for the landfill.

• Paints: If possible, use latex paint rather thanoil-based or other paints that require a

solvent to clean up. Not only will youeliminate the hazards from the solvents inthe paint, you will eliminate the need to useadditional solvents to clean brushes. Wearprotective gloves. If you need to clean oil-base paint from your skin, massage with afew drops of baby oil, butter, or margarine.Wipe dry and wash with soap and water.Whenever possible, paint outdoors. Whenpainting inside make sure ventilation isadequate. Use a fan to direct fumes awayfrom the area where you are working and tothe out-of-doors. Take plenty of fresh airbreaks. Do not place flammable paints nearflames, sources of sparks, or areas of intenseheat. Never smoke around paints or whilepainting. Paint is usable if it will mix upwhen stirred. Oil paint can be usable for upto 15 years. The best way to dispose of paintis to use it up. Some suggestions to use upold paint are to paint boards, signs, dog andbird houses, or use it as an under coat foranother project. If your paint has completelydried inside the paint can, can be placed inthe trash destined for the sanitary landfill.

• Paint thinners: Dirty paint thinner can easilybe recycled at home for reuse. Pour the dirtypaint thinner into a clearly labeled containerwith a good seal. Plastic jugs such as milkjugs may not be strong enough to withstandthe vapor pressure in a warm environment.Glass jars work well but never use a beveragecontainer because it can be easily mistakenfor something to drink. Clearly label thecontainer with the type of solvent and thedate. Draw or write a clearly visible warning(such as a skull and crossbones or the wordDanger). Store it away from sources of sparksfor several weeks to months until the paintsludge settles on the bottom. Carefully pourthe clean solvent off the top. This solvent canbe reused. Allow the remaining paint sludgeto dry completely in a well-ventilated area,outside of your home and away from petsand children. When all of the liquids haveevaporated, the hardened sludge can bediscarded in the trash. Small amounts ofdirty paint solvent can be poured into a paintcan of the same color and mixed well. Thisthinned paint can then be used for a secondcoat or another project. The best way to getrid of left over paint thinners is to use themas intended or find someone else who will.

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• Paint/varnish removers: Never use paint andvarnish removers containing benzene. If youhave a heart condition, do not use productscontaining methylene chloride. Follow labeldirections carefully. Do not smoke whileusing these products. Do not use paint andvarnish removers near flames, sparks, sourcesof ignition, or areas of intense heat. Bewareof using paint and varnish removers when thegas furnace is operating. The vapors maydestroy your furnace by corrosion and thepilot light can ignite the vapors which willthen explode. Wear protective gloves andsafety goggles. Work outdoors and in theshade. If you must work indoors, be sure tohave adequate ventilation. Take plenty offresh air breaks. If you can smell the product,you are inhaling the solvents and should wearan approved respirator with an organicsolvent cartridge. Never use paint andvarnish remover to clean your hands

• Photography chemicals: Always read and followthe product label instructions. Wear protectivegloves, safety goggles, and an organic vaporrespirator and cover all exposed skin.Photography product manufacturersrecommend at least 10 air changes per hourfor workrooms and recommend exhaustventilation for the processing and mixingtanks. A canopy-type exhaust hood should besufficient for photograph development doneoccasionally in the home; using a bathroom-type exhaust fan is not adequate. Be sure theexhaust fan draws fumes away from you andthe work area. When mixing chemicals, alwaysadd acid to water; i.e. never add water to acid.Avoid products containing benzene. Storeacids in nonmetal, unbreakable containers.Store all chemicals in nonbreakable containersor place bottles inside plastic containers andclearly mark the contents on the outside.Label the working (diluted) solution with thedate it was mixed up in order to avoid usingoutdated solutions. It is best to use up yourchemicals or check with a school orphotographic materials supplier to see if theycan use your unwanted supplies to avoiddisposing of these materials. If you have colorphotography chemicals and solutions contactthe manufacturer for disposal instructions.Kodak has a referral number for its products(1-800-242-2424 [USA]; ask forenvironmental/technical services).

Medical/ Infectious WasteHazards of Medical/ Infectious Waste• Mercury Thermometers: Mercury has become a

contaminant of great concern. Mercury isfound in the air, waterways, lakes, and theocean. Mercury is readily absorbed into yourbody when you touch it; it also easilyevaporates into the air. If you are nearenough to touch mercury, for instance after amercury thermometer breaks, you are mostlikely also inhaling mercury. Brokenthermometers containing mercury are onlyone source the mercury in the environment.It is also released by the combustion of coalfor electricity, improperly discardedfluorescent lights, electrical switches andother mercury containing products. Mercurymay be transported from the air to soil andwater by rain. In humans, mercury vaporaffects the nervous system, lungs, kidneys,skin, and eyes. In waterways, mercury buildsup in fish tissue and increases inconcentration as it is transferred along thefood chain. Mercury that has accumulated infish tissue is passed on to wildlife and tohumans. Mercury can have a permanentimpact on fetal and child development.

• Infectious waste (sharps, bandages, wounddressings, etc.) is any waste capable ofproducing an infectious disease in asusceptible person. Improper disposal ofthese wastes carries the risk of infection, canphysically injure unsuspecting people thatcome in contact with it, and can pollute theenvironment. Infectious wastes include itemslike sharps (needles, syringes, lancets) andcontaminated bandages and dressings. Ingeneral terms, sharps waste means any devicehaving acute rigid corners, edges, orprotuberances capable of cutting or piercing,such as hypodermic needles, hypodermicneedles with syringes, blades, needles withattached tubing, syringes. It is important toremember that your community’s solid wastemay be handled by people at recyclingfacilities, landfills, or dumps. These peoplecould be stabbed by needles that pokethrough clothing, including heavy gloves andboots. This could result in serious injury,including infection by pathogens either fromthe needle user, or by pathogens that adhereto a needle after it is disposed.

• Pharmaceuticals/ medications: Although not yet

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extensively studied, the presence ofpharmaceutical compounds in theenvironment (particularly drinking watersupplies) has been causing a greater concernaround the world. As the prevalence andconsumption of medications continues toincrease, so to does their concentration in theenvironment, albeit in very sub-therapeuticconcentrations. The effects of this ‘new’ formof pollution are not presently known,although it is agreed that aquatic life isaffected the most. It should be noted that,unlike other chemicals which enter theenvironment, medications are created to bemaximally biologically active, meaning theyare designed to affect living things.

Best Handling and Disposal Practices• Mercury spills: If a mercury spill (as from a

broken thermometer) is not promptly andthoroughly clean up, then the mercury willeventually volatilize and might reachdangerous levels in indoor air. The risksincrease if a vacuum cleaner is used (as themercury will be vaporized and broadcast), orif the mercury is heated for some reason. Thedanger of significant mercury exposure isgreatest in a small, poorly-ventilated room.Thus, even small mercury spills must becleaned up properly. The following procedureshould be followed as closely as possible:i) Increase ventilation in the room with

outside air and close the room off fromthe rest of the house. If available, use fansfor a minimum of one hour to helpventilate the room.

ii) Pick up the mercury with an eyedropperor scoop up beads with a piece of heavypaper (e.g., playing cards, index cards).

iii) Place the mercury, contaminatedinstruments (dropper/heavy paper) andany broken glass in a plastic zipper bag.Place this zipper bag in a second zipperbag and then in a third zipper bag (triplebag), tightly sealing each bag. Place thebags in a wide-mouth, sealable plasticcontainer.

iv) Call your local health department for thenearest approved mercury disposallocation. If disposal at such a location isnot possible, dispose of the plasticcontainer with the solid waste.

v) If weather permits, leave windows open

for approximately two days to assure thearea is completely ventilated.

x DO NOT use household cleaning productsto clean the spill, particularly products thatcontain ammonia or chlorine. Thesechemicals will react violently with mercury,releasing a toxic gas.

x DO NOT use a broom or paint brush toclean up mercury. It will break the mercuryinto smaller beads and spread them around.

x DO NOT use an ordinary vacuum or shopvacuum. The vacuum will put mercuryvapor into the air and increase thelikelihood of human exposure.

x If possible, exchange any mercurythermometers with non-mercury containingthermometers to prevent the possibility ofspills in the future.

• Infectious waste: Since household hazardouswaste programs and mail-back programs arelikely to be unavailable or unaffordable toyour community, needles and other sharpscan be placed into a strong plastic or metalcontainer with a tight cap or lid, such as aplastic bleach jug, plastic liquid detergentbottle, coffee can, or etc. Seal the containerwith strong tape and clearly label it toindicate that infectious sharps are enclosed.Dispose of the container with the rest of yourcommunity’s solid waste. Be sure that thiscontainer is not sent to be recycled! Soiledbandages, dressings and disposable sheetsshould be placed in securely fastened plasticbags before being placed in your regulartrash.

• Medications/pharmaceuticals: Pharmaceuticals,including over-the-counter drugs andprescription medicines, can usually bedisposed of safely without presenting a threatto the environment, as long as they are keptout of water. Out-of-date or otherwiseunusable or unwanted household medicinesmay be disposed of in the trash if thematerials are securely wrapped to minimizetampering. Your community might check tosee if there are any medication collection orexchange programs available that could helpkeep the drugs out of the environment.Flushing even small quantities of householdmedicines down the drain is discouraged.Some medicines can disrupt or destroy theuseful microorganisms in the sewagetreatment system (especially septic tanks)

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and/or may pass through the system intactand potentially contaminate downstreamwater resources.

Electronic Products (e-Waste)Hazards of Electronic WasteElectronic waste results when products containingelectrical components such as wiring, circuitboards, motors, transformers, cathode ray tubes,etc., are disposed. Thus, products such as thesebelow are considered components of electronicwaste (e-waste):

Household Appliances: Washing machines,Dryers, Refrigerators, Air-conditioners, Vacuumcleaners, Coffee Machines, Toasters, Irons etc.Office, Information & Communication Equipment:Personal Computers, Latops, Telephones, FaxMachines, Copiers, Printers etc.Entertainment & Consumer Electronics: Televisions,VCR/DVD/CD players, Hi-Fi sets, Radios, etc

Lighting Equipment: Fluorescent tubes, sodiumlamps etc. (Except: Incandescent or halogenbulbs)Electric and Electronic Tools: Drills, Electric saws,Sewing Machines, Lawn Mowers etc.

Computers and other electronic equipment aremade from hundreds of different materials, bothfound naturally as well as synthetic. While somenaturally occurring substances, such as chromium,are harmless in nature, their use in themanufacture of electronic equipment often resultsin compounds which are hazardous. These highlytoxic compounds are especially harmful to humanhealth and the environment if not disposed ofcarefully. The table below lists some of the mostcommon hazardous materials that are found inelectronics waste. Televisions and CRT monitorscontain four pounds of lead, on average (the exactamount depends on size and make). Mercury from

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Hazardous Substances Found in Electronic Waste

Source: Adapted from EMPA: Materials Science and Technology, eWaste Guide, 2006. http://www.ewaste.ch

Substance Component of Electronic Waste

Halogenated compounds:

PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) Condensers, Transformers

TBBA (tetrabromo-bisphenol-A)PBB (polybrominated biphenyls)PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ethers)

Fire retardants for plastics (thermoplastic components, cable insulation).TBBA is presently the most widely used flame retardant in printed wiringboards and casings.

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Cooling unit, Insulation foam

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) Cable insulation

Heavy metals and other metals:

Arsenic Small quantities in the form of gallium arsenide within light emittingdiodes

Barium Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

Beryllium Power supply boxes which contain silicon controlled rectifiers and x-raylenses

Cadmium Rechargeable NiCd-batteries, fluorescent layer (CRT screens), printer inksand toners, photocopying-machines (printer drums)

ChromiumVI Data tapes, floppy-disks

Lead CRT screens, batteries, printed wiring boards

Lithium Li-batteries

Mercury Fluorescent lamps, in some alkaline batteries and mercury wetted switches

Nickel Rechargeable Nickel Cadmium batteries or NiMH-batteries, electron gunin CRT

Rare Earth elements (Yttrium,Europium) Fluorescent layer (CRT-screen)

Selenium Older photocopying-machines (photo drums)

Zinc sulphide Interior of CRT screens, mixed with rare earth metals

electronics has been cited as a leading source ofmercury in municipal waste. In addition,brominated flame retardants are commonly addedto plastics used in electronics.

If improperly handled, all these above toxicscan be released into the environment.

Landfilling e-waste, one of the most widely usedmethods of disposal, is prone to hazards because ofleachate which often contains heavy waterresources. Older landfill sites and uncontrolleddumps pose the greatest danger of releasinghazardous emissions. Mercury, Cadmium and Leadare among the most toxic leachates. Mercury, forexample, will leach when certain electronic devicessuch as circuit breakers are destroyed, or whenfluorescent light tubes are broken. Lead has beenfound to leach from broken lead-containing glass,such as the cone glass of cathode ray tubes fromTVs and monitors. When brominated flameretarded plastics or plastics containing cadmiumare landfilled, both PBDE and cadmium may leachinto soil and groundwater. In addition, landfills arealso prone to uncontrolled fires which will releasetoxic fumes if these electronic components areburned. Thus, to the extent possible, electronicswaste should be prevented, and older electronicsshould be reused and recycled.

Best Handling and Disposal PracticesBecause there are many valuable substances(mostly metals) in electronic devices, recyclingoperations are increasingly being establishedthroughout Latin America. Nevertheless, manyrecyclers are not operating in a sustainable manner;in fact recyclers can easily increase the amount ofpollution produced by the waste being processed.For example, some recyclers will burn the PVCinsulation off wires in order to isolate the metal(e.g. copper). Burning PVC however, releasescorrosive gases when burnt and also induces theformation of dioxins. Thus, if your community isable to locate an electronics recycler, somepreliminary questions regarding the sustainabilityof their operation would help to assure you thatutilizing their services is indeed an advisabledecision.

Some countries, most notably Switzerland andthe European Union members, have implementedProducer Responsibility plans which guaranteethat consumers can return electronic products tocollection points so that the manufacturer canresume responsibility for the product’s disposal, re-use, or remanufacture. You may want to discover

whether any such program is being developed oradvocated in your country or region, and join inthe effort to successfully implement the program.

If there are no environmentally safe recyclingoptions available, your community may try tocontact the manufacturer directly to ask what take-back options they offer.

Now, review and consider the information presentedabove for the various types of hazardous products thatyour community uses and disposes of in order to evaluateyour community’s practices with the questions below:

Our community strives to continually have identified allthe hazardous products that are in use in ourcommunity.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to eliminate the use of hazardousproducts.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to label, safely handle, and storeall hazardous products in our community.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to educate all its member aboutthe dangers and proper handling of products used in ourcommunity, especially those members who use themregularly.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community strives to keep hazardous products outof our local landfills and/or dumps.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Quantities and Priorities

The intention of this question is simply tofacilitate your community’s prioritization of goalsregarding household hazardous waste. As well, thecollection of this information will aid in the task ofpresenting this information to the membership orleadership of your community. Those wastes thatare produced most, and/or those products whichhave caused noticable harm should be consideredthe highest priority.

4. Legislative Policy Framework and RegionalResources

Perhaps the most powerful means of improvingsociety’s hazardous waste disposal practices is to

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implement legislated policies at a governmentallevel which either mandate producer responsibilityor require certain actions of the citizens. Keepinghazardous waste out of the environment is ofutmost importance for our health and the health ofthe next generations. Thus, your community isencouraged to support, in any way possible,legislative efforts towards achieving this goal.Producer responsibility for both labeling and end-of-life product take-backs, are policy tools thathave already been implemented with success inseveral countries throughout the world. Lawswhich govern the behavior of citizens (such asmandatory recycling) are most likely to be effectiveonly after the population has been educated aboutthe environmental and health consequences ofhazardous waste, but such education can easily beincorporated into existing curricula. This could bea very simple but meaningful contribution bymembers of your community, if any are alreadyinvolved in educations.

Inventorying the existing recycling resourcesprovides a service to both your religiouscommunity, but also to your greater community ifyou are able to share the information obtained.You may be surprised to learn how many resourcesalready exist, but of which people just simply arenot aware. Disseminating this information may bethe most important thing your community can doto address the critical hazardous waste problems.

Our community has compiled a thorough list ofapplicable laws and resources pertaining to householdhazardous waste.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions


score

1. Identification of hazardous products

1. Reducing use of hazardous products

2. Handling and storage of hazardousproducts

2. Community Education

2. Disposal of hazardous products

4. Compendium of legislative &regional resources

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourhazardous products and waste handling practices, howwould you rate, overall, your community’s practices inthese regards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4



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Acknowledgements for Chapter Four

The information contained in this chapter has beenadapted from the following sources:Andrews, Richard N; Lord, w.B.; O’Toole, L.J.; andRequena L.F. Guidelines for Improving Wastewater andSolid Waste Management. Environmental HealthProject, 1993. WASH Reprint: Technical Report No.88. EHP, Arlington, Virginia, U.S.A. Available online.Arroyo, J; F. Rivas; I. Lardinois. SOLID WASTEMANAGEMENT IN LATIN AMERICA: The Role ofMicro- and Small Enterprises and Cooperatives. IPES,ACEPESA, WASTE (Urban Waste Series, 5), 1999.ACEPESA: Apartado 1257-1002, San Jose, Costa Rica.Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.ToxFAQs. Center for Disease Control. Available online(also in Spanish) athttp://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.html. 2005.Brikké, François. Operation and Maintenance of ruralwater supply and sanitation systems. IRC InternationalWater and Sanitation Centre, 2000. Available online:http://www.irc.nl.Franceys, R, J Pickford & R Reed. A guide to thedevelopment of on-site sanitation. World HealthOrganization, 1992. Available online:http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/onsitesan.Jaramillo, Jorge. GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN,CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OFMANUAL SANITARY LANDFILLS: A solution for thefinal disposal of municipal solid wastes in smallcommunities. Pan American Center for SanitaryEngineering and Environmental Sciences, 2003.Available online at http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org.Kleinau, Eckhard (EHP) and David F. Pyle (JSI).Strategic Report 8: Assessing Hygiene Improvement,Guidelines for Household and Community Levels.Environmental Health Project. Prepared under EHPProject 26568/CESH.TOOLS.HIQAT, August 2004.Available online.Purdue University, Agricultural and BiologicalEngineering Department. ‘HOUSEHOLD WASTEMANAGEMENT.’ Computer program available fordownload at http://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft, oravailable in an online version athttp://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/housewaste/src/title.htm. 2003.Santa Clara County Materials Advisory Committee.HAZARDOUS WASTE SURVIVAL GUIDE: A Small& Medium Business Resource for Hazardous WasteReduction Management. Available online:http://www.westp2net.org/hazwaste/.Simpson-Hebert M & Wood S, eds. (1998) SanitationPromotion. Geneva, World Health Organization/ WaterSupply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WorkingGroup on Promotion of Sanitation) (unpublisheddocument WHO/EOS/98.5). Available online:http://www..who.int.Winblad, Uno. ‘Towards an ecological approach tosanitation.’ Ibid.WSSCC. ‘The Challenge-—A sanitation revolution.’IbidUWEP. Hazardous Waste: Resource recovery of

household batteries, photographic materials and usedmotor oil. Editted by I. Lardinois and A.v.d. Klundert.WASTE - Urban Waste Expertise Programme, 1995.Available online: http://www.waste.nl.United Nations Environment Programme. InternationalSourcebook on Environmentally Sound Technologies(ESTs) for Municipal Solid Waste Management(MSWM). Technical Publication No. 6.UNEP/DTIE/IETC. November 1996. Available online.UNEP/DTIE/IETC. International Source Book onEnvironmentally Sound Technologies for Wastewaterand Stormwater Management. InternationalEnvironmental Technology Centre; United NationsEnvironmental Program, 2000. Available online:http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/WHO. Healthy Villages: A guide for communities andcommunity health. World Health Organization, 2002.Available online from:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/settings/healthvillages/WHO/ILO/UNEP. Guidelines on the prevention oftoxic exposures: Education and public awarenessactivities. International Program on Chemical Safety,World Health Organization, 2004. Available online:http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications.

Resources for Chapter Four

Internet ResourcesAgency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry(ATSDR) http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.htmlPart of the mission of the Agency for Toxic Substancesand Disease Registry (ATSDR), as an agency of theU.S. Department of Health and Human Services, is toserve the public by providing trusted healthinformation to prevent harmful exposures and diseaserelated to toxic substances. Their ToxFAQs (TM) is aseries of summaries about hazardous substances thatare easy to understand guides about exposure and itshealth effects. These are available in Spanish. TheAgency can be contacted toll free at: 1-888-422-8737.Asociación de Entidades de Aseo Municipal (ASEAM)Telephone: 591-2-431946Email:[email protected] main mission of ASEAM is to strengthenmunicipal waste agencies and to promote theestablishment of small-scale enterprises for difficult-access areas. This mission is accomplished throughtraining and provision of information of personnel inmunicipal agencies. ASEAM is also working onstrengthening the, fee collection system. ASEAM alsoproduces videos and pamphlets on public consciousnessdevelopment on the need to pay waste collection fees,as well as the need to improve MSW handlingbehaviour.Asociación para la Promoción del SaneamientoAmbiental en Comunidad (APROSAC)http://www.pananet.com/aprosac/. Telephone: 507-263-3370APROSAC, an NGO established in 1995, developsintegrated solid waste management projects andpromotes the development of small-scale basic

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sanitation enterprises. APROSAC organises workshops,provides professional services, and develops trainingprograms on this subject.Compromisso Empresarial para Reciclagem (CEMPRE)http://www.cempre.org.br/ http://www.cempre.org.uy/CEMPRE surge con el fin de constituir una instituciónque colabore con la promoción de proyectos educativosy de investigación, y en el establecimiento de vínculosentre la comunidad científica, autoridades, institucionespúblicas y privadas, contribuyendo a la búsqueda decaminos posibles hacia el manejo integral de losresiduos, en particular del reciclaje de los mismos.Centro Panamericano de Ingeniería Sanitaria y Cienciasdel Ambiente (CEPIS) http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/CEPIS is a specialised centre of the Pan AmericanHealth Organisation, which provides technicalassistance, training, and information to countries in theLatin American region on several topics, includingMSW. A very large document library. Telephone: 51-1-437-1077Companhia Municipal de Limpeza Urbanahttp://www.rio.rj.gov.br/comlurb/ Telephone: 55 21-2204-9999COMLURB is part of the Municipality of Rio deJaneiro, but it functions as a private enterprise. It isresponsible for solid waste collection and disposal inthis city. COMLURB also does research in landfilldevelopment and gas use. As part of this program, it ispresently using landfill gas to power lighttransportation equipment. It has also developedcompost and recycling systems on a pilot level. Theenterprise also manufactures waste collectionequipment. It evaluated the implementation of anincinerator, but determined that it was not feasible.COMLURB has an open library specialising in solidwaste.Department of Water and Sanitation in DevelopingCountries http://www.sandec.ch/SANDEC is involved in applied research, capacitybuilding, and training to contribute towards integrated,and sustainable solid waste management systems, newconcepts, transdiciplinary approaches and cross-sectorial technologies.Instituto Brasileiro de Administração Municipalhttp://www.ibam.org.br/ IBAM is an NGO working onthe improvement of municipal management in Brazil.It has a group that works on solid waste, providingtechnical assistance on technologies and management,training courses and documents on the subject. IBAMhas developed a Manual on Public Cleansing and aManual on Recycling, focusing on the role ofmunicipalities. IBAM carries out studies formunicipalities and other organisations on MSW.Recuperar Telephone: +57-4-372-0720 Email:[email protected] Recuperar is a recyclingcooperative that has had a significant impact on theperception of recycling in Colombia. It has shown thatrecycling can have significant social and economic, aswell as environmental, benefits. Recuperar initiated itsactivities as a result of the need to provide jobs forlandfill waste pickers who had been displaced as aresult of the closure of the Medellín city dump. Theorganization trains and provides health and lifeinsurance benefits to its members, who number over

700. As a result of this success, a number ofcooperatives have been created in other cities inColombia. Recuperar publishes information on itsactivities as well as public information and educationmaterials.Red de Accion en Plaguicidas http://www.rap-al.org/Pesticide Action Network (PAN) is a network of over600 participating nongovernmental organizations,institutions and individuals in over 90 countriesworking to replace the use of hazardous pesticides withecologically sound alternatives. The internationalinternet page is http://www.pan-international.org. TheLatin American regional center, coordinated by theAlianza por una Mejor Calidad de Vida, can becontacted by telephone at 562-3416742.Sanitation Connection: An environmental sanitationnetwork http://www.sanicon.net/ Sanitation Connectionis an Internet-based resource that provides access toaccurate, reliable and up-to-date information ontechnologies, institutions and financing of sanitationsystems around the world. Institutions of internationalstanding contribute to the information base byproviding and maintaining a topic of theirspecialization. It is a World Wide Web-based resourceintended to facilitate access to information onsanitation. It aims to extend its reach through paperand telephone-based services in selected locations. Inthe first phase of its development, it is predominantlyEnglish language in orientation. Information in otherlanguages will be increasingly available as it developsfurther.Silicone Valley Toxics Coalition-—E-WasteBackgrounder http://www.svtc.org/ Silicon Valley ToxicsCoalition (SVTC) is a diverse grassroots coalition thatengages in research, advocacy, and organizing aroundthe environmental and human health problems causedby the rapid growth of the high-tech electronicsindustry. Available in English only.Software for Environmental Awarenesshttp://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/Alternative link: http://www.epa.gov/seahome. Freeinteractive software on environmental topics. Theseprograms are produced by Purdue University incooperation with US EPA. Included here are programson Household Waste Management. Some informationavailable in Spanish.WASTE: Advisors on Urban Environment andDevelopment: http://www.waste.nl/ WASTE advises insustainable improvement of the urban environment.The focus of activities is on low-income urban areas inorder to develop, together with local residents, toolsand means for their own development, enabling themto improve their living conditions, the environment andto create employment as a sound economic base fortheir future. Another important focal point for WASTEthe role of small-scale entrepreneurs and their(potential) contribution to the provision of urbanservices and their integration in the municipal servicese.g. in resource recovery and the removal of urbanwaste.Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC):http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/ WEDC is concerned withseeking solutions to the serious problems associatedwith inadequate collection and poor disposal of wastein low- and middle-income countries whereindiscriminate dumping of waste creates serious health

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and environmental hazards and blocks drains andsewers.World Health Organization - division of Water,Sanitation and Health:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/ The aim ofthe WSH division is the reduction of water- and waste-related disease and the optimization of the healthbenefits of sustainable water and waste management,with an objective of assisting citizens to understandand act on the health impacts of their actions. WHOhas hundreds of full text manuals available on-line andby order. The Pan American Health Organization is the

regional division of the WHO. National office listingscan be found at the end of the previous chapter.zoomZap: Resources from Chiapas, Mexicohttp://www.zoomzap.com/The goal of ZoomZap is to provide practical ideas andtools for achieving a more just and sustainable worldand for living freer, more fulfilling and moreindependent lives in healthy communities. Their‘Manuals Project’ features a very detailed manual ondry composting toilets.

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154


Energy: The Animation of theUniverse

Energy is the force behind movement. It isthe power that gets work done—work beingmovement through resistance. It is the force

we get from food, that we feel as heat, that we seeas light, and hear as sound. It is the mechanicalpower of an engine, a system of levers, or thevolume and intensity of your voice.

We tend to think of energy as being apart frommatter. Matter is the stuff that has mass, or weight,and texture. Energy is what makes it move, getwarmer, do work, etc. But, any physicist will tellyou that energy is not that simple. Indeed, it is afascinating entity.

It turns out that ultimately, all matter is energy,and all energy is matter. If you look at them veryclosely, the two entities are indistinquishable. Inshort, this means that the entire physical universeis made of energy.

Properties of Energy

In all but the notable exception of nuclearreactions, the total amount of energy in a closedsystem remains the same, or is ‘conserved.’ Thismeans that energy is continually changing intovarious forms (e.g. light, heat, movement,magnatism, electricity, X-rays, etc.), but neverdisappearing from the universe.

The Earth is not a closed system, as the sun iscontinually showering energy onto the Earth.Nevertheless, the energy does not disappear once ithits the Earth. Instead, it is converted into all sortsof other forms, including life (or bio-mass), heat,light, electricity, and many other forms of energy.

The exception to the conservation rule occursin the case of nuclear reactions. In these reactionsmatter ‘becomes’ energy. Nuclear rections converta small bit of matter into a tremendous amount ofenergy. These are some of the most powerfulreactions known in the universe. There are twotype of nuclear reactions: nuclear fusion, andnuclear fission.

The energy for all the life on earth, the sun, is

the result of nuclear fusion reactions taking placebillions of kilometers away. The nuclear bomb isone of the only earthly uses of nuclear fusion. Anexample of nuclear fission, or the splitting an atom,is the atomic bomb. The same type of fissionreaction is used in a ‘controlled’ manner to createelectricity in many generation plants around theworld. It turns out that one of the most dangerouswaste products of nuclear generation, plutonium,is the raw material for the nuclear weapons thatthreaten the continued existence of human life onearth.

Many Forms of Energy

There are many different ways by which energy canexpress itself. It may be the light emitted by a star,a flashlight, or a phosphorescent animal, or it maybe in the form of ‘invisible’ radiation like gammarays, X-rays, or radio waves. It may be in the formof wind, or the movement of the atoms of the air.It might be mechanical or physical, as in the formof a spring, a lever, or a rolling stone.

Energy can also be stored; i.e. there is ‘potentialenergy’ that can create force, but isn’t doing so atthe moment. Electricity can be stored in the formof a battery, or, similarly, physical/mechanicalenergy is stored in a rock on top of a cliff.

Energy is stored in the structure andorganization created by life forms, and in thestructure of chemical bonds. When thesestructures are broken or changed, energy is eitherreleased or absorbed, depending on the type ofreaction.

Heat is the vibrational energy of matter. Thefaster the atoms are vibrating, the higher thetemperature.

Energy is continually converted from one forminto another. For example, the sun’s energy may beconverted into bio-energy in the form of a plant(which includes all sorts of chemical reactions),which is then made into food for us, or into lightand heat if it is combusted. The sun’s energy canbe focused into a point that becomes very, veryhot. The movement of air, or wind, can be made toforce wheels and shafts to turn (like a windmill).

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Humans also use steam energy, which is using theforce of pressurized steam to do work, like topower a locomotive, or to turn a turbine.

Truly, energy is a Sacred Gift, and we havemany uses for it. A few of the most important usesinclude the basic services of cooking, heating,lighting, space conditioning, and safe storage offood. In addition, the provision of clean water andsanitation, which is facilitated by energy, affectspublic health in cities as well as rural areas.Societies also require services such astransportation, power for industry and agriculture,and heat for materials processing.

Energy is essential to economic and socialdevelopment and improved quality of life. Much ofthe world’s energy, however, is currently producedand consumed in ways that could not be sustainedif technology were to remain constant and ifoverall consumption continues to increasesubstantially.

Electricity, a Special Form of Energy

Electricity is the flowing of electrons, or negativelycharged particles through a medium. The mediumis then said to be ‘conducting’ electricity; or, inother words, it has electrons flowing through it.

Electricity occurs naturally, for example, aslightning. Lightning is an electric charge travelingthrough the atmosphere. Electricity also can beproduced by humans. Electricity is an extremelyversatile, clean and ‘user-friendly’ form of energy.There is an almost limitless range of applicationsfor electricity. Electrical motors provide shaftpower that can be used for a multitude ofindustrial and agricultural activities, as well as fortransport. Lights allow us to peer into the dark,which has greatly impacted the lives of humans.Batteries allow electricity to be stored for periodswhen it will be required for any of these purposes.

The social impact of introducing electricity to aregion is enormous. There are the obvious benefitsof improved social services; lighting at healthcentres, hospitals and schools, refrigeration ofvaccines, etc. There are other social gains such asstreet lighting, cinema and television, communityservices such as milling of grain, sawmills orbattery charging (often an alternative to gridconnections).

Electricity: Modern ‘Utility’

Electricity is most commonly produced by

converting an energy source into mechanical shaftpower, which in turn drives a generator whichproduces electricity. The energy source can varydepending on the available resources. Typicalsources include fossil fuels, nuclear fuels (rare inLatin America), hydro power (very prevalent inLatin America), solar power, wind power,geothermal, etc.

Traditional thermal power generation uses oil,coal or gas to produce heat which in turn is used tocreate steam which drives a steam turbine. Theturbine provides the mechanical power for thegenerator. Similarly, nuclear power generation usesnuclear fuels such as uranium, which undergonuclear fission in a reactor, to provide heat to drivethe turbine. Hydropower uses the stored orpotential energy of water which has a ‘head’ orheight above a certain point. The water is droppedthrough a turbine which provides shaft power fordirectly driving a generator. Windpower uses asimilar principle but the energy is extracted fromthe wind to drive the turbine. Geothermal energyis heat energy stored in the earth’s crust which canbe tapped to heat water for driving a turbine. Solarenergy for providing electricity can be derivedusing one of two methods.

Heat from the sun can be concentrated to drivea steam turbine, or the more popular method usesthe photovoltaic (PV) principle to convert sunlightdirectly into electricity. Solar and windtechnologies are not used on a widespread basis forproducing electricity which is fed into large gridsystems, though examples do exist.

In the Latin American region, as far aselectricity is concerned, the predominant source ishydro (i.e. water) energy. The region holds 19% oftotal world hydropower potential, with Brazilhaving the largest share and the largest installedcapacity.

Mexico has the most conventional fossil fuelelectricity generation in the region. Nuclear poweris a reality in only three countries: Argentina,Brazil and Mexico. Geothermal electricitygeneration only contributes marginally to the total,with Mexico having the largest installed capacity.Sugar cane biomass is the most important sourceof commercial biofuels. Non-commercial biomass(e.g. dung, agricultural residues, wood, etc.) as adirect fuel is very important in rural areas; it isestimated that it contributes about 8% of theenergy supply of the region.


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The Grid and Social Inequality

Latin America has the highest electricity coverage(84%) of any region in the South. This highelectricity service coverage disguises the fact thatapproximately 75 million people still lack it,mostly in the countryside. Indeed, about 60% ofthe rural population has no access to electricity.Much of the energy consumed in the countrysideis still ‘traditional’ (mainly burning of biomassmaterials in cooking). These traditional practices,which involve unsustainable consumption ofresources, not only cause major damage to theenvironment by reducing vegetation and forestcover; but also cause severe respiratory healthproblems, particularly in women and children.Despite the fact that the rural population withoutaccess to electricity has been dropping in absoluteterms over the past 20 years in Latin America, theshift to modern forms of energy is not occurring asrapidly as it could be.

Cost of Rural Grid ConnectionThere are many constraints to rural grid basedelectrification. Firstly there is the question of cost.The cost of grid connection is influenced by thevoltage and proximity of the grid and whetherthere is a step down transformer already servingthe area in question. Capital cost of thedistribution system is very high and demand inrural areas is very low. Households can be widelydispersed and often rural consumers will want touse only a few light bulbs and a radio in theevening. The cost-benefit relationship shows thatthere is little incentive for an electricity producingutility to extend the grid into remote rural areas.Often rural regional centres will be electrified butthe network will usually stop there or bypass themore remote villagers as high voltage cables passingoverhead.

Other barriers to grid connectionAlthough introduction of electricity to acommunity often stimulates income generatingactivities and hence a gradual increase in theuptake of electricity use, the conditions forintroducing electricity do not normally exist inrural areas, since most commercial and industrialactivities are concentrated at the regional centres.

In many countries the existing generatingcapacity is unable to cope with demand.

Blackouts are a common occurrence in manymajor cities, especially as the process of rapid

urbanisation continues. The utilities often find itdifficult to cope with the existing demand, letalone to think about catering for an increaseddemand from rural areas.

Positive political will and subsidies or loanschemes for rural electrification can remove someof these obstacles but often neither areforthcoming. It seems, therefore, in manycountries, that little progress will be made if ruralcommunities are to wait for the grid to reach them.In conclusion we can see that an alternative isrequired. One such alternative is found in the formof decentralised power generation using renewableenergy technologies. Another alternative, which isused widely, is to utilise small diesel generating setsto provide electricity for local networks.

Producing Electricity, Creating Catastrophes?

What catastrophes?—Hidden Costs ofElectricityOften, the cost of electricity is relatively smallwhen compared to other household expenses. Thatis because the real costs of generating electricity areusually hidden and unaccounted for. The electricpower industry is the largest toxic polluter in theworld. Producing electricity from coal and oilreleases a wide range of pollutants into theenvironment. In addition to toxic air pollutionfrom power plant smokestacks, large volumes oftoxic chemicals are produced at coal and oil-firedpower plants and include millions of tons of solidand liquid wastes that are typically disposed of ator near the power plants that generate thesewastes. Unfortunately, soot emissions from coal-burning power plants, diesel fumes emitted byportable generators, and other pollution emittedby generation are ‘social costs’ that usually are notincorporated into the cost of the service.

For example, an old coal-fired power plantmight produce cheaper electricity than a newnatural gas-burning plant, because the plantrequires more expensive equipment and moreexpensive fuel; but if the coal emissions are foulingthe local town’s air, and the cost of that pollutionis included in the electricity pricing structure,electricity from the coal-burning plant wouldactually be more expensive than the new plant. Itis a frequent situation in which energy is pricedbelow its actual social cost.

Burning ‘fossil fuels’ (coal, gas, oil) is one of themost common methods of generating electricty.Burning any fossil fuel releases a great deal of CO2

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(carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere, whichdirectly contributes to the global warming of theEarth. Of the fossil fuels used, natural gas burnsthe cleanest, meaning that it only emits water andCO2; however, other fossil fuels do not burn aspurely. Coal is the ‘dirtiest’ fossil fuel used forpower generation. In addition to CO2, it releasesparticulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SOx),nitrogen oxide (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO),as well as soot, sludge, and wastewater discharges.

The environmental discharges of thesepollutants can be controlled through selection ofthe fuel and its properties (such as low sulfur coal)as well as operation of the fuel burning process(e.g. use of low-NOx burners reducing nitrogenoxide emissions) and end of process controls suchas use of particulate control equipment(electrostatic precipitators or baghouses) for fluegases or settling tanks for process wastewaters. Inaddition, ash generated from fuel burning can bemanaged and disposed of properly so as not tocontaminate surface or ground waters.Nevertheless, it is often the case that these controlsare not utilized, and even when they are, manyproduce a large volume of very concentrated, oftentoxic substances. This is known as toxic waste.Toxic waste disposal practices are another severeenvironmental problem in many areas.

Besides the environmental reasons that makethe use of fossil fuels unsustainable, it is importantto recognize that fossil fuels such as coal, oil, andgas are non-renewable natural resources, whichtake millions of years to form. Therefore, we needto be very mindful if and/or when we consumethese fuels so that future generations may continueto enjoy these gifts of the earth.

Hydroelectric dams, the most common form ofgeneration in Latin America, do not release anychemical pollution into the air or water. Despitethis fact, dams are often the cause of critical andcatastrophic effects to the ecosystem in which theyare built. Dams can effectively block all upstreammovement by any form of aquatic species.Furthermore, they disrupt the habitats andpatterns of behavior of the wildlife that onceoccupied the land area that becomes a reservoir.Humans are often forced off their ancestral land bygovernments eager to supply their cities with cheapand ‘efficient’ electricity.

Dams can be built to a size and in a mannerthat would produce minimal damage to anecosystem, and attempts can be made to mitigatethe environmental and social impacts that they do

have. Most generally, an environmental assessmentis conducted before a dam is contructed to assessthe negative environmental and social impacts ofthe project, and to recommend mitigationmeasures. Neverthless, most Latin America damsthat are constructed are massive structures erectedwith little regard to the ecological effects that theirconstruction will cause. All too often themitigation efforts suggested by environmentalassessements are ignored or their implementationis not funded.

Nuclear (fission) energy is currently utilized toproduce electricity in about thirty countries,including a few in Latin America. The wasteproducts of this reaction are of the mostdangerous, most poisonous, and toxic substancesknown on earth. Aside from being used asammunition for weapons of war (nuclear weapons,for example), there are very few known uses for theradioactive residues leftover from nuclearreactions. Thus, the accumulation of nuclearwaste, both in dump sites and in armaments of theweapons made from it, is a very seriousenvironmental concern. The radiation fromnuclear waste causes a staggering array ofmutagenic effects to occur in the world of biology.Besides burns and other direct tissue damage, itcan cause disruptions in a living cell’s genetic code;thus radiation causes cancer, birth defects, andother chronic conditions. Often nuclear energy isportrayed as ‘clean energy’ because the directatmospheric pollution is considerably less thanthat of a fossil-fuel burning plant. Nevertheless,one can easily question the ‘cleanliness’ of nuclearpower.

The environmental impacts of a host of energy-linked emissions – including those listed above–contribute to local, regional, and global airpollution and ecosystem degradation. Humanhealth is threatened by high levels of pollutionresulting from particular types of energy use at thehousehold,community, and regional levels. Theeffects of this pollution result in significant humanillness, like lung diseases, allergies, cancers, as wellas having destructive effects on habitats andwildlife.

Furthermore, while economic and socialanalyses are conducted prior to investments inconventional energy generation, with the vision toreach as many as possible, there are still those whofall outside this vision. Wide disparities in accessto affordable commercial energy and energyservices in both urban centres and rural areas are


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inequitable, run counter to the concept of humandevelopment, and threaten social stability.Investments in centralised, capital-intensiveconventional energy enterprises such as coal-firedpower-generation and large dams in practice largelybenefit high- and middle-income urbancommunities, commercial establishments, andindustries through electricity distributed throughpower grids. Poor, dispersed rural communitiesthat are often far from the grid rarely benefit fromsuch investments. Even in urban areas, low-incomeneighbourhoods and shantytowns are often notconnected to the grid.

The production and consumption of energycauses serious economic crises in many countriesthat are dependent upon fuel provided by othercountries. Dependence on imported fuels leavessuch countries vulnerable to disruptions in supply,which can cause physical hardships and economicburdens; however, it is the relative weight of fossilfuels imports on the balance of payments, that isabsolutely unbearable for many poorer countries.

Thus, while electricity may be a very desirableutility, the current methods used to generate it arecausing many critical environmental and socialproblems.

Sustainable Alternatives

Finding ways to expand energy services whilesimultaneously addressing the environmentalimpacts associated with energy use representscritical challenge to humanity. Major changes arerequired in energy system development world-wide. Resources and technology options exist andare available that meet these challenges—energyefficiency, renewable energy sources, decentralizednetworking—but they require the creativity,advocacy, and implementation by communitieslike yours to make sustainable energy use a reality.

As mentioned earlier, one of the main obstaclesto national grid connection in remote rural areas isthe prohibitive cost of the distribution network.One way of avoiding these costs are to decentralisethe power generating capacity and install localsmall scale, low voltage grids, otherwise known asmicro-grids. Localised grid networks allow local,renewable resources to be exploited. Energy sourcessuch as small-scale hydropower, solar(photovoltaic), wind power and biogas are all beingemployed successfully in rural electrificationprojects. A growing number of studies find thatrenewable and other decentralised small-scale

energy technologies (such as diesel motors andhybrids) are important options for povertyalleviation, particularly technologies that arelocally made and that operate using locallyavailable fuels (e.g., hydro power, wind power, solarpower, and modern biomass resources).Decentralisation of generation also allows controlof the system to remain in the hands of the usersand removes the dependency on external suppliesand market forces. These decentralised energytechnologies can be a source of enterprise creationand employment for both the rural and urbanpoor, and can be competitive and affordable inisolated areas and other markets. Access todecentralised small-scale energy technologies is animportant element of successful povertyalleviation.

Keeping Energy Sacred

The assessments that follow will help yourcommunity evaluate its policies and practicesregarding energy use, most especially theproduction and use of electricity.

The first assessment, is meant to help youevaluate your community’s productive capacity,and your community’s relationship to the Earthvia your electricity provider. If your communityuses diesel or gas-powered generators, completingthe Outdoor Air Quality Assessment isrecommended. Similarly, if your community usesbatteries, it is recommended that you complete theWaste Handling Assessment as well. Thisassessment should be applicable to yourcommunity whether you live in an urban area or arural area, and as well, whether you have gridelectricity or not.

The second assessment is meant to help youevaluate your community’s energy consumptionpractices. The content of this section appliesmostly especially to communities that are withinan urban area, or are otherwise connected to gridelectricity. Nevertheless, it may still be helpful toreview the assessment even if your community isrural.

Each question is discussed in the sectionsfollowing the inventories, where you will beprovided a means to evaluate your responses, anddirected to resources to help your communityimprove its energy sustainability.

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Electricity Production Practices:Inventory

The following inventory is designed to help you assessyour community’s present situation in regards to theconsumption and generation of electricity. Following theinventory there is an evaluation section that will helpyou interpret your results.

1 Community Consumption

Is your religious community connected to an electicitypower grid?

Yes / No

What is the average amount of electricity purchasedfrom the grid source (answer in kilowatt hours/month)?

If your community uses a fuel-based generator, howmany liters of fuel does your community use per month?List all that are used:

Natural gas (methane) ..................L

Kerosene (Paraffin) ......................L

Other bottled gas (LPG) ..............L

Gasoline ......................................L

Biogas ..........................................L

Diesel fuel ....................................L

Oil ..............................................L

Biodiesel or other liquid bio-fuel ....L

Other fuel: ________________ ......L

If your community consumes non-rechargeable batteriesfor use, about how much money is spent each month onpurchasing batteries?

2 Community Generative Potential

Consider your community’s geographical locationand property. Assess the following characteristics:

Rate the amount of direct sunlight that is available on

your community grounds, by circling a number 1–9:1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

no direct sunlight……consistent direct light

Rate the quantity and quality of wind experienced atyour location:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9little or no wind…steady breezes…consistently strong wind

Choose a number to represent the quantity ofcompostable organic matter that your communityproduces (especially crop residues and animal wastes;consider human excreta):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9minimal… …large scale agricultural

(food scraps only) (ton(s)/week)

If your community is situated on or near a body ofwater, choose a number that represents its volume:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9pond……lake……ocean

Similarly, indicate the flow of the water:1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

stagnant……high-velocity river

If your community has ever had its location exploredand assessed for geothermal resources by an expert, howsuitable is your location for access to this resource?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9prohibitive……very suitable

Choose a number that describes the amount of yourcommunity’s property upon which a structure could bebuilt:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9no space available…small structure(s) possible…ample space

to build (>1000m2)

3 Community Generative Practices

Considering your community’s electricity consumption,estimate or specify the percentage of the energy that isself-produced, i.e. generated by your community bymeans of a generator, water, solar or wind energy:

%(Portion of self-generated electricity)

If your community generates electricity, whichtechnology(s) do you use?

c Wind energyc Active (PV) Solar Panelc Passive Solar


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c Hydrological/Water Energyc Geothermalc Generator using non-renewable fuelsc Generator using renewable fuelsc None

Who is responsible for the upkeep and maintenance ofyour generative equipment?

Does the community have a maintenance plan forthe equipment?

Yes / NoDoes your community include these maintenanceexpenses as part of the budget?

Yes / NoDoes your community share its productive technologywith the larger community (either by directly sharingthe electricity produced, or by educating about energyproduction)

Yes / No

If batteries are used by your community, especially ascomponents of a generative system, what types ofbatteries are used (see page 177-180 for descriptions)?

Primary cells or dry batteries:c standard zinc-carbonc alkaline or heavy dutySecondary cells or rechargeable batteries:c lead-acid batteryc vented lead-acidc automotive (carc deep-discharge or tractionc stationaryc low-antimony solar batteryc sealed or valve-regulatedNickel-Cadmium batteries:c ventedc sealed

Describe the quantity and frequency of replacement(life span) for the batteries that your communityconsumes:

Battery type Quantity Life span (weeks/mo/yrs)

How does your community currently dispose of itsused batteries?

Is your community educated about the healthhazards associated with the particular types ofbatteries used?

Yes / NoIs your community aware of the environmental risksassociated with improper disposal of your batteries?

Yes / No

Notice before continuingIf your community purchases, or electricity is otherwise provided by, an ‘outside’ source such as an electric utility corporation or cooperative, governmental or otherwise, continue on to complete this assessment. Otherwise, if your greater community does not have electrical infrastructure, or your religious community does not use any ‘outside’ electricity, skip the rest of this inventory, and start the evaluation process on page 175, Electricity Production Practices Evaluation.

4. Sources of Expert Information

Electricity Utility Provider/Generation NetworkIt will be helpful to contact the Provider directly tohelp answer the questions that follow. Thus, recordbelow information specific to your Provider:

Name of Provider:


Contact Person:

When there is a problem with your electricitysupply, who do you contact, and how?

Governmental Regulatory Agency Your government should have an agency/ministrythat is responsible for enforcing environmentalregulations. If you don’t know of one, refer to theList of Categorized References in the back of thismanual to help locate one.

Name of Agency:


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Contact Person:

What section(s) of law regulate the environmentalemissions of electricity providers?

Expert Public/ Consumer Safety and HealthInformation Source It will also be helpful to contact a public/consumerhealth protection or advocacy group that canprovide reliable, expert data on the safety ofelectricity generation plants. If you don’t know ofone, refer to the List of Categorized References inthe back of this manual to help locate one.

Do you know of a public/consumer protection/advocacygroup that can provide reliable, expert data on thesafety of generation plants?



Contact Person:

Has your community ever contacted or receivedinformation from this group before?

Yes / No

According to these experts, what is the most importantissue regarding electricity generation that yourcommunity should support?

Expert Environmental Information Source It will also be helpful to contact an environmentalprotection or advocacy group that can providereliable, expert data on the ecological impacts ofelectricity generation plants. If you don’t know ofone, refer to the List of Categorized References inthe back of this manual to help locate one.

Do you know of a environmental protection/advocacygroup that can provide reliable, expert data on thesafety of generation plants?



Contact Person:

Has your community ever contacted or receivedinformation from this group before?

Yes / NoAccording to these experts, what is the mostimportant issue regarding electricity generation thatyour community should support?

5. Electricity Provider Governance

Does the Provider have a governing body, such as acommittee or an elected assembly to make managementdecisions?

Yes / NoDoes your religious community have a member thatserves on this governing body, if one exists?


Do the consumers of the provided energy have the abilityto make or influence decisions regarding how the utilityis governed (e.g. decisions regarding coverage area, feestructures, changes to the generating facility, etc.)?

Yes / NoIf ‘yes’, Describe the ways in which this influencemay be effected:

Are fees established for the service provided?Yes / No

If so, how were the fees established?c Vote

Were everyone’s interests represented in thevote?

c Yes, everyone was represented or could votec Only men were represented / could votec Only landowners were represented/ could

votec Other restriction (specify):

c Decree with community inputc Decree without community inputc Other (specify):


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Does your community include electricity expenses aspart of your budget?

Yes / No

6. Public and Environmental Safety

What type of generation facility(ies) are used to produceelectricity for the network? Specifically, what type(s) offuel is/ are used?

Fossil Fuelsc Natural gas (methane)c Coalc Oilc Diesel/other petro-fuelOther ‘Conventional’ Fuelsc Nuclear reactorc Large scale hydro-powerc Rubbish/incinerationRenewable Earth Energiesc Solar collectionc Wind farmc Geothermalc Mini/micro-hydroRenewable (bio-) Fuels c Ethanol/methanol (alcohol)c Bio-dieselc Biogas (methane from digestors)Other (specify):

According to the Provider, describe the quantity andidentity of the main emissions that the plant(s) releasesinto the atmosphere, as well as the residues that are aproduct of the generation and how they’re disposed of:

According to the Provider, describe the safety measuresthat are in place to protect the public from the utility’shazards, such as downed lines, accidental electricutions,meltdowns, etc., as well as filters that reduceenvironmental impacts (e.g. pollution scrubbers,cogeneration, etc.):

According to the governmental regulatory agency, is yourElectricity Provider in compliance with allenvironmental statutes?

Yes / No

If so, describe:

Pollutants that are noncompliant

Pollutant concentration

Reason for noncompliance

7. Provider Quality

In your community’s experience, how reliable is theservice provided?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9poor…intermittent…continuous service

According to environmental or health experts, whatemissions and wastes does the Provider release into theenvironment?

According to these experts, are the public safety measuresthat the Provider has in place adequate?

Yes / NoIf the answer is ‘no,’ describe why.

8. Community Practices and Education

Does your community agree with the recommendationsfor action prescribed by the expert organizations?

Yes / NoIf so, describe the actions your community is takingto change the present situation:

How well is your community educated about the adverseenvironmental impacts of electricity production?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(1= not at all, 9= experts)

How well is your community informed about ways inwhich to conserve electricity?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(1= not at all, 9= experts)

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Electricity Production Practices:Evaluation


1. Community Consumption

The purpose of this first question is to provideyour community with indicators that you can useto assess your electricity consumption. The totalelectricity used in your community would be equalto the sum of the amount you purchase from a gridsource, plus the amount you generate, plus theamount of primary-cell (i.e. disposable) batteriesthat you use.

More simply, however, this question is meantonly to provide a measurable way of assessing yourcommunity’s electricity use, especially in terms ofthe dependencies that its use requires. It maydepend upon money, fuel, and/or the availability ofan electrical network.

If your community is committed to reducingtheir demand for energy, indicators like these canbe used to track your progress; at the same time,they can provide a record of the economic savingsthat result from conservation practices.

Our community monitors our energy consumption (or atleast how much of our resources we expend upon fuel).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Community Generative Potential

Generating your own electricity has many benefits.The less your community has to depend uponoutside sources for electricity, the more power yourcommunity has over the cost and environmentaleffects of its generation. Although the initialcapital expense of generation equipment is oftenhigh, the equipment usually pays for itself within areasonable amount of time. Nevertheless, there arebenefits besides financial savings. As discussed inthe introduction to this assessment chapter, themost equitable, sustainable and secure type ofelectrical grid (or network) is one that isdecentralized with numerous independentgeneration points. By generating your ownelectricity, you safeguard your community from

network outages, inflationary utility costs, and thelack of control over the generation process itself.

There are numerous grants available from theinternational community for sustainabilityprojects, and grants for the use or implementationof renewable fuels. See the List of Categorizedreferences for some further grant opportunities. Itis very helpful for your community to makeconsistent efforts to solicit funds, both frombenefactors and grantors, for your sustainabilityefforts.

If constructing an electricity generatingapparatus of any sort is beyond the means of yourreligious community, it may still be possible withinyour larger community. With the right amount ofcooperation within your larger community, small-scale generating facilities can be constructed andgoverned locally.

The questions here are meant to focus on theenvironmental conditions that would favor thegeneration of electricity by your community inmanners that are ecologically sound.

If your location receives a great amount ofdirect sunlight, solar arrays and collectors arecertainly indicated as viable options. Solar energycan be captured and used in a variety of manners,but can be generally grouped into either (a) passivesystems, or (b) active systems. Passive systemssimply collect the sun’s energy, concentrate it, andapply it to something that needs to be heated. Thismay be an oven, an apparatus for heating water, oreven for the boiling of liquid for steam generation.Steam may be used to turn a turbine to produceelectricity. Active systems rely upon photo-voltaiccell arrays, or solar panels, to convert sunlight intoelectricity. The intensity of the light determinesthe amount of power generated, and thus,collecting and focusing the sun’s rays toward thesolar panel will help to maximize the generativepotential of an active system.

If your location has reliable and steady amountsof wind, converting this energy into electricity is anoption that would require the construction of oneform of windmill or another. There are manydifferent designs in use today, and some are muchmore efficient than others. Beside generatingelectricity, windmills can be used to convert windenergy into a mechanical form that can turn waterpumps, corn grinders, paddle wheels, etc.

If your community produces a large amount oforganic waste, as would be the case if yourcommunity farmed animals, for example, theorganic waste can be collected and ‘digested,’ or


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composted in a special way, so that the methanegas released from the process can be collected andpressurized for use as a renewable fuel. This gascan be used as a cooking or heating fuel, or can beused to fuel a boiler that generates steam in orderto turn a turbine to produce electricity.

If your community is situated upon some bodyof water like a stream, river, lake, or ocean, thenthe water’s energy may be harnessed andconverted into a more usable form. This is usuallyaccomplished by means of a turbine which isturned by the motion of the water. Large scalehydrological power (or hydro-electric) facilities usea dam to increase the potential energy of the water,before letting it fall across the turbine. However,technology is available allows for a much moreefficient conversion process. Implementing suchtechnology reduces the need for large dams. Thecurrent of a river or the wave motion of an oceanmay both be captured and utilized to makeelectricity.

Geothermal energy is heat that comes from thecore of the earth. The deeper one digs towards theearth’s core, the higher the temperatures become.When a borehole is drilled into these heatedregions (often two kilometers deep or more),pressurized water is vented to the surface whichcan be used in a variety of ways. If the water issteam, the steam can be used to turn a turbine, orthe heat can be exchanged for use as part of an airheating or air cooling system. Most of LatinAmerica lies upon zones which are easily accessedand have very high temperatures. Thus, much ofLatin America is an area quite apt for exploitinghigh-temperature geothermal energy. If designedcorrectly, the water released from the earth isreinjected back into it, making the system close-looped. This style of system creates the least ofenvironmental impact and is the recommendeddesign.

Low-temperature (shallow pipe) geothermalenergy can also be harnessed to use for air heatingand cooling. This installation does not requiredeep boreholes, but rather utilizes a heat pumpand a heat exchanging network of pipes that areburied close to the end-use site at a depth of lessthan a few meters.

Lastly, any of these projects would require theconstruction of some amount of equipment orstructure, whether it be storage space for thingslike batteries, generators, and switches, or land forstructures like a windmill. Thus, it is necessary toassess the amount of space available to build the

required infrastructure.Use the resources listed at the end of this

chapter to learn more about your community’senergy generating potential.

Rate your community’s potential for sustainable energygeneration, based upon its location, geography, andprevailing environmental conditions.

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3. Community Generative Practices

There are many advantages to maximizing theamount of energy your community produces,including greater autonomy and greater controlover the generative process. In most cases, ifthoughtful plans are assembled and the installationis well-maintained, self-production is not onlycheaper over time, but also more environmentallysound. Thus, if the generative capacity of yourcommunity has been assessed by experts, yourlocation is suitable for an installation, and thecapital requirements of the project have beenconsidered, it may be wise to invest in such aproject.

Alternative means of producing energy orelectricity abound, and a community is not limitedto just using one means or another. It may be thecase that wind is used to pump water, solar energyis used to heat it, and stream water is used toprovide the small amount of electricity needed forlighting, while geothermal energy is used to heatand cool the community facilities. Although suchan arrangement is not frequently found, especiallywhere financial resources are limited, the point isthat many options exist, and more energy canalways be produced with some creativity andingenuity.

Any generative system will requiremaintenance, both preventative and repair. Withinyour community, there should be at least onemember that is responsible for the operation andmaintenance of the generative equipment. Thisperson should be trained in the system’s operation,should know about the dangers and safety issuesinherent to the system design, and should beexperienced or trained in performing all theperiodic maintenance procedures that the systemrequires. While this person may not be able toperform all repairs that may become necessary, thisperson more than any other will be able to knowwhen outside technicians are indicated for repairs.

When a system is installed in your community,

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the manufacturer or expert who helped to designthe system should provide you with a written orprinted maintenance plan for the life of thesystem. This plan should be executed by theperson responsible for the system’s maintenance.

Such a plan or the experience of the personresponsible for maintenance should provide anindication of what parts or accessories arenecessary for the upkeep of the system. In order toobtain sustainable functioning of your generationsystem, the community should allocate part of itsbudget towards paying for these needed expenses.

Lastly, if your community does utilize someform of sustainable energy production, thetechnology (including both the actualinfrastructure or product and the technicalknowledge) should be shared with those in yourlarger community, if possible. If your communityproduces enough energy, it may be able to share theenergy with its neighbors directly. However, if yourcapacity is not that large, your community canhelp to educate others about how it would bepossible for them to build and maintain a similarsystem themselves.

Our community strives to find creative and sustainableways to utilize our generative potential, if it exists.Answer ‘0’ if not applicable.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Our community takes care to keep all generativeequipment well maintained.

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About BatteriesAs many small-scale methods of electricitygeneration are available only intermittently, someform of electricity storage or battery is needed ifpeople want to have electricity available at alltimes.

Primary cells—Dry batteriesThe familiar flashlight battery is perhaps the mostcommonly used battery. This type of batterycomes in standard sizes of AAA, AA, C, and D.

Although the purchase or first cost of dry cellsis relatively low, it is one of the least cost effectiveelectrical power sources in terms of the cost perunit of useful energy delivered. Furthermore, onlya limited energy yield can be obtained before thebattery has to be thrown away. Dry batteries areused in especially large numbers by the poor, asthey are convenient, just about affordable, and

generally all that is available. Their high costmakes them only suitable for powering smallappliances that can only be used economically forshort periods or emergencies.

Primary cells are based on an irreversibleelectrochemical reaction, and consequently cannotbe recharged. Once the chemicals inside thebattery are exhausted the battery is useless andmust be disposed of. In recent years primary celltechnology has improved dramatically, and twodistinct qualities of cell are usually available in anysize: standard zinccarbon, and alkaline (also called‘heavy duty’ or ‘long life’).

The electrical capacity of a cell is the totalquantity of electricity that a cell can deliver. Thepotential electrical capacity of fresh cells of thesame size and type is the same, but the truecapacity is not fixed, it depends on many factors,such as cell size, cell type, rate of discharge,temperature, and mode of use.

In order to optimise the use of dry cells, it is acommon practice to use them in radios andcassette players until their voltage falls (mostelectronic devices need a minimum voltage tofunction at all), and then the cells are finished off ’in flash-lights, where a battery with low voltagesimply results in a rather dim and yellow light.

Factors affecting useful lifeThe capacity of dry cells, like most other batteries,increases at higher temperatures. The capacity isusually given at 20°C; above this temperature thecapacity is increased, and below this temperaturecapacity is decreased, so warming the batteriesbefore use will result in extra power.

Primary cells are stable in terms of self-discharge. Some of the alkaline ‘heavy duty’ typescan be kept for several years with no more than afew per cent loss of capacity.

The cheaper zinc-carbon type deteriorate morequickly, but even so they retain their capacitybetter than any other type of portable electricalpower source. The self-discharge rate is adverselyaffected by high temperature, so store the cells atbetween 10 and 25°C and at a relative humidity ofbelow 65 per cent.

CostThe cost of electricity from primary cells varieswidely between US$140 and $1300 per kWh, andis about 700 to 6500 times more expensive thangrid electricity taken at $0.2 per kWh. The initialcost of primary cells is low, but the unit cost of


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electricity from them is extremely high. Despitethis, the use of primary cells remains common,partly because the cost is spread over a period oftime, partly because they are convenient, butmainly because they are often the only source ofpower available, particularly in rural areas.

Secondary cells: Rechargeable cells and batteriesThere are two main types of secondary cell ingeneral use: lead-acid and nickel-cadmium (NiCd).

Nickel-cadmium batteriesThe main alternative to the lead-acid battery is thenickel-cadmium or ‘ni-cad’ battery. Like lead-acid,ni-cad batteries are available either vented orsealed. Vented ni-cad are designed for applicationswhich require robust energy storage with longoperating lifetimes and minimal maintenance.Sealed and usually small (i.e. sized AAA, AA, orD), ni-cad batteries are used as an economicalreplacement for dry cells.

The nominal voltage of a ni-cad cell is 1.2 volts,so a nominal 12V ni-cad system needs 10 cells. Ni-cad cells can withstand a greater depth of dischargethan lead-acid batteries, and so generally a smallercapacity can serve a given duty. They also tend tolast longer, 10 to 20 years for the larger ones. Ni-cads are less easily damaged by over-discharge orovercharging, and so simpler and cheaper chargecontrol systems can be used to compensate fortheir extra unit costs. They are also more tolerantof extreme temperature variation than lead-acidbatteries, and can operate at sub-zerotemperatures.

Although ni-cad batteries are robust andreliable, they do have a few shortcomings that cancause problems. One major problem is thatreversing the polarity when recharging a ni-cad cellusually destroys it completely. This can sometimeshappen, not because a cell was reversed bycarelessness when wiring it up for recharging, butwhen one cell in a battery of ni-cad cells is weakerthan the rest: then the good cells can cause reversecharging of a weak one in certain circumstances,destroying the weak one completely. This is onereason why it is not a good policy to mix old cellsand new ones either for recharging or for actualuse.

Another characteristic of ni-cad batteries is atendency to self-discharge rather more quicklythan lead-acid cells and much more quickly thanprimary cells. Ni-cad primary cell substitutestherefore need regular recharging and are less

useful for occasionally used loads than for regularlyused ones. They are particularly well suited forsmall photovoltaic application where they arebeing charged with daily sunshine.

Memory effect of ni-cad batteriesThe memory effect is the tendency of a battery

to adjust ‘its electrical properties to a certain dutycycle to which it has been subjected for anextended period of time. Vented pocketplatebatteries do not develop this effect, but sealedcells, such as the AAA, AA, C, and D sizes do. Toremedy this problem, they need to be ‘awakened’by being fully charged and discharged for three orfour cycles before their memory is ‘stretched’enough to hold a full charge.

CostsThe small ni-cad batteries have a higher initial costthan a primary cell, but work out much lessexpensive in the long run since they can berecharged and re-used from 100 to 1000 timesbefore they lose their capacity and need to bereplaced. Obviously, a suitable power source isnecessary to recharge them, which could be aspecial low-voltage charger powered by the mainsor a generating set, or by solar photovoltaics. Largenickel-cadmium batteries can also be financiallycompetitive with large (over 100Ah) lead-acidbatteries, bearing in mind that they can be 100 percent discharged while a lead-acid battery generallyshould be limited to 50 to 70 per cent discharge ofits rated capacity.

Lead-acidThe least expensive option for any significant sizeof electrical battery storage is the lead-acid battery.Lead-acid batteries have a nominal fully chargedvoltage of 2V per cell, so a 12V battery typicallyhas six cells in series. A lead-acid battery will onlywithstand a certain number of charge-dischargecycles, before it fails and needs to be replaced. Thegreater the depth of discharge (that is the more onaverage that the battery is ‘flattened’}, the fewercycles it will survive. For example a battery that isdischarged regularly by 80 per cent of its totalcapacity may last 800 cycles, but if it is dischargedby only 20 per cent each time it may last 6000cycles. If the battery were discharged at 20 per centrather than 80 per cent, the rated capacity willhave to be four times larger to deliver the sameenergy, but will last at least four times as long. Thesize of the battery is therefore a compromise

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between making it large but too expensive, andsmall and affordable but too easily discharged andtherefore too short-lived.

A lead-acid battery’s capacities are usuallyspecified for 25°C operating temperature. Thecapacity is typically reduced by 1 per cent per 1°Cgoing down to 0°C, but increases approximately 1per cent per 1°C, going up from 25°C to 40°C. Theproblem is that the life of the battery decreaseswith increased temperature so, in a tropicalclimate, a battery should be kept wheneverpossible in a cool and well ventilated room.

As many small-scale methods of electricitygeneration are available only intermittently, someform of electricity storage or battery is needed ifpeople want to have electricity available at alltimes. Lead-acid batteries can be simply sub-divided into five categories, the first four of whichare vented:

• Automotive• Deep-discharge or traction• Stationary• Low-antimony solar battery• Sealed or valve-regulated battery

Automotive batteriesAutomotive batteries have a poor capacity for theirsize and a poor cycle life. A typical automotivebattery will only withstand about 20 deep-discharge cycles before it becomes completelyuseless. Car batteries are also easily damaged if leftdischarged for any length of time. The cell designin a car battery is optimised to deliver heavycurrents, and it is therefore poorly suited tosupplying smaller currents for many hours beforebeing recharged.

Car batteries are, however, usually the cheapestbatteries when compared by rated capacity; theyare often produced locally; and they are widelyavailable and repairable.

Deep discharge or traction batteriesDeep-discharge batteries can tolerate discharge toas much as 80 per cent of their rated capacity, witha cycle life of from 1000 to 1500 deep cycles. Theytend to lose water at a faster rate than other typesof lead-acid batteries, and need frequentmaintenance. They are commonly used for electric’vehicles and are often known as traction batteries.Their selfdischarge rate is also high. These batteriesare relatively expensive, require a lot ofmaintenance, and are not often available locally.

Stationary batteriesThese batteries are often called stand-alone orstandby batteries, and have been designed tosupply power when there is a grid failure. In mostapplications they are kept fully charged by the gridsupply and are ready to take the load wheneverneeded. They are extremely reliable, have a lowself-discharge rate, and a long cycle life withshallow cycles, lasting up to ten years. Thesebatteries are usually oversized when used forstand-alone applications, to ensure that they onlyrun with shallow cycles and last a long time.

Low-antimony solar batteriesThese batteries are similar to stationary ones, buthave been designed for photovoltaic systems. Theself-discharge rate and distilled water consumptionare both low. The cycle ranges from 1200 to 3000depending on the discharge rates. These batteriesare fairly expensive and available only to run withphotovoltaic systems.

Sealed or valve-regulated batteriesThe hydrogen produced by these batteries isabsorbed by chemicals inside them and theycontain enough electrolyte for their entire life, sothey are often called ‘maintenance-free’.

Sealed batteries have a short cycle life for deepcycles. They have a low rate of self-discharge andcan support a full discharge, but must be rechargedas soon as possible to prevent permanent damage.Overall, a sealed battery is likely to have a shorterlife than a well-maintained unsealed battery withthe same alloy contents, but will obviously lastlonger than a poorly maintained unsealed battery.The main disadvantage of sealed lead-acidbatteries is their need for regular recharging toprevent sulfate build-up. Batteries in storage willneed to be recharged about once every threemonths, more often in countries with high ambienttemperatures where self-discharge will happenmore quickly.

Safety and environmental hazards of lead-acid batteriesVented Batteries: Care is obviously needed as, partfrom the battery acid being extremely corrosive,hydrogen gas is produced, which is highlyflammable and potentially explosive when mixedwith air. Thus care should also be taken to avoidflames or sparks in the battery enclosure, especiallyif the battery is housed in a confined space. Nevercheck the electrolyte levels with an unprotectedflame such as a kerosene lamp or a candle. For the


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same reason, battery storage areas should be wellventilated

Sealed Batteries: These contain the electrolyte in‘dry’ from so that no electolyte can be spilt, and sothere is less of a hazard. Even so, care must betaken not to damage the casing.

Disposal/Recycling: Both types of batteries should bedeposed of safely. Where practical, it is a good ideato give away lead-acid batteries to local batterymanufactures for lead and plastic-casing recycling.Ni-cad batteries should be disposed of carefully toavoid cadmium pollution.

(Refer to the Hazardous Products and WasteHandling Assessment in Chapter 4 of this manualto learn more about the proper disposal ofbatteries)

Our community is well educated about the hazards ofbattery use and disposal practices.

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Our community strives to protect ourselves and theEarth from these hazards by disposing of our batteriesin a manner that is safe for humans and theenvironment.

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4. Sources of Expert Information

Much of the information that is useful for yourcommunity to know about the adverseenvironmental impacts of energy production inyour area is generally available from non-governmental organizations that are concernedwith the health of the environment or the health ofpeople. The Energy Provider itself should becontacted to learn of specific technicalinformation, in the case of problems, or toadvocate for changes in the Provider’s policies orpractices.

Our community has developed relationships with theparties relavent to electricity production, and frequentlyuse them to stay informed about current issues.

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5. Electricity Provider Governance

Depending upon the organizational structure ofyour Electricity Provider, there may be a regulation

committee, management committee, or the likewhose function it is to make the operationaldecisions affecting the ways in which the Providergenerates and distributes its electricity. Although inmany regions the energy providers are privatecorporations which are closed to publicmanagement, others may not be. They may begovernmental operations, which may have acitizens advisory panel, managers that are votedinto office, or some other connection between thepublic and the management. Frequently, smallerand more local Providers may be cooperatives inwhich every member has a vote. Having powerover the operational decisions being made can bean effective means of reducing the environmentalcosts of energy production.

Similarly, even if your community does nothave the ability to directly influence the decisionsbeing made, it is still possible that the public isable to give advisory input for, or even organizedresistance against policies or practices of the theProvider. Since air pollution resulting from energyproduction is a major environmental concern, it isimportant to know of such avenues of influence.

As with any public service that is used by amajority of the population, the public should begiven the opportunity to express their opinionsregarding the fees demanded for continued serviceas well as those regarding the environmentalimpacts of the operation. As we know from above,the generation of electricity does require someamount of capital expense, and it is thebeneficiaries of the utility that are ultimatelyresponsible for the generation of this capital.Nevertheless, in many cases, fee structures aredetermined by an internal source whose primaryconcern it is only to generate profits forshareholders. The shareholders may not be, andoften are not, the stakeholders or end-users. Thus,overly expensive rates sometimes result whichpreclude a large portion of society from utilizingthis basic utility. In the interests of social equalityand justice, it is important for your religiouscommunity to be sensitive to the organizationalstructure of utility providers, and to understandhow this structure affects the utility’sresponsiveness to public input. If the utilityconsistenly ignores the needs of its consumersdespite well-organized efforts, your communitymight well decide to campaign for an alteration ofthe utility’s structure.

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Our electricity supply is managed with good governanceprinciples

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Our community has power to influence decisions madeby the electricity provider.

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6. Public and Environmental Safety

Knowing the type or types of generation plant thatsupply your grid with electricity gives you a goodindication of what the environmental impactsmight be. Below is a list that gives an overview ofthe negative impacts that each type of generationplant may have:

Type of GenerationEnvironmental Impacts

CoalNon-renewable resource.Air emissions: volatile organic compounds(VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbonmonoxide (CO), particulate matter lessthan 10 microns in diameter (PM10),sulfur dioxide (SO2), mercury, and lead.Effects: health problems (lung cancers,chronic obstructive pulminary disease,etc.), neurological damage, acid rain,global climate change.Mining: surface or ground water pollutionby acid mine drainage, disposal of largequantities of ash; change in scenic viewand ecosystem disruption by surfacemining; and compromised worker safetyin deep mining

OilNon-renewable resource.Air emissions: similar content, but to alesser degree than coal; oil spillscontaminating soil, surface and groundwaters during exploration, transport, anduse at the power plant; safety hazards(fires and explosions)

Natural gas (methane)Non-renewable resource.Air emissions: CO2

Effects: global climate change, safetyhazards (fires and explosion) duringexploration, transport, and use at thepower plant

Rubbish/incinerationRenewable resource.Air Emissions: PM10, SO2, NOx, CO2,heavy metals, mercury, dioxins andfurans;Other residues and hazards:contaminated ash disposal; explosionhazards.

Nuclear reactorNon-renewable resource.Radioactive waste: requires specialprocedures for management and disposal.Catastrophic damage in the case ofmeltdown.Mining: of uranium generates a great dealof environmental damage.

Hydro-powerRenewable resource.The construction of dams greatly impactsthe local ecosystems and often requiresdisplacement of people indigenous to thearea.Flooding hazards may exist if properinfrastructure is not in place downstream.May severely impact wildlife migration,especially aquatic species.

Wind farmRenewable resource.May interfere with wildlife migration.

Solar CollectionRenewable resource.Manufacture of Photovoltaic cells is itselfvery energy intensive, and requiresmining.

Besides environmental pollution, there are otherhazards inherent in the distribution of electricity.Usually the main lines which conduct the powerfrom the plant to neighborhoods are very highvoltage lines that could easily kill a person ifsomeone were to contact them. Thus, ensuringthat lines are out of reach, and that voltage willshut off should a line be broken, are veryimportant safety measures that need to be taken.Furthermore, some electric power lines are buried,and thus need to be marked in the case thatsomeone digging comes into contact with them.The public should be well educated about thesedangers.


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Similarly, high-voltage transmission lines posedangers to wildlife, as animals may have occassionto short out the wires and thereby electrocutethemselves.

Our community is well informed about theenvironmental risks associated with our electricitygeneration, and we are strong advocates for bettergenerative practices.

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7. Provider Quality

A responsible and responsive electricity providerwill inform the public honestly about the hazardsof its operation. It should be open and transparentabout its limitations and its aspirations.

The electricity provider may discloseinformation to the public, regarding the utility’senvironmental performance through such means asreports, brochures, or Internet. Information on theutility’s environmental performance may also beobtained from the regulatory (environmental)agency that receives periodic environmentalreports from the utility regarding environmentaldischarges and ambient quality. The regulatoryagency may also conduct independent monitoringof environmental discharges from the utility andthe associated environmental quality. Furthermore,non-governmental organizations concerned withpublic and environmental health may providefurther information that both the utility and thegovernment may be reticent to disclose, and theymay have procedural strategies to advocate forbetter laws and governmental regulation.

Information from all these sources should beanalyzed and compared. If it is found that theprovider is not open nor transparent, they likelyare in discordance with their responsibility to thepublic which they serve. It is important that theenergy provider be an ally in the preservation ofthe Earth, and thus it is necessary to ascertain theirintentions.

Our Electricity Provider fulfills its responsibility to thepublic which it serves by being open and transparentregarding its operation.

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Our Electricity Provider strives to be environmentallybenign and sustainable.

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8. Community Practices and Education

The advice of the environmental and public healthorganizations can be used to direct the efforts ofcommunity activism, should your communityplace value upon those things recommended by theorganizations.

It is important that your community beeducated about the environmental impacts ofelectricity generation, so that the members mayincorporate the information into the decisionsthey make and actions they take every day.Individual electricity conservation practices are abig step towards making decisions that areenvironmentally responsible. The next inventoryshould help assess your community’s performancein this regard.

Our community is educated about current issuesregarding electricity generation and is active on manylevels to improve the quality of these activities.

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Our community strives to manage our energyconsumption practices in the most environmentallybenign and sustainable way.

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Conclusions


score

1. Monitoring community consumption

2. Community’s generative potential

3. Community’s generative practices

3. Community’s generative equipment

3. Community education regardingbattery use

3. Battery disposal practices

4. Relationships with provider & experts

5. Governance of electricity provider

5. Community’s influence on providergovernance

6. Public and environmental safety

7. Provider quality: openness andtransparency

7. Provider quality: ecological performance

8. Community education and activism

8. Community energy managementpractices

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourelectricity producation capabilities and practices, howwould you rate, overall, your community’s practices inthese regards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4




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Conservation Practices:Inventory

The following inventory is designed to help youassess how much energy (especially electricity)your community uses, as well as assessingcommunity energy conservation practices.Although the focus is on electrical energy, many ofthe questions may relate to other types of fuelenergy. For example, questions regarding roominsulation are applicable to electric systems, butalso to gas, liquid, or solid fuel systems.

Although the majority of these questionspresuppose having a connection to an electric grid,and/or major appliances, it would be good to lookthrough this inventory whether your community isin a rural environment or in an urbanized area;decide which questions, if any, are applicable toyour community; and complete only thosesections.

Following the inventory is an evaluation sectionthat will help you interpret your results.

1. Community Energy Use

In the list of appliances in the table opposite,identify which ones are used in your community.For each appliance answer the following questionsand record your answers in the table:a. How many such devices does the community have (eg.how many lamps)?b. Estimate how many hours per day each type of deviceis used (add multiple instances of one type of device, e.g.lights or fans).c. For each use, write the main form of energy requiredas fuel (Grid Electricity, Stored Electricity (batteries),Gas, Solid Fuel, Wind, Solar).d. If the device is electrically powered, what is the ratedenergy usage of the appliance in Watts? (thisinformation is often listed on device itself—see table forestimates to guide you) If the device is fuel-driven,quantify the energy usage by Liters of fuel per day, orLiters per month if more appropriate.e. Classify the device/appliance as either:

I Necessary or important to community’s dailylife

II An appreciated convenience to thecommunityIII An unimportant convenience to the

communityIV An unnecessary luxury

2. Air Conditioning/Cooling

Does your community have an air conditioning unit?Yes / No

If Yes please answer the following questions:

i. What type of system is it?c Gasc Electricc Geothermalc SolarOther (specify):

ii. Does the capacity of the unit or system match thevolume of the room(s) being cooled (it may be necessaryto consult an expert/professional to answer thisquestion)?

Yes / NoRated capacity (should be found on the unit, or inthe literature supplied with it):

Total volume of room(s) being cooled (m3):

iii. When purchased, was care taken to purchase themost efficient variety?

Yes / No

iv. While operating the air conditioner, is care taken tomaximize the thermostat setting to the highest acceptabletemperature?

Yes / NoThermostat setting:

v. Are the rooms that receive cooled air fairly leak proof(no open windows or doors, no cracks, etc.)?

Yes / No

vi. Rate the insulation of the rooms that receive cooledair:

c fully insulated with good insulationc insulatedc partially insulatedc not insulated

vii. Has the performance of the air conditioner declinedin performance over time? (e.g. does it take longer nowto cool a given space than it did last year?)

Yes / No

viii. What type of refrigerant does your unit use?

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Is your community aware of the hazards associatedwith the type of refrigerant used?

Yes / NoIs your community aware of a trained technicianthat is capable of dealing with refrigerants and airconditioner repair?

Yes / NoIs your community aware of safe disposal options fordiscarding the air conditioning unit, should thatbecome necessary?

Yes / No

ix. Is the air conditioning unit a centralized system?Yes / No

Is there ample airflow space around the coils locatedoutdoors?

Yes / NoIs a regular maintenance protocol established andfollowed?

Yes / NoIs someone in the community trained to performroutine system maintenance including filter changes?

Yes / NoAre all the ducts intact and without leaks?

Yes / NoIf ‘No,’ list problems observed:

x. Describe your community’s ‘natural’ air conditioning.For example, trees and vines, when selectively placedaround a structure, provide a great deal of shade fromthe sun:

3. Air/Space Heating

Does your community have a furnace or other heatingdevice?

Yes / NoIf Yes please answer the following questions:

i. What type of system is it?c Gasc Electricc Geothermalc SolarOther (specify):

ii. Does the capacity of the unit or system match thevolume of the room(s) being cooled (it may be necessaryto consult an expert/professional to answer thisquestion)?

Yes / NoRated capacity (should be found on the unit, or inthe literature supplied with it):

Total volume of room(s) being cooled (m3):

iii. When purchased, was care taken to purchase themost efficient variety?

Yes / No

iv. While operating the furnace, is care taken tominimize the thermostat setting to the lowest acceptabletemperature?

Yes / NoThermostat setting:

v. Are the rooms that receive the warmed air fairly leakproof (no open windows or doors, no cracks, etc.)?

Yes / No

vi. Rate the insulation of the rooms that receive cooledair:

c fully insulated with good insulationc insulatedc partially insulatedc not insulated

vii. Is the heating unit a centralized system?Yes / No

Is a regular maintenance protocol established andfollowed?

Yes / NoIs someone in the community trained to performroutine system maintenance including filter changes?

Yes / NoAre all the ducts intact and without leaks?

Yes / NoIf ‘No,’ list problems observed:

viii. Is the heating unit a ‘space heater,’ (i.e. anindividual, portable unit)

Yes / NoIs the unit(s) well maintained with all safetyfeatures intact?

c Fusesc Guard around coilsc Thermostatc Wiring intact

Is there ample space around the heater (at least 2m,or as specified by manufacturer)?

Yes / No


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Chapter 5: Energy

Appliances Quantity Usage(hours/day) Type of Fuel

EnergyRating(Watts orLiters/day)

DeviceClass (I, II,III, or IV)

averageenergy use of

commonappliances

(Watts)

Water heater Water Heater 4500

Airconditioning

AirConditioner

(Room)750

Heating(stove/furnace)

AirConditioner

(Central)3500

Refrigerator/freezer/ food storage

Refrigerator-Freezer 600

Lighting

Motors/pumps (includesfans)

Fan 60

Radio Radio 25

Television Television 150

Stove oroven Electric stove 7500

Flashlights

Outdoorlighting

ComputerComputer,monitor &

printer200

Sewingmachine

SewingMachine 75

Other(specify):

Other(specify):

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Is the heater used only when absolutely necessary?Yes / No

Is the unit positioned as close as possible to wherethe heat is needed?

Yes / No

4. Refrigeration and Freezing

Does your community use one or more refrigerators orfreezers?

Yes / NoIf Yes please answer the following questions:

i. What form of energy does the appliance require?c Gasc ElectricityOther (specify):

ii. What type of refrigerant does the appliance use?

Is the community aware of and educated about thehazards associated with the type of refrigerant used?

Yes / NoIs the community aware of safe disposal options forthe appliance?

Yes / NoIs a trained technician capable of servicingrefrigeration units available to your community?

Yes / No

iii. Is the appliance maintained according to theprescribed maintenance schedule by the manufacturer?

Yes / NoDoes the storage container seal tightly all around theedges of the door or lid?

Yes / NoIs the storage container well insulated?

Yes / NoAre all vents around the compressor regularlycleaned (at least once per year)?

Yes / NoAre all exposed coils clean and regularly cleaned?

Yes / No

iv. Is the size, or capacity, of the storage space withinthe appliance well matched to the volume of items placedin it (i.e. it is neither over-full, nor mostly empty)?

Yes / NoIs care taken to rotate stock, so that food is used in a‘first in, first out’ order, and spoiled food is routinelydisposed of?

Yes / No

v. Does your community take care to minimize theperiod of time the door or lid of the appliance is leftopen?

Yes / No

vi. If your community has a freezer, are the coils andfins inside the appliance free of built-up ice (less than0.5cm)?

Yes / NoIs the freezer regularly defrosted before the ice is0.5cm thick?

Yes / No

5. Water Heating

Does your community use a water heater?Yes / No

If Yes please answer the following questions:

What type of energy is used to heat the water?c gasc electricityc geothermalc solarother (specify):

When purchased, was care taken to purchase the mostefficient variety?

Yes / No

If water is heated by a flame, is the flame vented by achimney?

Yes / No

Is the chimney in good repair and cleaned regularly?Yes / No

Is the output water temperature setting minimized to thelowest practical temperature?

Yes / NoTemperature setting:

Are water conservation practices followed in yourcommunity, especially for heated water?

Yes / No(see Chapter 3, page **)

Is the water tank insulated?Yes / No

Are all water pipes that carry heated water insulated?Yes / No


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Is the water tank regularly drained and cleared toremove sediment?

Yes / No

6. Lighting

If your community uses lighting, answer thefollowing questions:

Number of incandescent lamps

Number of fluorescent fixtures:

Number of fuel based flame lamps:Other (specify):Quantity:

Do the members of your community make a concertedeffort to use lighting only when necessary, turning lightsoff when not being used?

Yes / No

Are lighted rooms painted or otherwise colored withreflective colors (e.g. yellow, white, other light colors)?

Yes / No

7. Electric Motors and Pumps

If your community uses any sort of electric motors(fans, pumps, etc.), observe each motor inoperation, and answer the following questions:

Rate the performance of the motor by the sounds that itmakes:

1 2 3 4 5(1= very noisy, uneven ‘clunking’, sounds strained, nearly

inoperable)(3= intermittent noises, rattling, but motor seems to have full

power)(5= near noiseless operation, motor is well lubed and fully

functional)

If the motor requires lubrication, is this procedure partof a regular maintenance schedule?

Yes / No

If the motor drives a fan, is the fan positioned such thatthe flow of air is not impeded either in front of norbehind the fan?

Yes / No

Is an effort made to only operate the motor when

necessary?Yes / No

If the unit is a pump, is there an automaticpressure-regulated shut off switch that actuates whenthe line pressure is not being relieved (e.g if a waterpump, the pump will not operate if no water is beingused)?

Yes / No

8. General Conservation Practices

For any other electric appliances not specificallymentioned above, answer the following questions:

Is your community well informed about both theeconomic and environmental benefits of energyconservation (especially electicity)?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(1= not informed, 9= most informed and continually

updated)

Do all community members make a concerted effort toshut off electric devices when not in use (1= no effort,9= excellent efforts by everyone)?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Does the community rank energy efficient performanceas an important criteria when making purchasingdecisions (1= not at all, 9= most importantconsideration)?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Does the community incorporate energy conservation asa criteria for in policy making (1= not at all, 9= mostimportant consideration)?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Electricity/Energy Conservation:Evaluation


1. Community Energy Use

The purpose of this first question is to guide you inmaking a total assessment of your community’suse of energy. In the best case scenario, ALL ofyour community’s energy uses will be inventoried;however, for the purposes of this particularinventory, the most important devices to beinventoried are those that use a significant amountof energy on a daily or monthly basis (e.g. electricappliances as opposed to a flashlight).

It is recommended that you make your ownchart to fit the particular inventory of devices thatyour community has. In the best case, each deviceshould be itemized on its own line (therebyeliminating the purpose of the ‘Quantity’ column.Doing this will prevent you from having to do anycalculations to find sums and averages because youcan have an individual line for each light bulb, forexample. Furthermore, your community may haveseveral devices that would fall under the ‘Other’category.

Nevertheless, if you don’t make your own chart(see page 185), the following calculations shouldbe used to determine the total ‘Usage’ and ‘EnergyUsage’:

It is important that you note the quantity of similardevices, and add the hours of usage of each instance. Insuch a case, the ‘Energy Usage’ column should reflect anaverage of the items considered. For example, if you have 3lamps as follows:

Lamp 1: 75 W bulb, about 3 hours per dayLamp 2: 125 W bulb, about 8 hours per dayLamp 3: 40 W bulb, about 2 hours per dayHere, the ‘Quantity’ column should read ‘3’

The ‘Energy Usage’ should be evaluated as aweighted average as follows:

‘Energy Usage’ = [(Wattage of Lamp 1) xtime/day+ (Watt. of Lamp 2) x time/day+ (Watt. of Lamp 3) x time/day]/sum of times

= (75)(3) + (125)(8) + (40)(2) = 1305/13= 100.4 W

When evaluating your inventory with theinterests of conservation, first you should identifyall devices that have a non-renewable source offuel. Non-renewable fuel sources tend to releasemuch more environmental pollution thanrenewable sources, and, by definition, there is alimited supply of non-renewable energy sources.Non-renewables may include your grid electricity,anything that uses petrol fuel, dry cell batteries,etc. It is important to conserve non-renewableresources.

After identifying the non-renewably fuelleddevices, use the ‘Device class’ ranking to prioritizeconservation efforts. Your community may ceaseusing luxury items altogether, or may eliminaterelatively unimportant conveniences, while strivingto reduce the use of any equipment that doesn’tneed to run continuously.

Another option is to switch the fuel sourcesfrom non-renewables to renewable sources likewind energy, solar energy, or biomass fuels.

Although the source of your grid electricity maybe hydroelectric, and thus ‘renewable,’ rememberthat grid networks have a certain capacity or limitto the amount of electricity that it can generateand distribute. Furthermore, the construction andoperation of hydroelectric dams involves a greatecological upset and usually displaces indigenousinhabitants. Thus, even if your grid source isrenewable, there may still be very good reasons toconserve your electricity use.

Our community has extensively inventoried our energyusage.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Air Conditioning/Cooling

An air conditioner is an appliance or mechanismdesigned to extract heat from an occupied spaceusing a refrigeration cycle. An earlier form of airconditioning was invented in Persia (Iran)thousands of years ago in the form of wind shaftswhich were built on top of roofs in order to catchthe wind and pass it through water and blow thecooled air into the building. An electrical version ofair conditioning was invented around 1900 tocontrol temperature and humidity for improvedmanufacturing process control. Later, airconditioning was applied to increase productivityin the workplace. Later still, air conditioning use


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was expanded to improve comfort in homes andautomobiles.

The most common types of air conditionersemploy a working fluid called a refrigerant in acycle where the refrigerant repeatedly changes statefrom liquid to vapor and back to liquid. Therefrigerant is condensed to release heat in one partof the cycle and is boiled (or evaporated) to absorbheat in another part of the cycle. ‘Freon’ is a tradename for a family of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and othercompanies. Although these refrigerants wereinitially used due to their superior stability andsafety properties, unfortunately, evidence hasaccumulated that these chlorine-bearingrefrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when theyescape. A decline in performance over time mayindicate a refrigerant leak.

The chemistry is poorly understood, but aconsensus is growing that chlorine atoms of theseCFC refrigerants are released in the presence ofstrong ultraviolet radiation (UV)and these chlorineatoms cause severe damage to the ozone layer thatshields the earth’s surface from the strong UVradiation. The ozone layer is extremely importantin terms of human health, particularly for our skinand eyes. The intense UV rays from the sun, ifunblocked by the ozone layer, greatly contribute topremature skin aging, are a contributing factor toskin cancers (melanomas), degenerative eyeproblems like cataracts, and UV radiation has beenfound to suppress the function of our immunesystems. Thus, the use of CFC refrigerants shouldbe eliminated if possible.

The Montreal Protocol, officially the Protocol onSubstances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, is a treatythat was signed on Sept. 16, 1987, at Montreal by25 nations. 168 nations are now parties to theaccord. The protocol set limits on the productionof chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and relatedsubstances that release chlorine or bromine to theozone layer of the atmosphere. According to thephase-out schedule set by the treaty, Latin Americashould have completely phased out CFC usage by2010. Any appliance purchased today should notcontain CFC’s.

Contact the manufacturer of your airconditioner to find out if CFCs are used in yourunit, and what options exist for refrigerantreplacement. It is important that only a trainedtechnician perform such internal maintenance.

The use of electric air conditioning puts a majordemand on many electrical power grids in warm

weather, when most units are operating underheavy load. Unfortunately, many air conditionersare not very efficient, and much of the energy useddoes not actually go towards cooling, but instead iswasted as heat. This means that there is a hugeopportunity to conserve energy by making wise airconditioning choices. Air conditioner use shouldbe minimal and efficient. The inventory questionshere are meant to help reduce the energy that yourcommunity expends on air conditioning.

While most units are electrically powered, someuse liquid or gaseous fuel to power the refrigerationcycle. These units may or may not be moreefficient and polluting, depending upon the fuelused and the design of the unit. In general, thefollowing advice applies to these models equally.Along with electric models, use of gas-fueledmodels should also be minimized and madeefficient.

In addition, geothermal energy is often used forair conditioning. Advantageously, most of LatinAmerica is in an area where geothermal energy canbe utilized relatively easily. See the resources listedat the end of this chapter for more informationabout geothermal air conditioning systems.

Furthermore, although the technology is not inwidespread use, solar energy can also be used todrive air conditioners. While this option seems tomake the most sense, implementing it at this timewould most likely involve a capital investmentgreater than the other options would require.

It might surprise you to know that buying abigger room air-conditioning unit won’t necessarilymake you feel more comfortable during the hotsummer months. In fact, a room air conditionerthat’s too big for the area it is supposed to cool willperform less efficiently and less effectively than asmaller, properly sized unit. This is because roomunits work better if they run for relatively longperiods of time than if they are continually,switching off and on. Longer run times allow airconditioners to maintain a more constant roomtemperature.

Sizing is equally important for central air-conditioning systems, which need to be sized byprofessionals. If your community has a central airsystem, the fan should be set to shut off at thesame time as the cooling unit (compressor). Inother words, don’t use the system’s central fan toprovide circulation, but instead use circulating fansin individual rooms.

Air conditioners are manufactured with variousdegrees of efficiency. Usually the energy efficiency

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information is available from the manufacturer. Itis best to opt for the most efficient model that fitsyour specifications when purchasing a unit.

It is important to limit the temperature settingof the air conditioning thermostat. Many peopleare tempted to use their air conditioners to achievea temperature much lower than the air outside. Itrequires a great deal of energy to achieve theseluxurious conditions, and so it is best that thethermostat be set as near to the outsidetemperature as is possible.

As cooled air will seep out of an air conditionedroom, warm air will take its place and then mustitself be cooled. Thus, it is important to keep theareas that receive cooled air fairly leak proof. Thismeans that windows should be closed and sealed,there should be no obvious holes in the walls,doors should be closed and sealed tightly, etc.

Similarly, the rooms’ insulation should beadequate for the purposes. An easy way to detectthis is to feel the walls and the ceiling (and possiblythe floor) for heat. If the surfaces are about roomtemperature, your insulation is adequate. If, on theother hand the surfaces are warmer than the room,the air conditioner is working harder than it has to.If your community decides to improve theinsulation, the energy used for cooling should besignificantly reduced.

As part of most air conditioning units, there arecoils through which the compressed refrigerantflows, and over which the room’s air is blown.Because of their cold temperature, these coils havea tendency to become coated with watercondensed from the air. This water may thenfreeze, and thus reduce the unit’s efficiencybecause the heat is not being properly transferredto the refrigerant. Thus, to save energy, the coilsshould be kept free of excessive ice.

If your community has central air conditioning(or heating), your community’s duct work may bewasting a lot of energy. The duct system, abranching network of tubes in the walls, floors, andceilings, carries the air from a furnace or central airconditioner to each room. Ducts are made of sheetmetal, fiber glass, or other materials.Unfortunately, many duct systems are poorlyinsulated or not insulated properly. Ducts that leakcooled (or heated) air into uncooled (unheated)spaces can add hundreds of dollars a year to yourheating and cooling bills. Insulating ducts that arein unconditioned spaces is usually very costeffective. If you are buying a new duct system,consider one that comes with insulation already

installed.Sealing your ducts to prevent leaks is

important, especially if the ducts are located in anunconditioned area such as an attic or vented crawlspace. If the supply ducts are leaking, heated orcooled air can be forced out unsealed joints andlost. In addition, unconditioned air can also bedrawn into return ducts through unsealed joints.In the summer, hot attic air can be drawn in,increasing the load on the air conditioner. In coldweather, your furnace will have to work longer tokeep your building comfortable. Either way, yourcommunity could be losing energy, and wastingmoney. Although minor duct repairs are easy toaccomplish, ducts in unconditioned spaces shouldbe sealed and insulated by qualified professionalsusing the appropriate sealing materials.

Routine maintenance of central systems isimportant both to the proper operation of thesystem, but also to the energy efficiency of thesystem. Fixing duct leaks, changing filters,inspecting fans and other system components forproper function, and other such tasks must beperformed on a regular schedule. For this reason, itis recommended that your community place atleast one person in charge of system maintenance.The manufacturer of the system should provide themaintenance schedule recommended for yoursystem.

During the summer months, the most effectiveway to keep your dwellings cool is to prevent theheat from building up in the first place. A primarysource of heat build-up is sunlight absorbed by theroof, walls, and windows. Dark-colored exteriorsabsorb 70% to 90% of the radiant energy from thesun that strikes the building’s surfaces. Some ofthis absorbed energy is then transferred intodwelling spaces by way of conduction, resulting inheat gain inside the building. Thus, the use oflight-colored exterior paints effectively reflectsmost of the heat away from your buildings.

Energy Efficient Air Cooling Practices• Whole-house fans help cool your home by pulling

cool air through the house and exhausting warmair through the attic. They are effective whenoperated at night and when the outside air iscooler than the inside.

• Set your thermostat as high as comfortablypossible. The less difference between the indoorand outdoor temperatures, the lower your overallcooling bill will be.

• Don’t set your thermostat at a colder setting than


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normal when you turn on your air conditioner. Itwill not cool your home any faster and couldresult in excessive cooling and, therefore,unnecessary expense.

• Consider using an interior fan in conjunction withyour window air conditioner to spread the cooledair more effectively through your home withoutgreatly increasing your power use.

• Don’t place lamps or TV sets near your air-conditioning thermostat. The thermostat sensesheat from these appliances, which can cause theair conditioner to run longer than necessary.

• Plant trees or shrubs to shade air-conditioningunits but not to block the airflow. A unit operatingin the shade uses as much as 10% less electricitythan the same one operating in the sun.

• Trees that lose their leaves in the fall (i.e.,deciduous) are the most effective at reducingheating and cooling energy costs. When selectivelyplaced around a house, they provide excellentprotection from the summer sun but permit wintersunlight to reach and warm your house. Theheight, growth rate, branch spread, and shape areall factors to consider in choosing a tree.

• Vines provide shading and cooling. Grown ontrellises, vines can shade windows or the wholeside of a house.

• Install white window shades, drapes, or blinds toreflect heat away from the building.

• Close curtains on windows that face the sunduring the day.

• No matter what kind of heating, ventilation, andair-conditioning system you have in yourcommunity, you can save energy and increasecomfort by properly maintaining and upgradingyour equipment. By combining proper equipmentmaintenance and upgrades with appropriateinsulation, weatherization, and thermostatsettings, your community may be able to cut yourenergy consumption and your pollution output inhalf.

Our community strives to use the least amount of energyon air conditioning as possible, using clean, efficient,and sustainable practices and equipment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. Air/Space Heating

In the interests of brevity and avoidingredundancy, refer to the discussion of the previousquestion (regarding air conditioning), simplysubstituting the concept of cooling by heating. You

will notice that most of the same advice applies toheating systems.

However, you may disregard the informationregarding refrigerants, as heating systems obviouslydo not use them. Instead, heating systems oftenburn some type of fuel. Refer to the section onIndoor Air Pollution, Chapter 2, for moreinformation regarding proper exhaust venting andchoice of fuels. It is important that adequate safetymeasures are in place if inflammable fuels are used.(e.g. storage away from heat/flame, sealedcontainers made from material appropriate for thetype of fuel used, etc.)

Our community strives to use the least amount of energyon air heating as possible, using clean, efficient, andsustainable practices and equipment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


Refrigeration is generally the cooling of a body bythe transfer of a portion of its heat away from it.Applications include preservation, especially offood, and lowering the temperature of drinks toone that is more agreeable for consumption. Oneof the first uses of ‘home’ refrigeration wasinstalled around 1895. Domestic refrigerators arecommon in kitchens, with separate sections orseparate machines for cooling and freezing. Mostunits are electrically powered, but the gasabsorption refrigerator, which cools by the use of asource of heat is used in homes that are notconnected to the electrical grid, and in vehicles.

Refer to the information regarding refrigerantsfound above under the discussion of Question 2:Air Conditioning, as much of the technology is thesame in these two applications. Similarly, thecapacity of the unit is one of the most importantfactors to consider to obtain the most efficient useof the appliance, as it is for choosingheating/cooling systems.

Energy Efficient Refrigerator/Freezer Practices• Look for a refrigerator with automatic

moisture control. Models with this featurehave been engineered to prevent moistureaccumulation on the cabinet exteriorwithout the addition of a heater. This is notthe same thing as an ‘anti-sweat’ heater.Models with an anti-sweat heater willconsume 5% to 10% more energy thanmodels without this feature.

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• Don’t keep your refrigerator or freezer toocold. Recommended temperatures are 3ºCto 5ºC for the fresh food compartment ofthe refrigerator and -15ºC for the freezersection. If you have a separate freezer forlong-term storage, it should be kept at -18ºC.

• To check refrigerator temperature, place anappliance thermometer in a glass of waterin the center of the refrigerator. Read itafter 24 hours. To check the freezertemperature, place a thermometer betweenfrozen packages. Read it after 24 hours.

• Regularly defrost manual-defrostrefrigerators and freezers; frost buildupincreases the amount of energy needed tokeep the motor running. Don’t allow frostto build up more than one-quarter of aninch.

• Make sure your refrigerator door seals areairtight. Test them by closing the door overa piece of paper or money note so it is halfin and half out of the refrigerator. If youcan pull the paper or note out easily, thelatch may need adjustment or the seal mayneed replacing.

• Cover liquids and wrap foods stored in therefrigerator. Uncovered foods releasemoisture and make the compressor workharder.

• Rotate foods on a first-in, first-out cycle toprevent spoilage and to prevent theunnecessary accumulation of food.

• Move your refrigerator out from the walland vacuum its condenser coils at leastonce a year unless you have a no-cleancondenser model. Your refrigerator will runfor shorter periods with clean coils.

Our community strives to use the least amount of energyon refrigeration and freezing as possible, using clean,efficient, and sustainable practices and equipment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. Water Heating

Again, with this technology the most importantpoints to consider for energy efficiency areinsulation, system integrity, and temperatureminimization. See the above discussions forfurther rationale about these points.

Water conservation practices are especiallyimportant for heated water, so performing the

Water Conservation Assessment, found in Chapter3, is highly recommended. Furthermore, if yourwater heater burns fuel, review the Indoor AirQuality Assessment found in Chapter 2.

Energy Efficient Water Heating Practices• Repair leaky faucets promptly; a leaky

faucet wastes gallons of water in a shortperiod.

• Insulate your electric hot-water storagetank and pipes, but be careful not to coverthe thermostat.

• Insulate your gas or oil hot-water storagetank and pipes, but be careful not to coverthe water heater’s top, bottom, thermostat,or burner compartment; when in doubt, getprofessional help.

• Install aerating low-flow faucets andshowerheads.

• Buy a new energy-efficient water heater.While it may cost more initially than astandard water heater, the energy savingswill continue during the lifetime of theappliance.

• Although most water heaters last 10-15years, it’s best to start shopping for a newone if yours is more than 7 years old.Doing some research before your heaterfails will enable you to select one that mostappropriately meets your needs.

• Lower the thermostat on your water heater;water heaters sometimes come from thefactory with high temperature settings, buta setting of 46ºC provides comfortable hotwater for most uses.

• Drain a quart of water from your watertank every 3 months to remove sedimentthat impedes heat transfer and lowers theefficiency of your heater. The type of watertank you have determines the steps to take,so follow the manufacturer’s advice.

• If you heat with electricity and live in awarm and sunny climate, consider installinga solar water heater. The solar units areenvironmentally friendly and can now beinstalled on your roof to blend with thearchitecture of your community’sbuilding(s).

• Take more showers than baths. Bathinguses the most hot water in the averagehousehold. You use 15-25 gallons of hotwater for a bath, but less than 10 gallonsduring a 5-minute shower.


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Our community strives to use the least amount of energyon water heating as possible, using clean, efficient, andsustainable practices and equipment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6. Lighting

In general, the best piece of advice for usinglighting efficiently is simply to turn lights off whennot in use. Take advantage of natural lighting asmuch as possible, and maximize the reflectivity oflighted areas to reduce the needed luminescence ofthe bulb.

If your community has electricity, compactfluorescent (CFL) bulbs are an excellentreplacement for incandescent bulbs (the kind thathave a small wire filament that glows). Althoughtheir initial expense is considerable greater thanincandescent bulbs, CFLs last much longer andconsequently are usually cheaper, especially whenenergy costs are also considered.

If your community does not have electricityand uses fuel based lanterns, remember to usethem only when necessary, extinguishing themwhen light is no longer needed. It is also importantto make sure that wick and vents are adjustedproperly so that the flame burns efficiently. Nosoot should be visible around the lantern, norshould black smoke be emitted from the flame.(This presumes the use of liquid or gaseous fuel.)

Energy Efficient Lighting Practices• Compact fluorescent (CFL) bulbs are four

times more energy efficient thanincandescent bulbs and provide the samelighting.

• Turn off the lights in any room you’re notusing, or consider installing timers, photocells, or occupancy sensors to reduce theamount of time your lights are on.

• Use task lighting; instead of brightlylighting an entire room, focus the lightwhere you need it. For example, usefluorescent under-cabinet lighting forkitchen sinks and countertops undercabinets.

• Consider three-way lamps; they make iteasier to keep lighting levels low whenbrighter light is not necessary.

• Use 4-foot fluorescent fixtures withreflective backing and electronic ballasts forwork areas, garage, and laundry areas.

• Consider using 4-watt mini-fluorescent or

electro-luminescent night lights. Both lightsare much more efficient than theirincandescent counterparts. The luminescentlights are cool to the touch.

• For spot lighting, consider CFLs withreflectors. The lamps range in wattage from13-watt to 32-watt and provide a verydirected light using a reflector and lenssystem.

• Take advantage of daylight by using light-colored, loose-weave curtains on windowsto allow daylight to penetrate the roomwhile preserving privacy. Also, decoratewith lighter colors that reflect daylight.

• Use outdoor lights with a photocell unit ora timer so they will turn off during the day.

• Exterior lighting is one of the best places touse CFLs because of their long life. If youlive in a cold climate, be sure to buy a lampwith a cold-weather ballast.

Our community strives to use the least amount of energyon lighting as possible, using clean, efficient, andsustainable practices and equipment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7. Electric Motors and Pumps

In general, an electric motor or pump that isfunctioning efficiently will have a steady, smoothsound. There should be no whining, clunking,dinging, etc, and the running rythym should besteady and not uneven. Any of these noises, or anuneven operation indicate that there is amechanical problem with the motor. Mechanicalproblems require the motor to work harder than itwould otherwise, and thus such problems implythat energy is being wasted.

Likely problems may include need forlubrication, worn bearings, worn bushings, poorelectrical contacts, shaft slippage, and manyothers. If your community has a handy personaround, often small motors can be repaired quiteeasily. And, as with most equipment, a little bit ofpreventative maintenance generally goes a longway towards preserving the quality and integrity ofthe equipment. Thus, if your community has acapable person, it is very helpful and wise to havethis person perform routine maintenance onequipment like motors and pumps.

If your community uses any fans, it isimportant to have freely ventilated air both infront of and behind the fan. If air flow is impeded,

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the fan must work harder to compensate. Thus, tomaintain energy efficiency, make sure there isplenty of space around fans.

Our community strives to minimize the energyused by motors, pumps, and fans; and we useclean, efficient, and sustainable practices andequipment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8. General Conservation Practices

Miscellaneous Energy Efficient Practices• Clean dryer lint filter after each load.• Do laundry and other energy intensive

chores during off-peak hours (at night andon weekends).

• Purchase clean (renewable) energy whereavailable (where not available, call yourutility company and demand it).

• Install window film to reduce heat loss/gain.

• Caulk or weather-strip doors and windows.• Upgrade/ replace leaky windows• Improve your community buildings’

insulation.• Replace furnace, air conditioner, or other

appliances with more efficient models.• Purchase solar panels and solar water

heating system.• Use passive solar design in building a new

home.• Purchase micro wind turbines.• Turn off computers and other office

equipment when they’re not being used,especially overnight and weekends.

• Clean all air filters (for furnace and airconditioner) monthly

• Install LED exit signs. They’re 100% longerlasting than conventional exit signs and themost energy efficient of their kind.

In general, our community recognizes the importance ofconserving energy, includes the philosophy in our policymaking, and continually strives to improve ourconservation practices.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Conclusions


1. Inventory of energy consumption

2. Air Conditioning

3. Air Heating


5. Water Heating

6. Lighting

7. Electric Motors

8. General conservation practices

Now that you have comprehensively examined yourenergy conservation practices, how would you rate,overall, your community’s practices in these regards?



Problem 1

Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4




184

Acknowledgements for Chapter 5

The information contained in this chapter has beenadapted from the following sources:Coviello, Manlio and Huo Altomonte. “EnergySustainability in Latin America and the Caribbean: TheShare of Renewable Sources.” Document presented atthe Regional Conference for Latin America and theCaribbean on Renewable Energy, held in Brazil 29 and30 October 2003. English translation available onlineat http://www.eclac.cl.Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG).“Technical Brief: Batteries.” Available online:http://www.itdg.org. Also published in AppropriateTechnology, Volume 21/Number 2. September 1994Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG).“Technical Brief: Grid Connection.” Available online:http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/grid_connection.pdf.World Commission on Dams. Dams andDevelopment: A New Framework for Decision-making.Earthscan Publications; London, UK, 2000. Availableonline: http://www.dams.org/report/.United Nations Development Program. World EnergyAssessment: Energy and the Challenge ofSustainability. UNDP; New York, USA, 2000.Available online:http://www.undp.org/seed/eap/activities/wea/index.html.United Nations Development Program. World EnergyAssessment: Overview 2004 Update. Edited by JoséGoldemberg and Thomas B. Johansson. UNDP; NewYork, USA, 2004. Available online:http://www.undp.org/energy.

Resources for Chapter 5

Internet ResourcesAfrican Energy Policy Research Network(AFREPREN): http://www.afrepren.org/AFREPREN, brings together 106 African energyresearchers and policy makers from Africa who have along-term interest in energy research and the attendantpolicy-making process. Its mission is to develop feasiblepolicy options for the delivery of affordable and cleanerenergy services to the poor in Africa, with a vision ofensuring more sustaibable energy services for all inAfrica.CADDET - Energy Efficiency and RenewableEnergy at your fingertips: http://www.caddet.org/CADDET stands for Centre for Analysis andDissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies.It is an international information source pertaining torenewable energy and energy-saving technologies thathave worked in other countries. Along with its sisterprogramme, GREENTIE, CADDET ceased collectingnew information at the end of March 2005.Nevertheless, the information will remain availablethrough this web site’s search facilities as it representsone of the World’s most detailed repositories of suchinformation.Centro de Informacion en Energias Renovable:http://www.ciner.org/CINER busca contribuir a la conservación de losrecursos naturales con miras al uso racional de la

energía, orientando, asesorando y promoviendo elintercambio de información, investigación y acancestecnológicos entre instituciones, empresas y personasque trabajan en el tema energético, estimulando larelación entre el uso de energía y la productividad.Contamos con un plantel de profesionales adscritos yespecialistas con amplia experiencia, tanto en el ámbitonacional como internacional en los diferentes rubros.Telephone: (591) 04 4280702Centro Nacional Salud Ambiente y Trabajo:http://www.censat.org/CENSAT Agua Viva es una organización ambientalistapara la comunicación, la educación, la investigación yla organización, cuyas acciones están dirigidas afortalecer la capacidad de acción ambiental y social delos actores históricamente empobrecidos en nuestrasociedad. Buscamos el desarrollo de procesosdemocráticos que conduzcan al conocimiento ytransformación de las relaciones sociales y técnicas y delas condiciones de vida, trabajo y producción que seanadversas a la salud, al medio ambiente y a la plenarealización de la humanidad.CleanEnergy: worldwide renewable energies portal:http://www.cleanenergy.de/index2.htmlCleanEnergy maintains a large worldwide companiesdirectory, which compiles companies that provideproducts or services related to renewable energy.Available in English and German.Enersol: Solar energy serving people:http://www.enersol.org/Enersol is a non-profit charitable organizationdeveloping and introducing sustainable energysolutions for rural communities, especially supportingthe use of clean, renewable solar energy for health andeducation applications in Latin America. Telephone:978-251-1828GREENTIE: http://www.greentie.org/GREENTIE was an international directory of supplierswhose technologies help to reduce greenhouse gasemissions. GREENTIE, and its sister programCADDET, ceased collecting new information at the endof March 2005. Nevertheless, the information willremain available through this web site’s search facilitiesas it represents one of the World’s most detailedrepositories of such information.Mexican Renewable Energy Program (MREP):http://www.re.sandia.gov/The Mexico Renewable Energy Program’s objective wasto promote the appropriate and sustainable use ofrenewable energy technologies in Mexico. MREPassisted Mexican program partners in implementinglarge-scale renewable energy replication and newapplication programs, worked to increase the technicaland operational capacity of partners to carryoutrenewable energy based projects & programs, andprovided technical assistance and conductworkshop/trainings on renewable energy technologies,applications, financing, and project implementations.MREP is now integrated into the U.S./Mexico BilateralAgreement for Energy Cooperation (Annex 1 -Renewable Energy); however, their internet page storesnumerous publications, both instructional andtechnical. For more information, Tel: 1 (505) 844-3301INFORCE: International Network for Sustainable

Chapter 5: Energy

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Energy:http://www.inforse.org/INFORSE is a worldwide network consisting of 140Non Governmental Organisations working in about 60countries to promote sustainable energy and socialdevelopment, so that energy services that are necessaryfor a just and human-centred development, areprovided in a sustainable way using renewable energy.Telephone: 45 86 22 70 00Organizacion Latinoamericana de Energia:http://www.olade.org.ec/OLADE es la organización política y de apoyo técnico,mediante la cual sus Estados Miembros realizanesfuerzos comunes para la integración y el desarrollodel mercado energético regional. Mision: promoveracuerdos entre sus Estados Miembros y realizaracciones para satisfacer sus necesidades energéticas,mediante el desarrollo sustentable de las diferentesfuentes de energía.Renewables for Sustainable Village Power (RSVP):http://www.rsvp.nrel.gov/National Renewable Energy Laboratory (US Dept ofEnergy) resources for practical and renewable powersources for rural areas.REPP-CREST : Renewable Energy Policy Projectand Center for Renewable Energy and SustainableTechnology http://www.repp.org/REPP’s goal is to accelerate the use of renewable energyby providing credible information, insightful policyanalysis, and innovative strategies amid changingenergy markets and mounting environmental needs byresearching, publishing, and disseminating information,creating policy tools, and hosting highly active, on-line,renewable energy discussion groups.Universal Sustainable Energy Services:http://www.uses.net/Universal Sustainable Energy Services assistsdeveloping nations in their transitions to a sustainableenergy paradigm by offering expert knowledge andcommunications to practitioners of sustainable energyworldwideWindustry: http://www.windustry.com/Windustry is a non-profit organization working tocreate an understanding of wind energy opportunitiesfor rural economic benefit by providing technicalsupport and creating tools for analysis. Web pagecontains links to several print and web-based resources.(English only)

World Alliance for Decentralized Energy (WADE):http://www.localpower.org/WADE was established in 2002 as a non-profit researchand promotion organisation whose mission is toaccelerate the worldwide development of highefficiency cogeneration (CHP) and decentralizedrenewable energy systems that deliver substantialeconomic and environmental benefits.World Energy Council (WEC):http://www.worldenergy.org/The World Energy Council (WEC) is the foremostmulti-energy organisation in the world today. Theorganisation covers all types of energy, including coal,oil, natural gas, nuclear, hydro, and renewables, and isUN-accredited, non-governmental, non-commercial andnon-aligned. WEC’s Mission: “To promote thesustainable supply and use of energy for the greatestbenefit of all people” by collating data about andundertaking and promoting research into the means ofsupplying and using energy having, short and longterm, the greatest social benefit and the least harmfulimpact on the natural environment, and publishing orotherwise disseminating the useful results of suchresearch.World-wide Information System for RenewableEnergy (WIRE): http://wire.ises.org/The World-wide Information System for RenewableEnergy is a service provided by the International SolarEnergy Society (ISES - http://www.ises.org/). Thepurpose of this service is to facilitate and accelerate theflow of knowledge among renewable energyprofessionals worldwide.Printed ResourcesAllerdice, April; John Rogers. Renewable Energy forMicroenterprise. National Renewable EnergyLaboratory, 2000. Full text available online:http://www.rsvp.nrel.gov/vpconference/vp2000/handbooks/microenterprise_handbook.pdf. Order from: NationalTechnical Information Service, Telephone: 800-553-6847Jimenez, Antonio; Ken Olson. Renewable Energy forRural Health Clinics. National Renewable EnergyLaboratory, 1998. Spanish version available: EnergiaRenovable para Centros de Salud Rurales. Full textavailable online:http://www.rsvp.nrel.gov/vpconference/vp2000/handbooks/health_clinic_handbook_spanish.pdf. Order fromNational Technical Information Service, Telephone:800-553-6847.


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This brief chapter is intended to help yourcommittee decide which actions you shouldtake after completing one or more sections

of the environmental audit. It would be helpful toreview the Introduction to this manual, specifically“Steps for Establishing a Successful EnvironmentalProgram” in order to remember the processrecommended. The information below is meant tohelp guide you through Step Four of the processdescribed in the Introduction. First you mustprioritize the problems to be addressed, and thenevaluate possible solutions before deciding uponan action to take.

Prioritizing

As you completed the evaluation section of anassessment, you were asked to list the problemsyou identified, as well as to rank them according totheir relative importance. Thus, at this point you should have a list of problems divided into threecategories. You now need to prioritize in order tochoose which problems to address first.

You may begin by collating the identifiedproblems into a single table like the one below:

Category I problems should be addressed first,since any dangerous practice should be corrected assoon as possible. If you have identified multipleCategory I problems, your team should identifywhich problems pose the greatest and mostimmediate hazards, and correct the problems asclose to this ordering as possible. The order inwhich you address Category II and III problems,however, may vary depending upon the resourcesavailable, your community’s preferences, and anyother criteria that your team may use to establishpriorities. For example, correcting some problemswith simple and visible solutions first may helpgenerate needed enthusiasm for the environmentalprogram within your community. Nevertheless,unless your team is large enough to establishsubcommittees, only one problem should beselected at a time so that your team’s efforts mayremain focused and easily tracked. Ifsubcommittees are able to be formed, each shouldsimilarly tackle only one problem at a time.

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Category I (Critically important)

Category II (Important)

Category III (Not immediately important)

Evaluating Options

Converting your problem into potential solutionsis a necessary step before choosing an action tocorrect your selected problem. Beginning with theCategory I problems, your team should brainstormabout what actions could solve the problems; thisis done at first without much or any regard for thefeasibility of the actions proposed. The main ideahere is simply to create a list of options. Your teamshould explicitly list all options generated, asshown below:

The next step is to decide upon the criteria yourteam will use to evaluate the potential solutions.Your team may want to generate a large list first,and then narrow it down to the most reasonableand agreeable items. Your team should agree uponat least four or five criteria to both ensure thatseveral aspects are considered, and to increase thelikelihood that a clear “best choice” will bedelineated by using the criteria. Your team mayalso decide that some criteria are more importantthan others. You may represent the varyingimportance by introducing multipliers, or“weights.” Notice that your list of criteria willuniquely represent the values that your teamholds, which highlights the importance ofdeveloping a shared vision.

The two tables that follow illustrate thedevelopment of criteria:

Once the criteria have been decided andweighted (optional), it is time to apply the criteriato each of the proposed solutions developed above.This requires serious discussion, and expert inputis advisable. There are many ways to evaluate eachproposal by the criteria; however, perhaps the mostsimple is to judge the proposal against the criteriaand assign it a numeric value. The weights can beused as multipliers. Thus, applying the criteriaabove to our contaminated water example, andusing a numeric valuation between 0 and 5 (0

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Problem: contaminated well water(latrine is most likely source) [example

only]

• excavate latrine pit, build above-ground latrine toilet

• boil water before use• develop chemical treatment process• dig new well further away from latrine• bring piped water in from elsewhere • purchase water for drinking and

cooking

Proposed Criteria: [example only]

• Other communities have successfullydone it (i.e. high probability of success)

• Expected cost is within communitymeans (Affordable)

• Technology is understandable toeveryone within the community(explainable)

• Will not cause other environmental orhealth hazards (safe)

• Is energy efficient• Can produce measurable results• Requires little maintenance• Requires only materials producedlocally• Can be salvaged for another use

Selected Criteria /Weights Added[example only]

• Safety (3) (= most important)• Likely to succeed (2)• Affordable (2)• Efficient (1)• Explainable (1)• Low Maintenance (1)• Measurable results (1)

being the worst and 5 best), the option of digginga new well a safe distance away from the latrinewas the solution identified as the best choice, asshown in the table opposite.

Generating an Action Plan

Once your team has decided upon an action, adetailed plan should be developed beforeattempting to execute the solution. As discussed inthe introduction, the action plan should detailwhat resources are needed and how they will beobtained; how the project will be communicated tothe rest of the community and who shall explain it;

a goal for the length of time until completion aswell as intermediate achievements; a plan forassessing the results, and a maintenance plan toensure the solution does not itself become a futureproblem. These elements of the action plan shouldbe made explicit and recorded so the plan canfunction as a blueprint for the implementation ofthe action. After the plan has been developed, theelements can be mobilized to achieve the desiredends. Hopefully by using this process yourenvironmental program can achieve manysuccesses, and continue to lead your communityinto a sustainable future.

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Solution [example only] Safety Likely. Afford. Effic. Expl. Maint. Meas. TOTAL

Excavate pitcontents, buildabove-groundlatrine/toilet

4x3=12 1x2=2 3x2=6 4 4 2 4 34

boil water beforeuse 3x3=9 3x2=6 3x2=6 1 3 3 4 32

implement chemicaltreatment process 2x3=6 4x2=8 2x2=4 2 3 2 4 29

dig new well furtheraway from latrine 4x3=12 3x2=6 4x2=8 3 5 4 4 42

Attach to pipedwater 5x3=15 3x2=6 1x2=2 0 2 4 4 33

purchase water fordrinking and

cooking3x3=9 5x2=10 1x2=2 0 5 4 4 34

Environmental Audit Resources

The following four resources contain information thatcan greatly aid your environmental auditing process.These resources are an invaluable benefit, and you mayfind them indispensable in your efforts to acquirepertinent information.Temas Actuales maintains lists of governmentalenvironmental, health, and consumer protectionministries for nearly every country in the LatinAmerican and Caribbean region. In addition itmaintains lists and profiles of international agreements,laws, and other useful information pertinent to LACenvironmental protection.http://www.temasactuales.com.A very large database of Latin American organizationscan be found at Latin American NetworkInformation Center of the University of Texas. Thedatabase is very well organized, frequently updated andavailable in Spanish. This database can be aninvaluable aid to finding environmental organizations,labor unions, health care associations, and consumerprotection entities working in your area.http://www.lanic.utexas.eduCentro Panamericano de Ingeniería Sanitaria yCiencias del Ambiente: CEPIS is a specialised centreof the Pan American Health Organisation that providestechnical assistance, training, and information tocountries in the Latin American region in a variety ofsanitary and environmental engineering issues. CEPISalso has an environmental education program.http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/Practical Action / Soluciones Practicas (formerlyIntermediate Technology Development Group, ITDG),is a charity registered in the United Kingdom whichworks directly in four regions of the developing world –Latin America, East Africa, Southern Africa and SouthAsia, with particular concentration on Peru, Kenya,Sudan, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal.In these countries, Practical Action works with poorcommunities to develop appropriate technologies infood production, agroprocessing, energy, transport,small enterprise development, shelter and disastermitigation. They also maintain a database of technicalpapers and other resources intended to offersustainable solutions which are practical and affordable.Examples include composting toilets, water supplysolutions, biogas collectors, composting, and indoor airpollution prevention. http://www.itdg.org. Theirwebsite specifically for Latin America:http://www.solucionespracticas.org.pe/ Telephone: 511-446-7324. Mailing address: Casilla Postal 18-0620 /Lima 18

Sustainable Practice Resources

The following resources consist of organizations whosescopes include many areas of sustainable practices. Theinformation provided for each resource has mostly beenprovided by the organizations themselves, and are notto be considered reviews by the authors of thishandbook.

Aprovecho Research Center:http://www.aprovecho.net/ Aprovecho’s mission is todevelop and test technology appropriate and affordablefor Latin American communities. Main areas areStoves, Gardening, Forestry, and EcoBuilding.Biodiversidad en América Latina:http://www.biodiversidadla.org/ Un sitio destinado alencuentro y el intercambio entre las organizacioneslatinoamericanas y todos y todas aquellos/as quetrabajan en defensa de la Biodiversidad.Centro Nacional Salud Ambiente y Trabajo:http://www.censat.org/ CENSAT Agua Viva es unaorganización ambientalista para la comunicación, laeducación, la investigación y la organización, cuyasacciones están dirigidas a fortalecer la capacidad deacción ambiental y social de los actores históricamenteempobrecidos en nuestra sociedad. Buscamos eldesarrollo de procesos democráticos que conduzcan alconocimiento y transformación de las relacionessociales y técnicas y de las condiciones de vida, trabajoy producción que sean adversas a la salud, al medioambiente y a la plena realización de la humanidad.EARTHACTION Network:http://www.earthaction.org/ EarthAction’s goal is tomobilize growing numbers of people around the worldto press their governments (or sometimes corporations)for stronger action to solve global problems. Thenetwork already includes more than 1,900 citizengroups in 161 countries, two thirds of them indeveloping countries, together with hundreds oflegislators and thousands of individual citizens. LACregional office in Chile; telephone: (56) 9-826 1727.Eco-Portal - The Environmental Sustainability.InfoSource: http://www.environmentalsustainability.infoAn Information Gateway Empowering the Movementfor Environmental SustainabilityEco Sustainable Gateway & Resources:http://www.ecosustainable.com.au/links.htm Resourcesand tools on ecology, environment and sustainability.Nearly 1000 categorized links.Energia: International Network on Gender andSustainable Energy: http://www.energia.org/ Energialinks individuals and groups concerned with energy,sustainable development, and gender. ENERGIA’s goalis to contribute to the empowerment of rural andurban poor women through a specific focus on energyissues.Environmental Protection Agency of the UnitedStates: http://www.epa.gov/ Many educational resourceson a variety of environmental topics. (Available inSpanish)Global Development Research Center:http://www.gdrc.org/ GRDC is a virtual organizationthat carries out initiatives in education, research andpractice, in the spheres of environment, urban,community, economy and information, and at scalesthat are effective.Global Village: Institute for AppropriateTechnology: http://www.i4at.org/ Global Village is a

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non-profit organization created for the purpose ofresearching promising new technologies that canbenefit humanity in environmentally friendly ways.The philosophy of the Institute is that emergingtechnologies that link the world together are notethically neutral, but often have long-term implicationsfor viability of natural systems, human rights and ourcommon future.Green Pages - The Global Directory forEnvironmental Technology: http://www.eco-web.com/Features 7000 leading suppliers and environmentalorganisations from 145 countries.GreenTreks Network, Inc.: http://www.greentreks.org/GreenTreks Network has a wealth of educationalresources, perfect for your classroom, community groupor home. Materials convey important messages inengaging and easy to understand ways.IRDC: International Development ResearchCentre: http://www.idrc.ca/ IDRC is a Canadian Crowncorporation that works in close collaboration withresearchers from the developing world in their searchfor the means to build healthier, more equitable, andmore prosperous societies.OneWorld Network: http://www.oneworld.net/ TheOneWorld network spans five continents and producescontent in 11 different languages, published across itsinternational site, regional editions, and thematicchannels. Many of these are produced from the Southto widen the participation of the world’s poorest andmost marginalised peoples in the global debate.Peace Corps Master’s International Program:Resources and Links:http://www.cee.mtu.edu/peacecorps/resources.htmlContains technical information on several topics,especially focused on water and sanitation.Red Ambiental Latino America - CLAES:CentroLatino Americano de Ecología Social:http://www.ambiental.net/ Informaciones ambientalespara América Latina.Renewable Energy Policy Project:http://www.repp.org/ REPP’s goal is to accelerate theuse of renewable energy by providing credibleinformation, insightful policy analysis, and innovativestrategies amid changing energy markets and mountingenvironmental needs by researching, publishing, anddisseminating information, creating policy tools, andhosting highly active, on-line, renewable energydiscussion groups.Resources for the Future: http://www.rff.org/ RFF is anonprofit and nonpartisan organization that conductsindependent research on environmental, energy, andnatural resource issues.Skat Foundation: Swiss Resource Center andConsultancies for Development: http://www.skat-foundation.org/ The Skat Foundation is a not-for-profit organization that promotes the exchange ofknowledge and experiences in development

cooperation. The Skat Foundation produces anddistributes publications and provides other resourcesfor development cooperation, hosts internationalnetworks for knowledge sharing. The Foundationregularly launches and carries out innovative projects.TERI: The Energy and Resources Institute:http://www.teriin.org/ TERI works for global sustainabledevelopment, with particular application to the diversechallenges faced by India, focusing on equity, efficiencyand optimal utilization of natural and humanresources.The Alliance for Sustainability:http://www.mtn.org/iasa/ The mission of the Alliance isto bring about personal, organizational and planetarysustainability through support of projects that areecologically sound, economically viable, socially justand humane. The Alliance for Sustainability is aMinnesota-based, tax-deductible nonprofit supportingmodel sustainability projects on the local, national andinternational levels.The World Wide Web Virtual Library: SustainableDevelopment:http://www.ulb.ac.be/ceese/meta/sustvl.htmlA comprehensive list of internet sites dealing withsustainable development, including organizations,projects and activities, electronic journals, libraries,references and documents, databases, directories ormetadatabasesTrees, Water & Peoplehttp://www.treeswaterpeople.org/ TWP is helpingcommunities sustainably manage their naturalresources.United Nations Development Programme:http://www.undp.org/ The UNDP offers a tremendousnumber of resources in both English and Spanish, ontopics such as energy, sustainable development,ecological sanitation, and other environmental topics.Vitae Civilis - Institute for Development,Environment and Peace: http://www.vitaecivilis.org.br/Vitae Civilis is a not-for-profit non-governmentalorganization that has been working to contribute to theconstruction of sustainable societies – an expressionthat covers at least five basic pillars: social justice,environmental conservation and integrity, diversity(cultural, ethnic, religious, etc.), democracy andeconomic viability. To promote sustainabledevelopment through supporting the participatorydevelopment and implementation of integrated publicpolicies; generation and dissemination of knowledgeand practices in the areas of climate, energy, water andenvironmental services; and strengthening civil societyorganizations and initiatives in these areas. Tel.: +55(11) 4686-1814World Resources Institute: http://www.wri.org/ WorldResources Institute (WRI) is an environmental thinktank that goes beyond research to find practical waysto protect the earth and improve people’s lives

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Appendix

An online version of this handbook may be found at website of ARC, the Alliance of Religions and Conservation

www.arcworld.org