The Formation of the Christian Canon

The Diversity of Early Christianity

1. Jewish-Christian Adoptionist2. Marcionite Christians3. Gnostic Christians4. Proto-Orthodox Christians

1.Jewish-Christian Adoptionist2nd century living in Palestine, east of Jordan River

Jesus • remarkable man• chosen by God to be his Son• received his sonship via adoption at his

baptism • empowered by God to do miracles and teach

the truth about God• Fulfilled the divine commission by dying as a

willing sacrifice on the cross for the sins of the world

Jesus • God raised him from the dead• He ascended to heaven and where he

presently reigns with God. • He is not himself divine.• He was a righteous man but nothing

more than a man• Not born of the virgin, does not pre-

exist and he was not God.

• He was adopted by God to be His son.• Hence the word “Adoptionist”• To call Jesus as God is blasphemy.• The true God is the God of Israel where

he gave his law.• Must become a Jew to follow Jesus.• Appreciates the Gospel of Matthew, but

rejected others• Paul was an arch-heretic and his

writings as heretical.

2. Marcionite ChristiansA Christian group in the mid to late second century in the Mediterranean with large numbers flourishing especially in Asia Minor

Called “Marcionites” because they subscribe to the form of Christianity advance by a second century scholar and evangelist Marcion who claimed to have uncovered the true teaching of Christianity in the writings of Paul.

Paul was a true apostle where Jesus impart the truth of the Gospel.

• Paul was a good Jew not until Jesus showed him that the Jewish law played no part in the plan of salvation.

• Paul’s writing sets the Gospel over and against Jewish Law and Jews should abandon the law altogether.

• The God of the Jews is different from the God preached by Jesus.

• There are two separated and unrelated Gods.

• Jesus is to save the people from the OT God.

• Jesus was no relation to the God-Creator of the OT

• Jesus has no real ties to the material world the creator-God made.

• Jesus is not actually born and didn’t have a real flesh and blood.

• Jesus appeared only to be human.• Jesus’ body was only a phantasm• Jesus was totally divine and never

human.• Marcionites uses the Gospel of Luke

along with the 10 letters of Paul

3. Gnostic ChristiansA Christian group so named because of their claim that special “gnosis” (Gk for knowledge) is necessary for salvation

The were located in the major urban areas throughout much of the Mediterranean during the 2nd and 3rd century esp. in Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Rome and Gaul.

They are wildly diverse with different groups radically believing in different things.

• Some Gnostics agree with Marcion believing Jesus is totally divine and not human.

• Others claim that Jesus represents two distinct beings, the Human Jesus and the Divine Christ.

• They agree with the Jewish Christians that Jesus was a righteous man on earth and something happened during his baptism.

• Jesus during his Baptism the Divine Christ came into the man Jesus empowering him for his healing and especially, teaching ministry.

• At the end of his life immediately before his death, the Christ then departed from him once again to return to heaven.

• Who is this Divine Christ?

• He was one of the many deities that made up the divine realm.

• For Jewish Christians are strict monotheist.

• Marcionites are strict Ditheist.• Gnostics were polytheist• They believe that were about 32

different gods other systems as many as 365.

• Gnostics believe that the OT God is inherently evil as was the material world he created.

• Gnostics felt they don’t belong to the world and are spiritual beings from the divine realm trapped in the realm of matter.

• Salvation meant escaping from this material world.

• Thus a god from a divine realm entered in a man Jesus and left him prior his death so that he could impart to the imprisoned spirits the knowledge that is necessary to escape.

• This was divulge only to the chosen ones, the elect the Gnostics themselves.

• They are not tied to the literal meaning of their text and are not compulsive as other Christians.

• Though they have their favorites like the Gospel of John or Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Mary, Gospel of Truth and Gospel of Philip.

3. Proto-Orthodox ChristiansThis group represents the forerunners of the dominant form of Christianity in later centuries.

Acquired more converts than any other groups and stifled it opponents and claimed that the views had been the majority position.

Claimed that its views had always been the majority position and that its rivals were and always had been heretics who willfully chose to reject the true belief.

• Like all other groups they just call themselves as Christian.

• They agree with the Jewish Christians that Jesus was a fully human, disagrees when they deny his divinity.

• They agree with the Marcionites who said that Jesus was fully divine but disagrees in the denial of his humanity

• Agrees with the Gnostics who said that Jesus Christ taught the way of salvation but disagreed when they said that he has two beings rather than one and when they claim that his true teachings had been secrets and accessible to only an elect few.

• In short, Jesus Christ is both divine and human, that he was one being instead of two and that he had taught his disciples the truth.

• Apostle wrote the teaching of Jesus and interpreted it in a straightforward and literal fashion

• Books are passed to their followers that revealed the truth need for salvation.

How we got the NT Canon

How we got the NT Canon“Canon” – from the Greek kanon meaning a “measuring

rod”. a) a fundamental principle or general ruleb) an ecclesiastical rule or law enacted by a council or

other competent authorityc) the books of the Bible recognized by any Christian

church as genuine and inspiredd) the works of an author that have been accepted as

authentic: eg, there are 37 plays in the Shakespeare canon.

e) (other similar definitions)

How we got the NT Canon“Canon” – from the Greek kanon meaning a “measuring

rod”. a) a fundamental principle or general ruleb) an ecclesiastical rule or law enacted by a council or

other competent authorityc) the books of the Bible recognized by any Christian

church as genuine and inspiredd) the works of an author that have been accepted as

authentic: eg, there are 37 plays in the Shakespeare canon.

e) (other similar definitions)

Circa A.D. 45–100 - Original 27 books of the Greek New Testament are written. By 100AD, all 27 books of the New Testament were in circulation and all but Hebrews, 2 Peter, James, 2 John, 3 John, Revelation were universally accepted.

Circa A.D. 96 - Clement of Rome writing in about the year 96 Clement emphasizes the importance of apostolic authority. His only specific references to the New Testament are from 1 Corinthians and Hebrews. However, there is evidence of his familiarity with a wider range of the canonical materials. Yet Clement has no formal theory of the New Testament canon. While the tradition that derives from Jesus and the apostles is authoritative, it is not authoritative in a specific form.

Circa A.D. 115 - Ignatius of Antioch around 115 stated that the teachings of the apostles are known through their writings. There is, however, no indication that he viewed the apostolic writings as Scripture parallel to the Old Testament. For him the issue is the authority of the revelation — not its form, whether oral or written.

Circa A.D. 155 - Polycarp like Clement and Ignatius, sees an integral unity between the Old Testament and the apostles. However, he moves beyond his predecessors in that for him the importance of the Old Testament has receded in favor of the increased esteem given to the writings of the apostles, particularly Paul.

Circa A.D. 130 - The Epistle of Barnabas: Barnabas wrestles with the problem of continuity/discontinuity between the Old and New Covenants. Generous use is made of the Old Covenant to show how it points to Christ. Barnabas indicates that as the problems of Old Testament interpretation grew, the Church would become more conscious of its literature as forming a complementary Scripture (the New Testament). He cites Matthew 22:14 with the formula "it is written.“

Circa A.D. 140-150 - Marcion of Sinope's heretical "New Testament" prompted Orthodox Christians to establish a New Testament canon. Marcion of Sinope, a bishop of Asia Minor who went to Rome and was later excommunicated for his views, was the first of record to propose a definitive, exclusive, unique canon of Christian scriptures, compiled sometime between 130–40 CE. (Though Ignatius did address Christian scripture, before Marcion, against the perceived heresies of the Judaizers and Docetists, he did not publish a canon.)

Circa A.D. 145-163 - In the mid-2nd century, Justin the Martyr mentions the "memoirs of the apostles", which Christians called "gospels" and which were regarded as on par with the Old Testament. It is not clear whether there is any evidence that Justin included the Gospel of John among the "memoirs of the apostles", or whether, on the contrary, he based his doctrine of the Logos on it. In Justin's works, distinct references are found to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians, Titus, and 1 Timothy.

Circa A.D. 150-215 - Clement of Alexandria made use of an open canon. He seemed "practically unconcerned about canonicity. To him, inspiration is what mattered." In addition to books that did not make it into the final 27-book NT but which had local canonicity (Barnabas, Didache, I Clement, Revelation of Peter, the Shepherd, the Gospel according to the Hebrews), he also used the Gospel of the Egyptians, Preaching of Peter, Traditions of Matthias, Sibylline Oracles, and the Oral Gospel. He did, however, prefer the four church gospels to all others, although he supplemented them freely with apocryphal gospels. He was the first to treat non-Pauline letters of the apostles (other than II Peter) as scripture-he accepted I Peter, I and II John, and Jude as scripture.

Circa AD 170-200 - The Muratorian canon is the earliest known example of a canon list of mostly New Testament books. It survives, damaged and thus incomplete, as a bad Latin translation of an original, no longer extant, Greek text that is usually dated in the late 2nd century, although a few scholars have preferred a 4th-century date. The Muratorian Canon is typical of the mixed bag of canonical and apocryphal books found in different church catalogues. Listing twenty-four books, which includes the four Gospels, Acts, thirteen letters ascribed to Paul (but not Hebrews), Jude, 1 and 2 (but not 3) John, the Wisdom of Solomon, Revelation, and the Apocalypse of Peter.

Circa A.D. 130-200 - Irenaeus, whose writings are contemporary with the Muratorian list, presents the same picture. His evidence is significant in that he was a rather ecumenical figure in his day. He spent his earlier life in Asia Minor and his later life in Gaul. He was also in close touch with Rome. He does not seem to have had Hebrews in his canon, and there is some uncertainty as to whether he accepted the general epistles (except 1 Peter, 1 and 2 John). He refers to the Shepherd of Hermas as "scripture" but does not include it in the list of apostolic writings.

Circa A.D. 160-220 - Tertullian is the authority for Africa. He appears to have had 22 books in his canon — the four Gospels, Acts, the thirteen epistles of Paul, 1 Peter, 1 John, Jude and Revelation. He did not treat Hebrews as canonical.

Circa A.D. 185-254 - Origen in the East has a good deal to say about the canon. He compiled the Hexapla, a six-columned parallel of Greek and Hebrew texts. According to F.F. Bruce, "He acknowledged the four canonical Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline epistles and Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 John and Revelation as 'undisputed' books." 24 Origen does acknowledge, however, that Hebrews, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, James and Jude were rejected by some.

Circa A.D. 200 - The Jewish Mishnah, the Oral Torah, is first recorded.

Circa A.D. 305-310 - Lucian of Antioch's Greek New Testament text becomes the basis for the Textus Receptus.

Circa A.D. 312 - Codex Vaticanus is possibly among the original 50 copies of the Bible ordered by Emperor Constantine. It is eventually kept in the Vatican Library in Rome.

Circa A.D. 367-405 - This is the period of fixation. Athanasius of Alexandria identifies the complete New Testament canon (27 books) for the first time. While the influence of Athanasius on the Canon of the Old Testament was negative and exclusive, in that of the New Testament it was trenchantly constructive. In his "Epistola Festalis" [Easter Letter] in A.D. 367, he ranks all of Origen's New Testament Antilegomena, which are identical with the deuteros, boldly inside the Canon, without noticing any of the scruples about them. Thenceforward they were formally and firmly fixed in the Alexandrian Canon.

Jerome’s doubts

• Circa A.D. 400 - Jerome asked to create a new Latin translation of the scriptures by Pope Damasus I in 382.

• He was a Hebraist, considering the Hebrew scriptures to be superior to the Greek

• As such, he was reluctant to translate those books not found in the Hebrew collection

• In his preface to each of the books found only in the LXX, he described them as “non-canonical”, and it was he who coined the term “apocrypha” in reference to these books.

The Question Settled• COUNCIL OF ROME - DECREE OF DAMASUS (382 A.D.): "Now

indeed we must treat of the divine scriptures, what the universal Catholic Church accepts and what she ought to shun. The order of the Old Testament begins here: Genesis, one book; Exodus, one book; Leviticus, one book; Numbers, one book; Deuteronomy, one book; Joshua [Son of] Nave, one book; Judges, one book; Ruth, one book; Kings, four books [that is, 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings]; Paralipomenon [Chronicles], two books; Psalms, one book; Solomon, three books: Proverbs, one book, Ecclesiastes, one book, [and] Canticle of Canticles [Song of Songs], one book; likewise Wisdom, one book; Ecclesiasticus [Sirach], one book . . . . Likewise the order of the historical [books]: Job, one book; Tobit, one book; Esdras, two books [Ezra and Nehemiah]; Esther, one book; Judith, one book; Maccabees, two books”

The Question Settled• COUNCIL OF HIPPO (393 A.D.): "[It has been

decided] that besides the canonical scriptures nothing be read in church under the name of divine Scripture. But the canonical scriptures are as follows: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua the Son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, the Kings, four books, the Chronicles, two books, Job, the Psalter, the five books of Solomon [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, and a portion of the Psalms], the twelve books of the prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Ezra, two books, Maccabees, two books . . .“

The Question Settled• COUNCIL OF CARTHAGE III (397A.D.): "[It has been

decided] that nothing except the canonical scriptures should be read in the Church under the name of the divine scriptures. But the canonical scriptures are: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, Paralipomenon, two books, Job, the Psalter of David, five books of Solomon, twelve books of the prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, two books of Esdras, two books of the Maccabees . . ."

Circa A.D. 500 - By now the Scriptures have been translated into multiple languages, not limited to but including an Egyptian version (Codex Alexandrinus), a Coptic version, an Ethiopic translation, a Gothic version (Codex Argentus), and an Armenian version. Some consider the Armenian to be the most beautiful and accurate of all ancient translations.

Four Criteria for Canonicity (why certain books were

eventually accepted into the NT Canon, while others were

rejected)

1. Apostolic Origin - attributed to and/or based on the preaching/teaching of the first-generation apostles (or their closest companions).

2. Universal Acceptance - acknowledged by all major Christian communities in the Mediterranean world (by the end of the fourth century).

3. Liturgical Use - read publicly along with the OT when early Christians gathered for the Lord's Supper (their weekly worship services).

4. Consistent Message - containing theological ideas compatible with other accepted Christian writings (including the divinity and humanity Jesus).

The Three Stages of

Gospel Development

Stage 1. The Life and Ministry of Jesus

• Traditions dating from Jesus’ words and deeds during his ministry in the late 20s [example from John 9: Jesus was known as a healer]

• Jesus taught, healed, and worked miracles. He died on the cross and rose from the dead.

• His followers witnessed and remembered these things.

Stage 2: Post-Resurrectional Preaching of the Apostles

• Convictions about Jesus that arose after the Resurrection, especially that he was the divine “Lord” and “Son of God” [example: the blind man worships Jesus, John 9:38].

• After the ascension of Jesus, the apostles handed on his deeds and words through preaching and teaching.

• They now had a better understanding of what he did and said.– They could look back on the whole story of Jesus’ life,

from the beginning of his ministry to his ascension. – Also, they had the gift of the Holy Spirit, who came to

them at Pentecost and enlightened their minds.

Stage 3: The Writing of the Gospels by the Evangelists

• Texts about Jesus that are shaped by the situations, concerns, and insights of the Gospel writers themselves [example: the blind man’s parents fear “the Jews,” as if Jews are a separate group, John 9:22].

• The gospels were written by the four evangelists. From all the stories and memories about Jesus, passed down by word of mouth or already written down, each evangelist selected what was suitable for his purpose.

• At times the evangelist would combine, summarize, or explain these traditions. The end result of this work was a written gospel. Each evangelist composed his gospel with skill and creativity, but always in such a way as to tell us the honest truth about Jesus.

Some Points about the Three Stages

• The Evangelists didn’t write the Gospels to give us “histories,” as we use the term. They wrote so readers would “come to believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God” (John 20:31).

• Therefore, for Christian faith Stage 3 is the most important. It gives the Evangelists’ inspired reflections on the meaning of Jesus.

•To ask the Gospels historical or Stage 1 questions is to distract from their main purpose. But modern readers pose such questions anyway.

•An effective way to perceive the perspectives of each of the Gospel writers is to compare the similarities and differences of their four Gospel accounts, and this is the procedure that will be followed in this online tutorial.

The Pontifical Biblical Commission’s “Instruction on the Bible and Christology”

The PBC noted the value of such contrasts in a 1984 study, “The Bible and Christology:”

“The Gospel traditions were gathered and gradually committed to writing in [the] light of Easter, until at length they took a fixed form in four short books. These books do not simply contain things ‘that Jesus began to do and teach’ (Acts 1:1), they also present theological interpretations of such things. In these booklets, then, one must learn to look for the Christology of each Evangelist.”

The Pontifical Biblical Commission’s “Instruction on the Bible and Christology”

“This is especially true of John, who in the Patristic period would receive the title 'Theologian.' Other [Gospel] authors have interpreted the deeds and sayings of Jesus in diverse ways, and even more so his death and resurrection... The New Testament authors, precisely as pastors and teachers, bear witness indeed to the same Christ, but with voices that differ as in the harmony of one piece of music.” [2.2.2]

Ten Stages of New Testament Formation and Transmission

(with considerable chronological overlap, continuing down to today): Some scholars

(including the above PBC) propose only 3 stages (Historical Events, Oral Tradition, Written Texts), others 5 stages (Historical Events, Oral Tradition,

Written Tradition, Editing, Canonization); the following schema more comprehensively lists 10

stages, many of which overlap:

1. The Historical Jesus - words are spoken and deeds are performed by Jesus himself during his lifetime on earth.

2. Oral Tradition - traditions and beliefs about Jesus are developed and passed on by early Christian communities.

3. Written Sources - some of the miracles and/or sayings of Jesus are compiled and recorded in early written documents.

4. Written Texts - individual letters, full Gospels, etc., are written with particular messages for particular situations.

5. Distribution - some writings are copied and shared with other Christian communities throughout the Mediterranean.

6. Collection - certain Christians begin collecting the letters of Paul and gathering together several different Gospels.

7. Canonization - four Gospels, several collections of letters, and a few other texts are accepted as authoritative scriptures.

8. Translation - biblical texts are translated into ever more ancient and modern languages: Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, etc.

9. Interpretation - the meaning of the scriptures is investigated on various levels: literal, spiritual, historical, social, etc.

10. Application - communities and individuals use the NT for practical purposes: liturgical, moral, sacramental, theological, etc.

The Synoptic Problem

1Since many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the events that have been fulfilled among us, 2just as those who were eyewitnesses from the beginning and ministers of the word have handed them down to us, 3I too have decided, after investigating everything accurately anew, to write it down in an orderly sequence for you, most excellent Theophilus, 4so that you may realize the certainty of the teachings you have received.

Luke 1-4

Mt 8:2–3 Mk 1:40–42 Lk 5:12–13And behold,a leper came

and worships

him, saying:Lord, if you wish,I can be cleansed.

And he stretched out hishand and touched him,saying:I wish it; be cleansed.And immediatelyhis leprosy

was cleansed.

And, calling out to him,there comes to him a leper

and kneeling and

saying to him:If you wish,I can be cleansed.And, moved with compassion,he stretched out hishand and touched himand says to him:I wish it; be cleansed.And immediatelythe leprosyleft him,and he was cleansed.

And behold,a man full of leprosy.But, upon seeing Jesus,he fell upon his faceand requestedhim, saying:Lord, if you wish,I can be cleansed.

And he stretched out hishand and touched him,saying:I wish it; be cleansed.And immediatelythe leprosyleft him.

Healing of the Leper

9 “This is how you are to pray: Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, 10 your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as in heaven 11

Give us today our daily bread; 12

and forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors;

13 and do not subject us to the final test, but deliver us from the evil one.

2 He said to them, “When you pray, say:Father, hallowed be your name,your kingdom come.

3 Give us each day our daily bread*

4 and forgive us our sinsfor we ourselves forgive everyone in debt to us,

and do not subject us to the final test.”

Matthew 6:9-13 vs. Luke 11:3-4

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